CONTENTS

COMPOSITION
ChaPTEr 1 The Writing Process ........................................... 8
Lesson 1.1 Prewriting: Gathering Ideas ................................................ 9
Lesson 1.2 Organizing the Ideas and Drafting .................................. 13
Lesson 1.3 Revising ........................................................................... 15
Lesson 1.4 Editing and Proofreading ................................................. 18

ChaPTEr 2 Writing Effective Paragraphs and Essays .......... 20

Lesson 2.1 Ideas and Unity................................................................ 21
Lesson 2.2 Elaborating with Supporting Details................................. 23
Lesson 2.3 Organization and Coherence........................................... 25
Lesson 2.4 Types of Paragraphs .......................................................... 28
Lesson 2.5 Writing Expository Essays ............................................... 31

ChaPTEr 3 Writing Effective Sentences ............................. 33

Lesson 3.1 Effective Paragraphs: Varying Sentences ......................... 34
* Lesson 3.2 Combining Sentences: Compound Subjects and
Compound Verbs ............................................................ 36
Lesson 3.3 Combining Sentences: Inserting Phrases .......................... 38
* Lesson 3.4 Combining Sentences: Using Subordinate Clauses .......... 40
* Lesson 3.5 Eliminating Short, Choppy Sentences .............................. 42
* Lesson 3.6 Eliminating Wordiness .................................................... 44
Revising and Editing Worksheet .................................................. 46

ChaPTEr 4 Writing Workshops ........................................... 47

Lesson 4.1 Narrative Writing: Biographical Essay .............................. 48
Lesson 4.2 Persuasive Writing: Editorial ............................................ 53
Lesson 4.3 Writing About Literature: Analyzing Poetry .................... 61
Lesson 4.4 Expository Writing: Cause-and-Effect Essay .................... 67
Lesson 4.5 Expository Writing: Research Paper .................................. 74
Lesson 4.6 Practical Writing: Workplace Writing ............................. 86
* Lesson 4.7 Writing a Timed Essay ..................................................... 91

GraMMar
ChaPTEr 5 Parts of Speech ................................................. 95
Lesson 5.1 Nouns .............................................................................. 97
Lesson 5.2 Pronouns ......................................................................... 99
Lesson 5.3 Verbs ............................................................................. 101
* Lesson 5.4 Adjectives ...................................................................... 103

* Denotes lessons with skills most commonly assessed on standardized tests.

* Lesson 5.5 Adverbs.......................................................................... 105
Lesson 5.6 Prepositions.................................................................... 107
Lesson 5.7 Conjunctions and Interjections ..................................... 109
Lesson 5.8 Determining a Word’s Part of Speech ............................ 111
Revising and Editing Worksheet ................................................ 113
Chapter Review .................................................................................. 114

CHAPTER 6 Parts of a Sentence ......................................... 115

* Lesson 6.1 Complete Sentences ....................................................... 117
Lesson 6.2 Subject and Predicate .................................................... 119
* Lesson 6.3 Correcting Sentence Fragments ...................................... 121
Lesson 6.4 Finding the Subject ........................................................ 123
* Lesson 6.5 Correcting Run-on Sentences ........................................ 125
Lesson 6.6 Direct and Indirect Objects ............................................ 127
Lesson 6.7 Predicate Nominatives and Predicate Adjectives ............ 129
Revising and Editing Worksheets .............................................. 131
Chapter Review .................................................................................. 133

CHAPTER 7 Phrases ........................................................... 135

Lesson 7.1 Prepositional Phrases: Adjective and Adverb Phrases ...... 137
Lesson 7.2 Appositive and Appositive Phrases ................................ 139
Lesson 7.3 Participles and Participle Phrases.................................... 141
Lesson 7.4 Gerunds and Gerund Phrases ........................................ 143
Lesson 7.5 Infinitives and Infinitive Phrases .................................. 145
Revising and Editing Worksheets .............................................. 147
Chapter Review .................................................................................. 149

CHAPTER 8 Clauses ............................................................ 151

Lesson 8.1 Independent Clauses and Subordinate Clauses .............. 153
Lesson 8.2 Subordinate Clauses: Adjective Clauses .......................... 155
Lesson 8.3 Subordinate Clauses: Adverb Clauses ............................ 157
Lesson 8.4 Noun Clauses ................................................................. 159
Lesson 8.5 Four Types of Sentence Structures .................................. 161
* Lesson 8.6 Effective Sentences: Parallel Structure ............................ 163
Revising and Editing Worksheets .............................................. 165
Chapter Review .................................................................................. 167
Cumulative Review, Chapters 5–8 .............................................. 169

USAGE
CHAPTER 9 Using Verbs ..................................................... 171
Lesson 9.1 Regular Verbs ................................................................. 173
Lesson 9.2 Irregular Verbs 1 ............................................................ 175
Lesson 9.3 Irregular Verbs 2 ............................................................ 177

* Denotes lessons with skills most commonly assessed on standardized tests.

* Lesson 9.4 Verb Tense ..................................................................... 179
Lesson 9.5 Using the Active Voice .................................................. 181
Revising and Editing Worksheets .............................................. 183
Chapter Review .................................................................................. 185

CHAPTER 10 Subject-Verb Agreement ............................... 187

*Lesson 10.1 Agreement in Person and Number............................... 189
*Lesson 10.2 Agreement with Intervening Phrases and
Inverted Subjects .......................................................... 191
*Lesson 10.3 Agreement with Indefinite Pronouns .......................... 193
*Lesson 10.4 Agreement with Compound Subjects .......................... 195
*Lesson 10.5 Other Problems in Agreement ...................................... 197
Revising and Editing Worksheets .............................................. 199
Chapter Review .................................................................................. 201

CHAPTER 11 Using Pronouns................................................ 203

Lesson 11.1 Using Subject Pronouns ............................................... 205
Lesson 11.2 Using Object Pronouns ................................................ 207
* Lesson 11.3 Who or Whom? ............................................................. 209
Lesson 11.4 Appositives and Incomplete Constructions .................. 211
* Lesson 11.5 Agreement with Antecedent ........................................ 213
* Lesson 11.6 Clear Pronoun Reference .............................................. 215
Revising and Editing Worksheets .............................................. 217
Chapter Review .................................................................................. 219

CHAPTER 12 Using Modifiers ............................................. 221

Lesson 12.1 Forming the Degrees of Comparison............................. 223
* Lesson 12.2 Using the Degrees of Comparison ................................ 225
* Lesson 12.3 Illogical Comparisons and Double Negatives .............. 227
* Lesson 12.4 Misplaced Modifiers ..................................................... 229
* Lesson 12.5 Dangling Modifiers ...................................................... 231
Revising and Editing Worksheets .............................................. 233
Chapter Review .................................................................................. 235
Cumulative Review, Chapters 9–12 ............................................ 237

MECHANICS
CHAPTER 13 Punctuation: End Marks and Commas ........... 239
Lesson 13.1 End Marks and Abbreviations ...................................... 241
Lesson 13.2 Commas in a Series ...................................................... 243
Lesson 13.3 Commas with Compound Sentences and
Introductory Elements .................................................. 245
* Lesson 13.4 Commas with Sentence Interrupters and
Nonessential Elements.................................................. 247

* Denotes lessons with skills most commonly assessed on standardized tests.

 Lesson 13.5 Other Comma Uses ...................................................... 249
Editing and Proofreading Worksheets...................................... 251
Chapter Review .................................................................................. 253

Chapter 14 Punctuation: All the Other Marks .................. 255

Lesson 14.1 Colons ......................................................................... 257
* Lesson 14.2 Semicolons ................................................................... 259
Lesson 14.3 Underlining (Italics) .................................................... 261
Lesson 14.4 Quotation Marks ......................................................... 263
Lesson 14.5 Punctuating Dialogue .................................................. 265
Lesson 14.6 Apostrophes ................................................................. 267
Lesson 14.7 Hyphens, Dashes, and Parentheses .............................. 269
Editing and Proofreading Worksheets...................................... 271
Chapter Review .................................................................................. 273

Chapter 15 Capitalization ................................................ 275

Lesson 15.1 Proper Nouns and Proper Adjectives ............................. 277
Lesson 15.2 Titles; Greetings ............................................................ 279
Lesson 15.3 First Words, Groups, Organizations, Religions,
School Subjects .............................................................. 281
Lesson 15.4 I and O; Historical Events, Documents, and Periods;
Calendar Items; Brand Names; Awards .......................... 283
Editing and Proofreading Worksheets...................................... 285
Chapter Review .................................................................................. 287

Chapter 16 Spelling .......................................................... 289

Lesson 16.1 Using a Dictionary ........................................................ 291
Lesson 16.2 Spelling Rules ................................................................ 293
Lesson 16.3 Prefixes and Suffixes ...................................................... 295
Lesson 16.4 Noun Plurals ................................................................. 297
Editing and Proofreading Worksheets...................................... 299
Chapter Review .................................................................................. 301
Cumulative Review, Chapters 13–16 ............................................ 303

StaNDarDIZeD
teSt praCtICe
SAT Practice: Identifying Sentence Errors ...................................... 306
SAT Practice: Improving Sentences ................................................ 311
SAT Practice: Improving Paragraphs .............................................. 317
ACT Practice ................................................................................... 320
Practice Test ................................................................................... 326
Commonly Confused Words ........................................................ 342
Index ................................................................................................ 345

* Denotes lessons with skills most commonly assessed on standardized tests.

20
2
CH AP T E R

Composition
Writing Effective
Paragraphs and Essays

Copyright © 2014 by William H. Sadlier, Inc. All rights reserved.

 Lesson 2.1
Ideas and Unity
Composition
➠ Paragraphs that inform, explain, or persuade have unity (or are
unified) when all of their sentences focus on a single main idea.

As you draft a paragraph, concentrate on developing one main idea.

When you revise and edit, you’ll have another opportunity to achieve
unity by dropping sentences and details that wander away from the
main idea.

➠ A topic sentence states the main idea of a paragraph.

A topic sentence can appear anywhere in a paragraph, but it is most The topic sentence of
a paragraph and the
often in the first sentence. In this position, it introduces—and
clincher sentence often
sometimes even organizes—everything that follows. When the topic work together. (The
sentence is the last sentence in the paragraph, it summarizes the following example
ideas that have preceded it. leaves out all of the
supporting details that
Not all paragraphs have a topic sentence that directly states the develop the main idea
main idea. Instead, the main idea of the paragraph may be implied. of the paragraph.)
When you are drafting, you should have a topic sentence for each There are seemingly
countless variations of the
paragraph clearly in mind. When you are revising, you should be
name Jane, which is itself a
able to identify the topic sentence of each paragraph whether it is feminine form of John. . . .
directly stated or not. From Gianina to Zaneta,
you’ll find that Jane is not so

➠ A paragraph that starts with a topic sentence may end with a

clincher sentence that restates or summarizes the main idea.
plain after all.

Clincher sentences can be particularly effective in persuasive paragraphs.

For creating an effect, however, they are best used sparingly.

The following paragraph about how President Franklin D. Roosevelt ran

the country during World War II is unified.

Writing Model
Topic sentence
1
To be sure, there were errors in Roosevelt’s wartime leadership. states the main idea
2
A precious year was lost in 1940–41, when the mobilization process was First example of
not pushed hard enough, when, as Washington lawyer Joe Rauh noted, an error
“the arsenal of democracy was more democracy than arsenal.” 3Indeed,
had it not been for the period of borrowed time provided by the
Explanation of the
heroic resistance of the British and the Russians, the United States might possible cost of
not have been able to overcome the head start of the Axis in time to such an error
influence the course of the war. 4And once the mobilization got under

Chapter 2 • Writing Effective Paragraphs and Essays 21

Ideas and Unity

Writing Model

Second example way, he failed to protect small business against the military’s tendency
of an error to lavish its contracts on the nation’s industrial giants. 5It was during
Explanation of the the war years that the links were forged that would lead to the rise of
lasting effects the “military-industrial complex” in postwar America.
—Doris Kearns Goodwin, No Ordinary Time

S killS for M aintaining U nity

Paragraph unity depends primarily on your topic sentence, how you develop the
related ideas, and how well you link your clincher sentence—if you include
one—to the paragraph as a whole.

1. Topic Sentence Goodwin states her topic sentence at the beginning of the
paragraph. It is direct, clear, and to the point. It focuses the reader’s attention.

2. Effective Development of Ideas Goodwin’s paragraph sticks to the main idea.

Although she spends much of her book praising Roosevelt, when she does present
some weaknesses, she focuses solely on that topic.

3. Clincher Sentence Goodwin could have chosen to sum up her paragraph with a
clincher sentence, but it clearly is not necessary.

ExErciSE 1 Choosing a Topic Sentence

Use a separate piece of paper to answer the following questions.

1. Which of the following sentences would work in place of the topic sentence that
Goodwin wrote? Give reasons for your choice.
a. Roosevelt’s leadership during the war was not perfect.
b. Roosevelt helped get the “military-industrial complex” off to a good start.
c. Roosevelt’s wartime leadership suffered from bad timing and lack

Copyright © 2014 by William H. Sadlier, Inc. All rights reserved.

of foresight.

2. Which of the following sentences could most easily be added to Goodwin’s

paragraph without detracting from its unity? Explain your choice.
a. The “military-industrial complex” played an important role in the economic
development of postwar America.
b. Roosevelt, who did not fear regulation, could have imposed rulings to make
small businesses more competitive, but he did not.
c. The Axis powers—Germany, Italy, and Japan—waged war on several fronts.

22 Chapter 2 • Writing Effective Paragraphs and Essays

 Lesson 2.2
Elaborating with Supporting Details
Composition
➠ Elaboration is the process of adding details that support a
main idea.

Develop, or support, a paragraph‘s main idea with the following kinds

of details: facts, statistics, quotations, definitions, anecdotes or
incidents, examples, reasons, and comparisons. You can develop
an effective paragraph by using just one type of detail or a combination
of types.

The writer of the following paragraph realized that her first draft did not
contain enough specific details to support the topic sentence. Notice the
details she added during revision.

Writing Model
1
The skeleton of an elephant reveals a great deal about it. 2An ele­

phant’s skeleton is immediately recognizable because of its tusks.

These long, pointed teeth are used for fighting and also for digging.
3
Tusks are actually front teeth that have grown to be enormous. 4A key
These leg bones must support the elephant’s enormous weight. ^
part of an elephant’s skeleton is its long, heavy leg bones. It also has
5

If the toe bones were not flat, the great weight of

the elephant would probably break them. ^
toe bones that are flat on the ground. It has a short neck.
6

^ not feed by grazing.^Instead,

This shows that an elephant does
an elephant uses its trunk to carry food to its mouth.

ExErcisE 2 Improving Unity and Adding Details

Work with a partner or small group to revise the following paragraph.
Cross out any words or sentences that damage the paragraph’s unity. Then E nriching Your
from the list below the paragraph, select the details that you think would Vocabulary
improve the paragraph. (Some of the details can be inserted as phrases and
The word nocturnal,
clauses.) Write the letter of the detail where you think it belongs in the used on page 24,
paragraph. Then write your revised paragraph on a separate piece of paper. comes from the Latin
word for night, nox.
1
Three features of the cat’s skeleton reveal a great deal about this Both bats and owls are
nocturnal hunters; they
animal. 2A cat is a vertebrate. 3It is also a favorite pet. 4First, it has a small sleep during the day.

skull with very large eye sockets. 5Second, it has two long, sharp teeth.

Chapter 2 • Writing Effective Paragraphs and Essays 23

Elaborating with
Supporting Details

6
Third, it has a long tail made up of many bones.
7
The tail bones of a fish are also very revealing, The type of details you
use or add depends on
primarily because of the fin bones near it. the idea you want to
develop. For example:
Details
• To support an opinion,
A. This long tail is critical for balance; it suggests use facts, statistics, or
that the cat can jump from place to place easily. quotations.
B. This suggests the presence of large eyes that • To describe a person,
probably let in a lot of light and allow the animal use sensory details or
to hunt at night. anecdotes.
C. These may be used for grabbing or killing prey. • To explain a concept,
use examples or
D. All these clues combine to suggest that the cat is
incidents.
an agile nocturnal hunter.

ExErcisE 3 Writing Paragraphs from Notes

On a separate piece of paper, write two or more unified, well-developed
paragraphs based on the information in the notecard below. You do not need to
use all of the information. Begin your paragraph with a clear topic sentence.

New Method for Saving Lives: A Wound Sealant

Each year, about 50,000 people bleed to death
People are cut or hurt—help not given fast enough
The blood will not clot; people die before reaching hospital
New bandage being developed by scientists with the American Red Cross
Theory—speed up the natural clotting process with a sealant

Copyright © 2014 by William H. Sadlier, Inc. All rights reserved.

Sealant, a combination of two clotting agents, fibrinogen & thrombin
Sealant—placed on a bandage or injected straight into a wound
Could be carried on all emergency vehicles—police cars & fire trucks
Could be useful on battlefield—Army once tried to develop such a
bandage but had to give up—no technology for safe transfer of blood or
mass-production of clotting agents

24 Chapter 2 • Writing Effective Paragraphs and Essays

 Lesson 2.3
Organization and Coherence
Composition
➠ When a paragraph is organized and coherent, each word,
phrase, and sentence in it works together to present the ideas in a
sequence that makes sense to the reader.
E nriching Your
S trategieS for W riting C oherently Vocabulary
1. Be clear. Express your thoughts simply and directly. Cohere comes from the
Latin verb cohaerere,
2. Guide the reader. Wherever they are helpful, use the transitional which means “to stick
words and phrases found in the chart on page 26. Also, repeating key together.” Hail stones
are formed when ice
words and providing synonyms can help readers link later ideas with and snow cohere in the
those that precede them. Clear pronoun reference also helps ideas clouds.
cohere, or “stick together.” Finally, to make your writing coherent, do
not shift tense or person unnecessarily.

3. Put your thoughts in order. Organization is one of the most

important parts of coherence. Below are four common methods for
organizing paragraphs and essays.
• Chronological Order Organize your writing in time order, or
chronologically, when you want to tell about events in the order in
which they occurred. Chronological order is effective for writing
about a historical event and for explaining steps in a process.
Chronological order is used in fictional stories as well as true ones,
such as autobiographies, biographies, and eyewitness accounts.
• Spatial Order Organize your writing spatially when you want
to describe the appearance of a person, an animal, a place, or an
object. Describe details in an orderly way. For example, you might
present them from left to right, top to bottom, near to far, or
inside to outside.
• Order of Importance Organize your writing in order of
importance when you are trying to persuade your audience. State
the least important reasons and details first, and end with the most
important ones—or the reverse.
• Logical Order Organize your writing to give information in the
order that a reader needs to know it. Use common sense to decide
which details to group together or where to insert background
or explanatory information.

The revisions in the following model show how one writer improved
organization and coherence in response to a writing partner’s notes.

Chapter 2 • Writing Effective Paragraphs and Essays 25

Organization and
Coherence

Alert reader to Writing Model

method of From head to toe,
organization 1
/ Dalmatian, Dots, is a fast, strong, good-looking dog. 2At
My

Use spatial order the top of her head are her high ears, which taper to a rounded point.
Her Her
Use pronouns A matching black nose has a tinge of pink around its edges. 4A long,
3

Repeat terms
^
arched neck leads to a pair of powerful shoulders, the first sign of
^
already used fast and strong Her
how lean and well-balanced she is. 5The eyes are sparkling and lined
^ ^
all around with jet black. 6Even though it is not wide, her chest is

Do not shift person deep, and you can just barely see the ribs of her muscular, black-and-
are just barely visible. Finally, her
Add transition/ white spotted body. 7The legs are straight and heavy, and they are sup-
Use pronoun
^
ported by small but strong feet.

Some Common Transitional Words and Expressions

Time Order of Importance Position Cause-Effect
after first above all first above here accordingly for
afterward later to begin second across in front of as a result since
already next to conclude third after inside because so
before soon equally important before next to consequently so that
finally then more (most) important behind outside if . . . then therefore
following between over
Contrast beyond under Similar Ideas
Examples although but also as
for example namely however still Emphasis and similarly
for instance that is in contrast though for this reason again just as too
in addition nevertheless unlike moreover in fact like likewise
in other words on the contrary most important equally important
on the other hand

Copyright © 2014 by William H. Sadlier, Inc. All rights reserved.

ExErcisE 4 Revising a Paragraph for Organization Working
and Coherence Together

Work with a partner or small group to improve the organization and coherence
of the following paragraph. Try adding transitional words and expressions,
reordering information, and combining sentences. Make any other changes that
you think will improve the paragraph. Write your revised paragraph on a separate
piece of paper.

John Jacob Astor, when he died in 1848, was the richest man in America. 2He
1

was the son of a German butcher. 3He was twenty when he came to the United

26 Chapter 2 • Writing Effective Paragraphs and Essays

 Organization and
Coherence

States in 1783. 4He worked for a fur trader. 5He learned the business. 6He began
trading furs himself in 1786. 7Trading furs with Native Americans was an
important part of our economy. 8This was just after the American Revolution.
9
He used his fur profits to buy real estate in New York City.

ExErcisE 5 Writing an Organized, Unified Paragraph

Choose one of the following assignments, and write an organized, unified paragraph.

1. Study a pair of sneakers that you or someone else is wearing. Write an

accurate, orderly, and detailed description of them.
2. Explain how to perform a title search in your library’s electronic database or
card catalog.
3. Your local board of education is considering phasing out the high school
library and devoting the resources to the computer labs. Write what you think
about this idea. Give reasons to support your opinion.

ExErcisE 6 Writing a Paragraph from Notes

Write an organized, unified paragraph based on the following notes. Include a
topic sentence.

Martha Gellhorn, 1908–1998

One of the most notable American war correspondents of the 20th century
Covered the Spanish Civil War, World War II, Vietnam, and Arab-Israeli wars
Covered the D-Day landings and the liberation of Dachau concentration
camp in Germany
Wrote passionately about the effects of war on the innocent
Began her career in 1937; last assignment more than 50 years later in
Panama
Lived abroad a great deal: France, Cuba, Mexico, Italy, Kenya
Also a novelist—The Honeyed Peace and The Trouble I’ve Seen
Was once married to Ernest Hemingway

Chapter 2 • Writing Effective Paragraphs and Essays 27

 Lesson 2.4
Composition Types of Paragraphs
Most paragraphs have more than one purpose. For example, a paragraph
that narrates often also describes; a paragraph that persuades often also
explains. Learning how to develop a paragraph that has a single purpose,
however, will help you focus on coherent and unified elaboration. The
following suggestions will help you write for different purposes.

D escriptive
When you are describing the appearance of a person, an animal, a place,
or an object, use the following suggestions.

• Use sensory details to appeal to the reader’s five senses (sight,

hearing, smell, touch, and taste) and to create a main impression or
mood.

• Use spatial order to present the sensory details from left to right,
top to bottom, near to far—or in reverse. Use appropriate transitions.
(See page 26.)

Writing Model
Main idea or 1
Nothing about the outside of an avocado prepares you for the
impression pleasant surprise inside. 2The skin covering the avocado’s pear or
Sensory details oval shape is a wrinkled green or black. 3In fact, some avocados have
Comparisons textures somewhere between the skin of an elephant and the skin of
a crocodile. 4On the inside is a very large seed that seems to take up
Transitions signal way too much of the entire fruit. 5Between the seed and the skin is a
spatial order
firm, yellowish-green, melt-in-your-mouth fruit. 6It takes on and en-
hances the flavors of anything you serve it with, from tomatoes or
salsa to sandwiches or salad. 7An avocado adds a creamy, almost but-

Copyright © 2014 by William H. Sadlier, Inc. All rights reserved.

Sensory details
tery, texture as well as a subtle flavor.

N arrative
When you are telling a true or fictional story, use the following
suggestions.

• Use specific details to help make the reader an eyewitness to events.

• Use chronological order (time order) to relate events in the order in

which they occur. Use appropriate transitions. (See page 26.)

28 Chapter 2 • Writing Effective Paragraphs and Essays

 Types of Paragraphs

Writing Model
Event 1 1
I shook Andrew from his sleep and told him we were going
to the pond. 2“Lemme sleep!” he moaned pleadingly in his little-
Specific details brother voice. 3I was a sister on a mission. 4I knew we would see that
Transition blue heron again if only we would just be there once at dawn.
signals Event 2 5
A few minutes later, in the half-light of early day, we made our way
Specific details down the winding, dew-covered path. 6As we rounded the last
Transition bend, I silently called the heron to us.
signals Event 3

E xpository
When you are writing an exposition, you are explaining or informing. Exposition
includes comparing or contrasting; explaining cause and effect; defining,
classifying, or analyzing; and giving instructions or explaining the steps in a
process. For any of these specific purposes, use the following suggestions.

• State your main idea as early and as clearly as possible.

• Use facts, examples, quotations, statistics, and definitions as supporting

details to develop the main idea.

• Present the details or the steps in logical order—in a way that makes sense to
the reader. Use appropriate transitions. (See page 26.)

Writing Model
Main idea 1
Gothic describes a type of church architecture. 2This style
Fact arose nine hundred years ago in Europe. 3Before that time, churches
Transition/ were built with thick, heavy walls and low, heavy roofs. 4In contrast,
comparison Gothic churches soared upward, as if reaching for heaven. 5They had
pointed ribbed vaults to support the weight of the roof. 6They also
Example/
had a new feature called flying buttresses, arches on the outside of
explanation
the building that provided support. 7This newer, more graceful
architecture became so popular that almost five hundred Gothic
Statistics
churches were built in Europe between 1170 and 1270.

Chapter 2 • Writing Effective Paragraphs and Essays 29

Types of Paragraphs

P ersuasive
When you are trying, in a single paragraph, to convince someone that your opinion
is correct or to persuade someone to take action, use the following suggestions.

• Begin with a sentence that is an attention grabber.

• Include a thesis statement, or claim, that clearly expresses your point of

view.

• Supply reasons and other evidence (facts, statistics, anecdotes, quotations) to

suport your opinion.

• Arrange the supporting details in order of importance—from most to least

important, or the reverse.

• Include a call to action that tells the reader what to do.

Topic sentence, Writing Model

with transition
and link to thesis, Another reason to restore funding to the high school football
1

or claim program is that it helps build a strong link between the high
school and the community. 2Football games are an event that anyone
Reason in town can enjoy. 3In fact, a survey conducted at last season’s final
game showed that almost twenty percent of those attending had no
Statistic
children on the team or even in the high school. 4Instead, they were
people who felt allegiance to the school because of the football
Explanation program. 5Many of these individuals are the same people who pay
the school taxes to support our system.

exercise 7 Writing for Varying Purposes

Write two paragraphs that have different purposes. You may use the topics

Copyright © 2014 by William H. Sadlier, Inc. All rights reserved.

suggested below or choose a topic of your own.

• A persuasive paragraph for or against tougher licensing standards for

beginning drivers

• A descriptive paragraph about a place you loved as a child or a place that is

special to you now

• A narrative paragraph about a race, contest, or competition

• An expository paragraph giving information about a local place of interest or

about a useful product or invention

30 Chapter 2 • Writing Effective Paragraphs and Essays

 Lesson 2.5
Writing Expository Essays
Composition
➠ An essay is a piece of writing on a limited topic. Most essays have
three common elements: an introduction, a body, and a conclusion.

I ntroductIon
The beginning of a persuasive or expository essay should accomplish two
purposes: It should create interest, and it should present the overall idea
of the essay.

The thesis statement of an essay is its overall idea. It is also

called a claim or a controlling idea. A thesis statement is for
an essay what a topic sentence is for a paragraph.

When you write, remember that your thesis statement, or claim,

controls the direction of your paragraphs. Each paragraph must be
directly related to the thesis statement. Whether stated or implied,
Some Ways to
the topic sentence of every paragraph should support, demonstrate, Begin an Essay
or explain the thesis. In fact, sometimes, the thesis statement not • an anecdote
only signals the content of an essay, but it also reveals its • a quotation
organization, as this example shows.
• a question
thesis statement, The war in Vietnam was difficult for the United • an interesting statement
or claim States because U.S. troops were fighting a or fact
guerrilla war in jungle terrain, because popular • a direct invitation or
support for the Vietcong increased even as the address to the reader
U.S. waged war, and because the Vietcong were • a statement of a writer’s
stand on an issue
supported by outside forces, including China and
the Soviet Union.
topic sentence of The United States was not prepared to fight a
body paragraph 1 guerrilla war, and its troops had insufficient
knowledge of the terrain.
topic sentence of Meanwhile, the Vietcong grew more—not less—
body paragraph 2 popular as the war raged.
topic sentence of In addition, the United States was not the only
body paragraph 3 foreign power involved in the war: The Vietcong Remember that text
features, such as headings
were receiving strong support from China and the and formatting, can help
Soviet Union. clarify an essay’s organiza-
tion. Graphic elements,
The side column lists some effective ways to begin an essay. Avoid such as tables, charts, and
these less effective beginnings. images, can help your
I will write about . . . audience better understand
This paper will explain . . . complex information.

Chapter 2 • Writing Effective Paragraphs and Essays 31

Writing Exposit ory Essays

B ody
In the body of your essay, you develop your thesis, or claim. This will require several
paragraphs and a logical organization that makes sense to readers. Follow these
guidelines when you draft the body.

1. Turn main ideas into paragraphs. Think of each paragraph as a single main
idea that explains and develops your thesis. You will support each idea with
relevant facts, definitions, details, quotations, examples, and other information
that is related to your topic.

2. Organize your ideas. Arrange body paragraphs logically, in a way that is easy
for readers to follow. Use appropriate transitional words and phrases to link your
ideas and create a cohesive essay. For example, in a compare-contrast essay, you
might use similarly, likewise, and however. In a cause-effect essay, you might use
as a result and therefore.

3. Stay focused. As you write, be sure to focus on your claim and the main
idea discussed in each body paragraph. Use precise language and vocabulary
that is specific to your topic and at the appropriate level for your audience.
Maintain a formal style and objective tone as you write. Also remember to avoid
unnecessary wordiness and repetition.

C onClusion
When you’ve developed your main points, stop writing.
Some Ways to
A strong conclusion follows logically from the body of the End an Essay
essay, without repeating too much information or introduc- • a brief but fresh
ing new points. Give your audience a sense of closure by restatement of the main
limiting your concluding section to a final point or insight idea
about the topic. Try using one of the strategies listed in the • a comment on the
side column. importance of the topic

Copyright © 2014 by William H. Sadlier, Inc. All rights reserved.

• a quotation
• a question
ExErCisE 8 Writing a Thesis, or Claim
• a prediction
Expand one of the paragraphs you wrote for Exercise 7 in • a call to action
Lesson 2.4 into a three-page essay. Write a thesis statement,
or claim for the essay using the suggestions
in this lesson.

ExErCisE 9 Writing an Introduction and a Conclusion

Write an introduction and a conclusion for the essay you wrote in Exercise 8.
Remember that your introduction must include a thesis statement.

32 Chapter 2 • Writing Effective Paragraphs and Essays