2.

1. A fiber optic cable's walls serve as numerous re-bounce points for light as it moves down
the cable. With continual internal reflection like to a mirror, each light particle (photon)
bounces down the pipe.
2. The light beam moves through the cable's core. The center of the cable and glass
structure is called the core. A second glass layer that is wrapped around the core is the
cladding. To retain the signals inside the core, cladding is present.

1. Optical fibers depend on total internal reflection.

2. Total internal reflection (TIR) may be defined as the complete reflection of a beam of
light within some medium like water or glass from the surrounding surfaces back into
the medium.
3. This phenomenon occurs when the angle of incidence is more than a certain angle,
which is called as the critical angle.
4. Total internal reflection is a very useful phenomenon. That's why it has a number of
applications that include: like its use in right-angled isosceles prism - these prisms can
turn light through 90 and 180 degrees based on internal reflection. these right-angled
isosceles prism are mostly used in various optical instruments.

3.construction of he ne laser:

working:

1. As power switches on, a high voltage is applied across gas mixture. (10kV approx.)
2. This high voltage DC produces energetic electrons that travel through gas mixer.

3. Thus, electrons accelerated between. anode and cathode through the gas maxture

Due to these Helium atoms get excited.

5. Lower state electrons of Helium atoms gain enough energy and jumps into the excited states or
metastable states

Helium neon lasers are low-cost and simple to use when compared with other gas
lasers. They have historically been used for many applications within the fields
of microscopy, barcode scanning, spectroscopy, optical disc reading, biomedical
engineering, metrology, and holography.

6.

If the distance of object and image are not measured from optical centre (C), but
from first and second principal foci respectively, then newton’s formula states that,
f

where,

x
1

distance of object from first focus

distance of object from second focus

F

If medium on either side of the lens is same, then

so the newtons formula becomes ,

2
=

7.

The ability of a lens to bend the light rays is called power of lens.

A convex lens converge the light rays towards the principal axis whereas a concave
lens diverges the light rays away from the principal axis. In this way a lens bends the
light rays. A lens of shorter focal length bends the light ray more, and have greater
power. Thus power of a lens is defined as the reciprocal of its focal length

(
f

in metres.

Power of lens

e
 r

Unit of power of lens is 'metre' and its S.I. unit is 'dioptre' which is denoted by

.
The power of a convex lens a positive and that of a concave lens is negative.

8.

Cardinal Points
a set of points which characterize the function of an optical element or a group of elements in
Gaussian optics

Various types of cardinal points are defined in Gaussian optics for characterizing
the optical function of a single optical element or a group of such elements:

• There are the front and back focal points at the intersection of the focal
planes with the optical axis.

• The principal points are at the intersections of the principal planes with the
optical axis.
 • Further, there are the front and back nodal points.

The cardinal points can be calculated from the ABCD matrix, and vice versa. They
are useful, for example, when geometrically constructing images of objects.

According to the basic assumptions of Gaussian optics, the rays are considered for
the limiting case of small angles against the optical axis. If parallel incoming rays are
calculated for a wider range of offsets, for example, will generally not exactly meet
in a focal point.

9.

DEVIATION BY THIN LENS

A lens may be considered to be made up of large number of prisms placed one above the
other. As the function of the lens is to deviate the incident ray of light, it is necessary to find
the deviation produced by a particular portion of the lens. Let a ray of monochromatic light
parallel to the principal axis be incident on a thin lens at a height h above the axis and let f be
the focal length of the lens. As the ray is parallel to the principal axis, after refraction it will
pass through the second focus.

The deviation suffered by the ray is given by

In the paraxial region δ being small, tan δ = δ.

Next, consider a luminous point object O and its corresponding image I. Then, deviation
suffered by the ray OA incident at A is given by

δ = ∠ AOL + ∠ AIL
10.

11.

12. A Ring of Newton's is an Optical phenomenon that appears as a Ring of

dark-colored lights or bands when one piece of glass is Convex and rests on
another piece of flat glass. Therefore, there is space between them that is filled
with air. Light waves are said to cause this phenomenon as their interference
results in a brightening of light when their crests coincide, but the opposite
occurs when the crest meets the trough. This is described as the destruction
of light. During the transmission of light between the two pieces of glass, waves
from both the top and bottom surfaces of the air film interfere with each other.
This section will present all the information related to Newton's Ring. Newton
was the first Physicist to investigate the Rings quantitatively, and he is credited
with naming them after him.
13. Cameras use convex lens to take real inverted images. This is because light rays always travels
in a straight line, until a light ray hits a medium. The medium in this case is glass. The glass causes
the light rays to refract (or bend) this causes them to form inverted on the opposite side of the
medium

• A hole which size can be changed to allow light passes out of the lens, and into the camera. This
is important for clear images without distortion around the edges.

• The shutter is a doorway that will allow for light to pass through out of the aperture. The
shutter speed will allow for long or short exposures thus allowing for pictures of fast
moving object or low lighting photos to be taken.
 • A piece of curved glass that will focus light allowing for clear images to be transmitted
onto the unexposed film

or ideal lenses, strictly speaking for lenses that have "zero thickness". However lenses in cameras
can be manufactured to act almost as though they are "perfectly thin."

14. Isaac Newton built his reflecting telescope as a proof for his theory that white light is composed of
a spectrum of colours.[6] He had concluded that the lens of any refracting telescope would suffer from
the dispersion of light into colours (chromatic aberration). The telescope he constructed used mirrors
as the objective which bypass that probThe first reflecting telescope built by Sir Isaac Newton in
1668[3] is a landmark in the history of telescopes, being the first known successful reflecting
telescope.[4][5] It was the prototype for a design that later came to be called the Newtonian telescope.
There were some early prototypes and also modern replicas of this design.lem.

15. The magnification produced by the lens is defined as the ratio of the height of an image to
the height of an object.

(a) Relative-size Magnification (b) Angular Magnification (c) Relative-distance Magnification

(d)Electronic Magnification

16.
17

the radius of curvature is same as that of its aperture.

.
18. A thin lens is a lens with a thickness of the aperture that is negligible compared to the radii
of curvature of the lens surfaces, which means

the radius of curvature is same as that of its aperture.

19. spherical aberration, in optics, a phenomenon in which the outer

parts of a lens do not bring light rays into the same focus as the central part.
Rays passing through the lens close to its centre are focused
farther away than rays passing through a circular zone near its
rim.

20. Chromatic aberration, also referred to as chromatic distortion,

color fringing, and spherochromatism, is a common optical
phenomenon that occurs when a lens cannot bring all
wavelengths of light to a single converging point

21.
Refractive Telescope
A refracting telescope is an optical telescope that forms an image with a lens
as its objective. The refracting telescope gets its name from the fact that it uses
refracting elements, i.e., lenses. The two lenses used in a refracting telescope
are the objective or primary lens, which is used to refract or bend the light to
a focus point, and some type of eyepiece. These primary and eyepiece lenses
are fixed at the ends of two coaxial tubes and parallel rays from a distant object
enter the telescope. Refracting telescopes were the earliest telescopes to be
devised.