Business Research Methods Unit 2

Research Design: Definition, Characteristics and Types

Research design definition

Research design is the framework of research methods and techniques

chosen by a researcher. The design allows researchers to hone in on
research methods that are suitable for the subject matter and set up their
studies up for success.

The design of a research topic explains the type of research

(experimental, survey, correlational, semi-experimental, review) and also its
sub-type (experimental design, research problem, descriptive case-study).

There are three main parts of research design: Data collection,

measurement, and analysis.

The type of research problem an organization is facing will determine the

research design and not vice-versa. The design phase of a study
determines which tools to use and how they are used.

An impactful research design usually creates a minimum bias in data and

increases trust in the accuracy of collected data. A design that produces
the least margin of error in experimental research is generally considered
the desired outcome. The essential elements of the research design are:

1. Accurate purpose statement

2. Techniques to be implemented for collecting and analyzing research
3. The method applied for analyzing collected details
4. Type of research methodology
5. Probable objections for research
6. Settings for the research study
7. Timeline
8. Measurement of analysis
Proper research design sets your study up for success. Successful
research studies provide insights that are accurate and unbiased. You’ll
need to create a survey that meets all of the main characteristics of a
design.

There are four key characteristics of research design:

Neutrality: When you set up your study, you may have to make
assumptions about the data you expect to collect. The results projected in
the research design should be free from bias and neutral. Understand
opinions about the final evaluated scores and conclusions from multiple
individuals and consider those who agree with the derived results.

Reliability: With regularly conducted research, the researcher involved

expects similar results every time. Your design should indicate how to form
research questions to ensure the standard of results. You’ll only be able to
reach the expected results if your design is reliable.

Validity: There are multiple measuring tools available. However, the only
correct measuring tools are those which help a researcher in gauging
results according to the objective of the research.
The questionnaire developed from this design will then be valid.

Generalization: The outcome of your design should apply to a population

and not just a restricted sample. A generalized design implies that your
survey can be conducted on any part of a population with similar accuracy.

A researcher must have a clear understanding of the various types of

research design to select which model to implement for a study. Like
research itself, the design of your study can be broadly classified into
quantitative and qualitative.

Qualitative research design: Qualitative research determines

relationships between collected data and observations based on
mathematical calculations. Theories related to a naturally existing
phenomenon can be proved or disproved using statistical methods.
Researchers rely on qualitative research design methods that conclude
“why” a particular theory exists along with “what” respondents have to say
about it.
Quantitative research design: Quantitative research is for cases where
statistical conclusions to collect actionable insights are essential. Numbers
provide a better perspective to make critical business decisions.
Quantitative research design methods are necessary for the growth of any
organization. Insights drawn from hard numerical data and analysis prove
to be highly effective when making decisions related to the future of the
business

1. Exploratory research Design

Exploratory research design is conducted for a research problem when
the researcher has no past data or only a few studies for reference.
Sometimes this research is informal and unstructured. It serves as a tool
for initial research that provides a hypothetical or theoretical idea of
the research problem.

Exploratory research Design : Definition

Exploratory research design is defined as a research design used to

investigate a problem which is not clearly defined. It is conducted to have a
better understanding of the existing problem, but will not provide conclusive
results. For such a research, a researcher starts with a general idea and
uses this research as a medium to identify issues, that can be the focus for
future research. An important aspect here is that the researcher should be
willing to change his/her direction subject to the revelation of new data or
insight. Such a research is usually carried out when the problem is at a
preliminary stage. It is often referred to as grounded theory approach or
interpretive research as it used to answer questions like what, why and
how.

For example: Consider a scenario where a juice bar owner feels that
increasing the variety of juices will enable increase in customers, however
he is not sure and needs more information. The owner intends to carry out
an exploratory research to find out and hence decides to do an exploratory
research to find out if expanding their juices selection will enable him to get
more customers of if there is a better idea.

Types and methodologies of Exploratory research Design

While it may sound a little difficult to research something that has very little
information about it, there are several methods which can help a
researcher figure out the best research design, data collection
methods and choice of subjects. There are two ways in which research can
be conducted namely primary and secondary.. Under these two types,
there are multiple methods which can used by a researcher. The data
gathered from these research can be qualitative or quantitative. Some of
the most widely used research designs include the following:

Primary research methods

Primary research is information gathered directly from the subject. It can

be through a group of people or even an individual. Such a research can be
carried out directly by the researcher himself or can employ a third party to
conduct it on their behalf. Primary research is specifically carried out to
explore a certain problem which requires an in-depth study.

 Surveys/polls: Surveys/polls are used to gather information from a

predefined group of respondents. It is one of the most important
quantitative method. Various types of surveys or polls can be used
to explore opinions, trends, etc. With the advancement in
technology, surveys can now be sent online and can be very easy
to access. For instance, use of a survey app through tablets,
laptops or even mobile phones. This information is also available to
the researcher in real time as well. Nowadays, most organizations
offer short length surveys and rewards to respondents, in order to
achieve higher response rates.
For example: A survey is sent to a given set of audience to understand
their opinions about the size of mobile phones when they purchase one.
Based on such information organization can dig deeper into the topic and
make business related decision.

 Interviews: While you may get a lot of information from public

sources, but sometimes an in person interview can give in-depth
information on the subject being studied. Such a research is
a qualitative research method. An interview with a subject matter
expert can give you meaningful insights that a generalized public
source won’t be able to provide. Interviews are carried out in
person or on telephone which have open-ended questions to get
meaningful information about the topic.
For example: An interview with an employee can give you more insights to
find out the degree of job satisfaction, or an interview with a subject matter
expert of quantum theory can give you in-depth information on that topic.

 Focus groups: Focus group is yet another widely used method in

exploratory research. In such a method a group of people is chosen
and are allowed to express their insights on the topic that is being
studied. Although, it is important to make sure that while choosing
the individuals in a focus group they should have a common
background and have comparable experiences.
For example: A focus group helps a research identify the opinions of
consumers if they were to buy a phone. Such a research can help the
researcher understand what the consumer value while buying a phone. It
may be screen size, brand value or even the dimensions. Based on which
the organization can understand what are consumer buying attitudes,
consumer opinions, etc.

 Observations: Observation research can be qualitative

observation or quantitative observation. Such a research is done to
observe a person and draw the finding from their reaction to certain
parameters. In such a research, there is no direct interaction with
the subject.
For example: An FMCG company wants to know how it’s consumer react to
the new shape of their product. The researcher observes the customers
first reaction and collects the data, which is then used to draw inferences
from the collective information.

Secondary research methods

Secondary research is gathering information from previously published

primary research. In such a research you gather information from sources
likes case studies, magazines, newspapers, books, etc.

 Online research: In today’s world, this is one of the fastest way to

gather information on any topic. A lot of data is readily available on
the internet and the researcher can download it whenever he needs
it. An important aspect to be noted for such a research is the
genuineness and authenticity of the source websites that the
researcher is gathering the information from.
For example: A researcher needs to find out what is the percentage of
people that prefer a specific brand phone. The researcher just enters the
information he needs in a search engine and gets multiple links with related
information and statistics.

 Literature research: Literature research is one of the most

inexpensive method used for discovering a hypothesis. There is
tremendous amount of information available in libraries, online
sources, or even commercial databases. Sources can include
newspapers, magazines, books from library, documents from
government agencies, specific topic related articles, literature,
Annual reports, published statistics from research organizations
and so on.
However, a few things have to be kept in mind while researching from
these sources. Government agencies have authentic information but
sometimes may come with a nominal cost. Also, research from educational
institutions is generally overlooked, but in fact educational institutions carry
out more number of research than any other entities.

Furthermore, commercial sources provide information on major topics like

political agendas, demographics, financial information, market trends and
information, etc.

For example: A company has low sales. It can be easily explored from
available statistics and market literature if the problem is market related or
organization related or if the topic being studied is regarding financial
situation of the country, then research data can be accessed through
government documents or commercial sources.

 Case study research: Case study research can help a researcher

with finding more information through carefully analyzing existing
cases which have gone through a similar problem. Such analysis
are very important and critical especially in today’s business world.
The researcher just needs to make sure he analyses the case
carefully in regards to all the variables present in the previous case
against his own case. It is very commonly used by business
organizations or social sciences sector or even in the health sector.
For example: A particular orthopedic surgeon has the highest success rate
for performing knee surgeries. A lot of other hospitals or doctors have taken
up this case to understand and benchmark the method in which this
surgeon does the procedure to increase their success rate.

Projective Techniques

Projective techniques allow respondents to project their subjective or true

opinions and beliefs onto other people or even objects. The respondent's
real feelings are then inferred from what s/he says about others. Projective
techniques are normally used during individual or small group interviews.

Projective techniques are derived from clinical psychology, and many remain
rooted in this discipline. For example, the Rorschach Ink Blot Test is one of the
most well-known. This involves showing subjects images of ink blots, and
analysing their perceptions of them to determine personalities and mental states.
Many other traditional projective techniques have been tailored for use in market
research.
There are a wide variety of projective techniques available to choose from. Below
is a list of some of the most popular methods:

Word Association
This is a method in which participants are presented with a word and asked to
quickly respond with the first word that comes to mind. This allows insight into
immediate reactions, personal connections, as well as understanding language
used. This technique is used to gain feedback on new brand names, uncovering
product or brand attributes, and building a picture of how a product is positioned.
This technique can be effectively visualised using a word cloud, where the size of
the word represents the number of times it was mentioned.

Sentence/Story Completion
This is a more developed version of word association. Here, participants are
presented with a sentence or story that contains a blank, and asked to fill in the
missing word or words. Similarly, to word association, this is often asked to be
completed quickly, to capture initial thoughts before the response is rationalised.
This encourages creative thinking and can uncover thoughts and attitudes
associated with various situations.

Photo/Picture Sorts
Many people are visual thinkers and may find it difficult to articulate their
opinions. Photo sorts is a technique in which participants are presented with a stack
of photos or images. They are then asked to pick those that they most associate
with a brand or attribute. These could be photos of people, scenes or emotions.
This technique can uncover stereotypes that may exist, as well as underlying brand
associations. More recently emoji’s have been used as a method for participants to
represent their feelings on a series of situations. This has been effective in gaining
insight into emotions that might not have immediately come to mind.

Brand Personalities
This involves asking participants to personify a brand or product, and then describe
various characteristics of the ‘person’ (e.g. what they look like, what personality
traits they possess) and why these were chosen. This is particularly useful in
branding studies, to better understand a brand’s perceived personality, values and
voice. This exercise can identify personality traits that are unique to the brand.
These can then be built on to create a brand personality that is emotionally
engaging and relevant to its users.

Projective techniques put relatively low strain on participants. Furthermore, using a

variety of techniques as opposed to direct questioning boosts engagement and
increase participant enjoyment. When used correctly, they are useful tools that can
uncover true motivations behind behaviours and subconscious attitudes.

Getting to the emotions is all well and good, but so what? B2B buyers surely leave
their emotions at home and make rational decisions, don’t they? WRONG! We
believe that in B2B markets emotions account for a up to 50% of the buying
decision. Therefore, projective techniques can help us tap in to B2B emotions to
help companies have a deeper understanding of their customers and thus more
closely develop communications that resonate. For example:

 Images and colours to use in adverts and online

 Stories that will interest customers
 The words that should be used in body copy to resonate with customers
 Taglines that better position the brand
 More effective customer value propositions (focusing on what people
really want and need)
 Scripts for sales teams that will improve relationships
 Depth Interview

Explanation of depth interviews

A qualitative data collection method, in-depth interviews offer the

opportunity to capture rich, descriptive data about how people think
and behave, and unfolding complex processes. They can be used as a
standalone research method or as part of a multi method design,
depending on the needs of the research.

How is an in depth interview carried out?

In depth interviews are normally carried out face to face so that a

rapport can be created with respondents. Body language is also used to
add a high level of understanding to the answers. Telephones can also
be used by a skilled researcher with little loss of data and at a tenth of
the cost.

The style of the interview depends on the interviewer. Successful in-

depth interviewers listen rather than talk. They have a clear line of
questioning and use body language to build rapport. The interview is
more of a guided conversation than a staccato question and answer
session.

The interview is conducted using a discussion guide which facilitates

the flushing out of the respondent’s views through open ended
questioning. Projective techniques can be incorporated into the
interview too.

2. Experience survey in research

A customer experience survey is a questionnaire designed to help a

business capture customers' thoughts and feelings about its brand,
products, or services.
A customer experience survey is a questionnaire designed to help a
business capture customers’ thoughts and feelings about its brand,
products, or services.

How is this relevant to your business? Think of it this way: a business

is essentially a system with a purpose, where different elements
(support staff, a sales platform, a clear marketing message, fulfillment,
etc.) are interconnected to achieve an ultimate goal—and to give your
customers a great experience, you need to know what they think is
working (and isn't) across the whole system.

Customer surveys help you gather data at specific touch points (e.g.,
immediately after a sale, when a potential customer chooses to leave a
website without purchasing, or after a customer support ticket gets
resolved and closed), and acting on the insight you collect will help you
improve the experience for both your current and future customers.

Step 1: determine what you want to study

Pick one touchpoint in the customer journey you want to study. Here
are a few examples of things you could study at different stages in a
typical ecommerce customer journey:

 Pre-sale: do customers have enough information to make a

purchase? Is anything stopping them from making a decision?
 Post-sale: are they happy with the product? Was the ordering
process easy, or would they change something? Would they
recommend you to a friend?
 Following a support call: did you solve their problem? If so, how
easy was it to find a solution? If not, how does that affect their
opinion of your product and brand?
  Downgrading, canceling, or returning an item: are they
unhappy with the product or service? If so, why?

Step 2: pick the right survey

Different types of surveys will help you to determine whether your

customers are happy, loyal, and satisfied, and each type can also help
you learn more something about their experience. Let's run you
through five of the most effective surveys you can get started from.

Editor’s note: already know what survey to run and which questions to
ask? Skip ahead to the templates below.

1. Customer Satisfaction (CSAT) score

CSAT surveys investigate the level of satisfaction a user experiences

with your product or service; they often include a simple question, such
as “Are you happy with what you bought?,” with only two possible
replies (e.g., yes/no, happy face/sad face).

Tracking your CSAT over time is very useful, because a sudden drop can
quickly alert you to a pressing issue.

2. Net Promoter Score (NPS®)

The Net Promoter Score® survey asks how likely someone is, on a scale
of 0-10, to recommend your company/product to a colleague or a
friend. It also allows you to ask ‘why?’ follow up questions, so you can
compare your percentage of detractors (0-6 answers) to your
percentage of promoters (9-10 answers), and have both a numerical
benchmark for improvement and a qualitative list of elements that you
need to fix.
Step 3: decide which types of questions to ask

When you look at our survey templates below, you’ll notice that each
survey uses different types of questions. These questions weren’t
chosen at random—each one serves a specific purpose, and each
question type has its own advantages and disadvantages.

7 common survey questions types

The following are some of the most common types of questions you’ll
find in customer experience surveys.

1. Open-ended questions

An open-ended question gives respondents the freedom to write

anything they want. They’re ideal for identifying issues and
opportunities you never knew existed because respondents aren’t
limited by your multiple-choice options (see below).

The data is a touch more challenging to analyze, but there are lots of
techniques to make analyzing open-ended questions easier.

Example: What could we improve about [product]?

2. Multiple-choice questions

Multiple-choice questions offer a limited number of possible answers.

The results are easy to analyze, and response rates tend to be high
because responding requires less effort than it does with open-ended
questions (where users write a free-form response).
Multiple-choice questions include rating scale questions, binary scale
questions, nominal questions, Likert scale questions, and semantic
differential questions, which are all explained below.

3. Rating scale questions (also known as ordinal questions)

These questions offer a range of answers that correspond to a numeric

scale, such as rating ease of purchase on a scale of 1-5. Be sure to
define the scale well (e.g., 1: not easy at all, 5: very easy) so as not to
cause confusion.

Example: How easy was your onboarding process? (1: not easy at all - 5:
very easy)

4. Binary scale questions

These questions limit responses to one of two possibilities, such as

‘yes/no’, or ‘happy face/sad face’. A binary scale is less ambiguous than
a rating scale, where one person’s 4-star experience might be another
person’s 5-star experience.

Example: Did we solve your problem today? (yes/no)

5. Nominal questions

Nominal questions specify separate categories for answers. Answers

don’t overlap (unless there’s an ‘all of the above’ option), and no
numeric value is attached to the answers.

Example: Which of the following describes you? “I am ______”

 1. A customer of [Company Name]
2. Not a customer, but thinking about becoming one
3. Not a customer and don’t plan to become one

6. Likert scale questions

The Likert scale is a 5- or 7-point scale used to evaluate customer

sentiment. The smallest number (always a ‘1’) maps to one extreme
perspective, while the highest number (e.g., a ‘7’ on a 7-point scale)
maps to the opposite extreme. The middle number (e.g., a ‘4’ on a 7-
point scale) indicates a more moderate view.

Example: To what extent do you agree with the following statement:

[Product name]’s onboarding process was straightforward and easy.

 1 - Strongly disagree
 2 - Somewhat disagree
 3 - Neither agree nor disagree
 4 - Somewhat agree
 5 - Strongly agree

7. Semantic differential questions

Similar to Likert scale questions in that they both use a 5- or 7-point

scale, semantic differential questions don’t ask respondents to ‘agree’
or ‘disagree’ with a statement. Instead, they ask them to choose the
point on the scale that best describes their position.

Example: How helpful do you find our knowledge base?

 1 - Not helpful at all

  2 - Barely helpful
 3 - Neither helpful nor unhelpful
 4 - Somewhat helpful
 5 - Very helpful

Step 4: build and send your survey

When you are ready to build your survey, the specific steps you'll take
will depend on the tool(s) you use.

Exploratory research Design: Steps to conduct a research

 Identify the problem: A researcher identifies the subject of research

and the problem is addressed by carrying out multiple methods to
answer the questions.
 Create the hypothesis: When the researcher has found out that
there are no prior studies and the problem is not precisely resolved,
the researcher will create a hypothesis based on the questions
obtained while identifying the problem.
 Further research: Once the data has been obtained, the researcher
will continue his study through descriptive investigation. Qualitative
methods are used to further study the subject in detail and find out
if the information is true or not.

Characteristics of Exploratory research Design

 They are not structured studies

 It is usually low cost, interactive and open ended.
 It will enable a researcher answer questions like what is the problem?
What is the purpose of the study? And what topics could be
studied?
 To carry out exploratory research, generally there is no prior research
done or the existing ones do not answer the problem precisely
enough.
 It is a time consuming research and it needs patience and has risks
associated with it.
  The researcher will have to go through all the information available
for the particular study he is doing.
 There are no set of rules to carry out the research per se, as they are
flexible, broad and scattered.
 The research needs to have importance or value. If the problem is not
important in the industry the research carried out is ineffective.
 The research should also have a few theories which can support its
findings as that will make it easier for the researcher to assess it
and move ahead in his study
 Such a research usually produces qualitative data, however in certain
cases quantitative data can be generalized for a larger sample
through use of surveys and experiments.

Advantages of Exploratory research Design

 The researcher has a lot of flexibility and can adapt to changes as the
research progresses.
 It is usually low cost.
 It helps lay the foundation of a research, which can lead to further
research.
 It enables the researcher understand at an early stage, if the topic is
worth investing the time and resources and if it is worth pursuing.
 It can assist other researchers to find out possible causes for the
problem, which can be further studied in detail to find out, which of
them is the most likely cause for the problem.

Disadvantages of Exploratory research Design

 Even though it can point you in the right direction towards what is the
answer, it is usually inconclusive.
 The main disadvantage of exploratory research is that they provide
qualitative data. Interpretation of such information can be
judgmental and biased.
 Most of the times, exploratory research involves a smaller sample,
hence the results cannot be accurately interpreted for a generalized
population.
 Many a times, if the data is being collected through secondary
research, then there is a chance of that data being old and is not
updated.
Importance of Exploratory research Design

Exploratory research is carried out when a topic needs to be understood in

depth, especially if it hasn’t been done before. The goal of such a research
is to explore the problem and around it and not actually derive a conclusion
from it. Such kind of research will enable a researcher to set a strong
foundation for exploring his ideas, choosing the right research design and
finding variables that actually are important for the analysis. Most
importantly, such a research can help organizations or researchers save up
a lot of time and resources, as it will enable the researcher to know if it
worth pursuing.
What is Descriptive Research?
Descriptive research is a type of research that describes a population, situation,
or phenomenon that is being studied. It focuses on answering the how, what,
when, and where questions If a research problem, rather than the why.

This is mainly because it is important to have a proper understanding of what a

research problem is about before investigating why it exists in the first place.

For example, an investor considering an investment in the ever-changing

Amsterdam housing market needs to understand what the current state of the
market is, how it changes (increasing or decreasing), and when it changes (time
of the year) before asking for the why. This is where descriptive research comes
in.

What Are The Types of Descriptive Research?

Descriptive research is classified into different types according to the kind of

approach that is used in conducting descriptive research. The different types of
descriptive research are highlighted below:

 Descriptive-survey

Descriptive-survey research uses surveys to gather data about varying subjects.

This data aims to know the extent to which different conditions can be obtained
among these subjects.

For example, a researcher wants to determine the qualification of employed

professionals in Maryland. He uses a survey as his research instrument, and
each item on the survey related to qualifications is subjected to a Yes/No
answer.

This way, the researcher can describe the qualifications possessed by the
employed demographics of this community.

 Descriptive-normative survey

This is an extension of the descriptive-survey, with the addition being the

normative element. In the descriptive-normative survey, the results of the study
should be compared with the norm.
For example, an organization that wishes to test the skills of its employees by a
team may have them take a skills test. The skills tests are the evaluation tool in
this case, and the result of this test is compared with the norm of each role.

If the score of the team is one standard deviation above the mean, it is very
satisfactory, if within the mean, satisfactory, and one standard deviation below
the mean is unsatisfactory.

 Descriptive-status

This is a quantitative description technique that seeks to answer questions about

real-life situations. For example, a researcher researching the income of the
employees in a company, and the relationship with their performance.

A survey will be carried out to gather enough data about the income of the
employees, then their performance will be evaluated and compared to their
income. This will help determine whether a higher income means better
performance and low income means lower performance or vice versa.

 Descriptive-analysis

Descriptive-analysis method of research describes a subject by further analyzing

it, which in this case involves dividing it into 2 parts. For example, the HR
personnel of a company that wishes to analyze the job role of each employee of
the company may divide the employees into the people that work at the
Headquarters in the US and those that work from Oslo, Norway office.

A questionnaire is devised to analyze the job role of employees with similar

salaries and work in similar positions.

 Descriptive classification

This method is employed in biological sciences for the classification of plants

and animals. A researcher who wishes to classify the sea animals into different
species will collect samples from various search stations, then classify them
accordingly.

 Descriptive-comparative
In descriptive-comparative research, the researcher considers 2 variables which
are not manipulated, and establish a formal procedure to conclude that one is
better than the other. For example, an examination body wants to determine the
better method of conducting tests between paper-based and computer-based
tests.

A random sample of potential participants of the test may be asked to use the 2
different methods, and factors like failure rates, time factors, and others will be
evaluated to arrive at the best method.

 Correlative Survey

Correlative used to determine whether the relationship between 2 variables

is positive, negative, or neutral. That is, if 2 variables, say X and Y are
directly proportional, inversely proportional or are not related to each
other.

Examples of Descriptive Research

There are different examples of descriptive research, that may be highlighted
from its types, uses, and applications. However, we will be restricting ourselves
to only 3 distinct examples in this article.

 Comparing Student Performance:

An academic institution may wish 2 compare the performance of its junior high
school students in English language and Mathematics. This may be used to
classify students based on 2 major groups, with one group going ahead to study
while courses, while the other study courses in the Arts & Humanities field.

Students who are more proficient in mathematics will be encouraged to go into

STEM and vice versa. Institutions may also use this data to identify student's
weak points and work on ways to assist them.

 Scientific Classification

During major scientific classification of plants, animals, and periodic table

elements, the characteristics and components of each subject are evaluated and
used to determine how they are classified.
For example, living things may be classified into kingdom Plantae or kingdom
animal is depending on their nature. Further classification may group animals
into mammals, pieces, vertebrae, invertebrae, etc.

All these classifications are made a result of descriptive research which

describes what they are.

 Human Behavior

When studying human behaviour based on a factor or event, the researcher

observes the characteristics, behaviour, and reaction, then use if to conclude. A
company willing to sell to its target market needs to first study the behaviour of
the market.

This may be done by observing how its target reacts to a competitor's product,
then use it to determine their behaviour.

What are the Characteristics of Descriptive Research?

The characteristics of descriptive research can be highlighted from its definition,
applications, data collection methods, and examples. Some characteristics of
descriptive research are:

 Quantitativeness

Descriptive research uses a quantitative research method by collecting

quantifiable information to be used for statistical analysis of the population
sample. This is very common when dealing with research in the physical
sciences.

 Qualitativeness

It can also be carried out using the qualitative research method, to properly
describe the research problem. This is because descriptive research is more
explanatory than exploratory or experimental.

 Uncontrolled variables

In descriptive research, researchers cannot control the variables like they do in

experimental research.
  The basis for further research

The results of descriptive research can be further analyzed and used in other
research methods. It can also inform the next line of research, including the
research method that should be used.

This is because it provides basic information about the research problem, which
may give birth to other questions like why a particular thing is the way it is.

Why Use Descriptive Research Design?

Descriptive research can be used to investigate the background of a research
problem and get the required information needed to carry out further research. It
is used in multiple ways by different organizations, and especially when getting
the required information about their target audience.

 Define subject characteristics:

It is used to determine the characteristics of the subjects, including their traits,

behaviour, opinion, etc. This information may be gathered with the use of
surveys, which are shared with the respondents who in this case, are the
research subjects.

For example, a survey evaluating the number of hours millennials in a

community spends on the internet weekly, will help a service provider make
informed business decisions regarding the market potential of the community.

 Measure Data Trends

It helps to measure the changes in data over some time through statistical
methods. Consider the case of individuals who want to invest in stock markets,
so they evaluate the changes in prices of the available stocks to make a decision
investment decision.

Brokerage companies are however the ones who carry out the descriptive
research process, while individuals can view the data trends and make decisions.

 Comparison
Descriptive research is also used to compare how different demographics
respond to certain variables. For example, an organization may study how
people with different income levels react to the launch of a new Apple phone.

This kind of research may take a survey that will help determine which group of
individuals are purchasing the new Apple phone. Do the low-income earners
also purchase the phone, or only the high-income earners do?

Further research using another technique will explain why low-income earners
are purchasing the phone even though they can barely afford it. This will help
inform strategies that will lure other low-income earners and increase company
sales.

 Validate existing conditions

When you are not sure about the validity of an existing condition, you can use
descriptive research to ascertain the underlying patterns of the research object.
This is because descriptive research methods make an in-depth analysis of each
variable before making conclusions.

 Conducted Overtime

Descriptive research is conducted over some time to ascertain the changes

observed at each point in time. The higher the number of times it is conducted,
the more authentic the conclusion will be.

What are the Disadvantages of Descriptive Research?

 Response and Non-response Bias

Respondents may either decide not to respond to questions or give incorrect

responses if they feel the questions are too confidential. When researchers use
observational methods, respondents may also decide to behave in a particular
manner because they feel they are being watched.

 The researcher may decide to influence the result of the research due to
personal opinion or bias towards a particular subject. For example, a
stockbroker who also has a business of his own may try to lure investors
into investing in his own company by manipulating results.
  A case-study or sample taken from a large population is not representative
of the whole population.
 Limited scope:The scope of descriptive research is limited to the what of
research, with no information on why thereby limiting the scope of the
research.

What are the Data Collection Methods in Descriptive

Research?
There are 3 main data collection methods in descriptive research, namely;
observational method, case study method, and survey research.

 Observational Method

The observational method allows researchers to collect data based on their view
of the behaviour and characteristics of the respondent, with the respondents
themselves not directly having an input. It is often used in market research,
psychology, and some other social science research to understand human
behaviour.

It is also an important aspect of physical scientific research, with it being one of

the most effective methods of conducting descriptive research. This process can
be said to be either quantitative or qualitative.

Quantitative observation involved the objective collection of numerical data,

whose results can be analyzed using numerical and statistical methods.

Qualitative observation, on the other hand, involves the monitoring of

characteristics and not the measurement of numbers. The researcher makes his
observation from a distance, records it, and is used to inform conclusions.

 Case Study Method

A case study is a sample group (an individual, a group of people, organizations,

events, etc.) whose characteristics are used to describe the characteristics of a
larger group in which the case study is a subgroup. The information gathered
from investigating a case study may be generalized to serve the larger group.
This generalization, may, however, be risky because case studies are not
sufficient to make accurate predictions about larger groups. Case studies are a
poor case of generalization.

 Survey Research

This is a very popular data collection method in research designs. In survey

research, researchers create a survey or questionnaire and distribute it to
respondents who give answers.

Generally, it is used to obtain quick information directly from the primary

source and also conducting rigorous quantitative and qualitative research. In
some cases, survey research uses a blend of both qualitative and quantitative
strategies.

Survey research can be carried out both online and offline using the following
methods

 Online Surveys: This is a cheap method of carrying out surveys and

getting enough responses. It can be carried out using Formplus, an online
survey builder.

Formplus has amazing tools and features that will help increase response rates.

 Offline Surveys: This includes paper forms, mobile offline forms, and
SMS-based forms.

What is a cross-sectional study?

A cross-sectional study is a type of research design in which you collect data from many
different individuals at a single point in time. In cross-sectional research, you
observe variables without influencing them.

Researchers in economics, psychology, medicine, epidemiology, and the other social sciences all
make use of cross-sectional studies in their work. For example, epidemiologists who are
interested in the current prevalence of a disease in a certain subset of the population might use a
cross-sectional design to gather and analyze the relevant data.

Cross-sectional vs longitudinal studies

The opposite of a cross-sectional study is a longitudinal study. While cross-sectional
studies collect data from many subjects at a single point in time, longitudinal studies
collect data repeatedly from the same subjects over time, often focusing on a smaller
group of individuals that are connected by a common trait.

Both types are useful for answering different kinds of research questions. A cross-
sectional study is a cheap and easy way to gather initial data and
identify correlations that can then be investigated further in a longitudinal study.

Cross-sectional vs longitudinal exampleYou want to study the impact that a low-carb diet has on
diabetes. You first conduct a cross-sectional study with a sample of diabetes patients to see if there are
differences in health outcomes like weight or blood sugar in those who follow a low-carb diet. You
discover that the diet correlates with weight loss in younger patients, but not older ones.

You then decide to design a longitudinal study to further examine this link in younger patients.
Without first conducting the cross-sectional study, you would not have known to focus on
younger patients in particular.

When to use a cross-sectional design

When you want to examine the prevalence of some outcome at a certain moment in
time, a cross-sectional study is the best choice.

ExampleYou want to know how many families with children in New York City are currently low-income
so you can estimate how much money is required to fund a free lunch program in public schools.
Because all you need to know is the current number of low-income families, a cross-sectional study
should provide you with all the data you require.

Sometimes a cross-sectional study is the best choice for practical reasons – for
instance, if you only have the time or money to collect cross-sectional data, or if the only
data you can find to answer your research question was gathered at a single point in
time.

As cross-sectional studies are cheaper and less time-consuming than many other types
of study, they allow you to easily collect data that can be used as a basis for further
research.

Descriptive vs analytical studies

Cross-sectional studies can be used for both analytical and descriptive purposes:

 An analytical study tries to answer how or why a certain outcome might occur.
 A descriptive study only summarizes said outcome using descriptive statistics.

Descriptive vs analytical exampleYou are studying child obesity. A descriptive study might look at the
prevalence of obesity in children, while an analytical study might examine exercise and food habits in
addition to obesity levels to explain why some children are much more likely to be obese than others.

How to perform a cross-sectional study

To implement a cross-sectional study, you can rely on data assembled by another
source or collect your own. Governments often make cross-sectional datasets freely
available online.

Prominent examples include the censuses of several countries like the US or France,
which survey a cross-sectional snapshot of the country’s residents on important
measures. International organisations like the World Health Organization or the World
Bank also provide access to cross-sectional datasets on their websites.

However, these datasets are often aggregated to a regional level, which may prevent
the investigation of certain research questions. You will also be restricted to whichever
variables the original researchers decided to study.

If you want to choose the variables in your study and analyze your data on an individual
level, you can collect your own data using research methods such as surveys. It’s
important to carefully design your questions and choose your sample.

Advantages and disadvantages of cross-sectional

studies
Like any research design, cross-sectional studies have various benefits and drawbacks.

Advantages

 Because you only collect data at a single point in time, cross-sectional studies are
relatively cheap and less time-consuming than other types of research.
  Cross-sectional studies allow you to collect data from a large pool of subjects and
compare differences between groups.
 Cross-sectional studies capture a specific moment in time. National censuses, for
instance, provide a snapshot of conditions in that country at that time.

Disadvantages

 It is difficult to establish cause-and-effect relationships using cross-sectional studies,

since they only represent a one-time measurement of both the alleged cause and effect.
 Since cross-sectional studies only study a single moment in time, they cannot be used to
analyze behavior over a period of time or establish long-term trends.
 The timing of the cross-sectional snapshot may be unrepresentative of behavior of the
group as a whole. For instance, imagine you are looking at the impact of psychotherapy
on an illness like depression. If the depressed individuals in your sample began therapy
shortly before the data collection, then it might appear that therapy causes depression
even if it is effective in the long term.

What is a longitudinal study?

In a longitudinal study, researchers repeatedly examine the same individuals to detect any
changes that might occur over a period of time.

Longitudinal studies are a type of correlational research in which researchers observe and collect
data on a number of variables without trying to influence those variables.

While they are most commonly used in medicine, economics, and epidemiology, longitudinal
studies can also be found in the other social or medical sciences.

How long is a longitudinal study?

No set amount of time is required for a longitudinal study, so long as the participants are
repeatedly observed. They can range from as short as a few weeks to as long as
several decades. However, they usually last at least a year, oftentimes several.

One of the longest longitudinal studies, the Harvard Study of Adult Development, has
been collecting data on the physical and mental health of a group of Boston men for
over 80 years!

Longitudinal vs cross-sectional studies

The opposite of a longitudinal study is a cross-sectional study. While longitudinal
studies repeatedly observe the same participants over a period of time, cross-sectional
studies examine different samples (or a “cross-section”) of the population at one point in
time. They can be used to provide a snapshot of a group or society at a specific
moment.
Both types of study can prove useful in research. Because cross-sectional studies are
shorter and therefore cheaper to carry out, they can be used to discover correlations
that can then be investigated in a longitudinal study.

How to perform a longitudinal study

If you want to implement a longitudinal study, you have two choices: collecting your own
data or using data already gathered by somebody else.

Using data from other sources

Many governments or research centers carry out longitudinal studies and make the data
freely available to the general public. For example, anyone can access data from the
1970 British Cohort Study, which has followed the lives of 17,000 Brits since their births
in a single week in 1970, through the UK Data Service website.

These statistics are generally very trustworthy and allow you to investigate changes
over a long period of time. However, they are more restrictive than data you collect
yourself. To preserve the anonymity of the participants, the data collected is often
aggregated so that it can only be analyzed on a regional level. You will also be
restricted to whichever variables the original researchers decided to investigate.

If you choose to go this route, you should carefully examine the source of the dataset as
well as what data is available to you.

Collecting your own data

If you choose to collect your own data, the way you go about it will be determined by the
type of longitudinal study you choose to perform. You can choose to conduct a
retrospective or a prospective study.

 In a retrospective study, you collect data on events that have already happened.
 In a prospective study, you choose a group of subjects and follow them over time,
collecting data in real time.

Retrospective studies are generally less expensive and take less time than prospective
studies, but are more prone to measurement error.

Retrospective vs prospective exampleIn a retrospective study, you might look at past medical records of
patients to see whether those who developed this cancer had previously smoked. In a prospective study,
you might follow a group of both smokers and non-smokers over time to see if they develop cancer later
on.

Advantages and disadvantages of longitudinal studies

Like any other research design, longitudinal studies have their tradeoffs: they provide a
unique set of benefits, but also come with some downsides.

 Advantages
Longitudinal studies allow researchers to follow their subjects in real time. This means
you can better establish the real sequence of events, allowing you insight into cause-
and-effect relationships.

ExampleA cross-sectional study on the impact of police on crime might find that more police are
associated with greater crime and wrongly conclude that police cause crime when it is the other way
around. However, a longitudinal study would be able to observe the rise or fall in crime some time after
increasing the number of police in an area.

Longitudinal studies also allow repeated observations of the same individual over time.
This means any changes in the outcome variable cannot be attributed to differences
between individuals.

ExampleYou decide to study how a particular weight-training program affects athletic performance. If
you choose a longitudinal study, the impact of natural talent on performance should be eliminated,
since that would not change over the study period.

Prospective longitudinal studies eliminate the risk of recall bias, or the inability to
correctly recall past events.

ExampleYou are studying the effect of low-carb diets on weight loss. If you asked your subjects to
remember how many carbs or how much they weighed at any point in time in the past, they might have
difficulty doing so. In a longitudinal study, you can keep track of these variables in real time.
  Disadvantages
Longitudinal studies are time-consuming and often more expensive than other types of
studies, so they require significant commitment and resources to be effective.

Since longitudinal studies repeatedly observe subjects over a period of time, any
potential insights from the study can take a while to be discovered.

ExampleIn the study examining the links between smoking and stomach cancer, you have to wait several
years to see any results since the negative effects of smoking accumulate over decades.

Attrition, which occurs when participants drop out of a study, is common in longitudinal
studies and may result in invalid conclusions.

ExampleIn your study on the impact of low-carb diets on weight loss, participants who are not seeing
much success might feel more discouraged and thus more likely to drop out. The diet might therefore
appear to be more successful than it actually is

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

Experimental design refers to how participants are allocated to the

different groups in an experiment. Types of design include repeated
measures, independent groups, and matched pairs designs.
Probably the commonest way to design an experiment in psychology is
to divide the participants into two groups, the experimental group, and
the control group, and then introduce a change to the experimental group
and not the control group.
The researcher must decide how he/she will allocate their sample to the
different experimental groups. For example, if there are 10 participants,
will all 10 participants take part in both groups (e.g., repeated measures)
or will the participants be split in half and take part in only one group
each?
Three types of experimental designs are commonly used:

1. Independent Measures:
Independent measures design, also known as between-groups, is an
experimental design where different participants are used in each
condition of the independent variable. This means that each condition of
the experiment includes a different group of participants.
This should be done by random allocation, which ensures that each
participant has an equal chance of being assigned to one group or the
other.
Independent measures involve using two separate groups of participants;
one in each condition. For example:
  Con: More people are needed than with the repeated measures
design (i.e., more time consuming).
 Pro: Avoids order effects (such as practice or fatigue) as people
participate in one condition only. If a person is involved in several
conditions, they may become bored, tired and fed up by the time
they come to the second condition, or becoming wise to the
requirements of the experiment!
 Con: Differences between participants in the groups may affect
results, for example; variations in age, gender or social
background. These differences are known as participant variables
(i.e., a type of extraneous variable).
 Control: After the participants have been recruited, they should be
randomly assigned to their groups. This should ensure the groups
are similar, on average (reducing participant variables).

2. Repeated Measures:
Repeated Measures design is an experimental design where the same
participants take part in each condition of the independent variable. This
means that each condition of the experiment includes the same group of
participants.
Repeated Measures design is also known as within groups, or within-
subjects design.

 Pro: As the same participants are used in each condition,

participant variables (i.e., individual differences) are reduced.
 Con: There may be order effects. Order effects refer to the order of
the conditions having an effect on the participants’ behavior.
Performance in the second condition may be better because the
participants know what to do (i.e. practice effect). Or
 

 their performance might be worse in the second condition because

they are tired (i.e., fatigue effect). This limitation can be controlled
using counterbalancing.
 Pro: Fewer people are needed as they take part in all conditions
(i.e. saves time).
 Control: To combat order effects the researcher counter balances
the order of the conditions for the participants. Alternating the
order in which participants perform in different conditions of an
experiment

CONCEPT OF CAUSE
The formal cause is the form or pattern or shape that a thing as- sumes. .
The efficient cause is what we commonly refer to today as "cause and
effect," the process by which the substance is given its particular form.
The final cause is the end, aim, or purpose of the formed substance, the.

CAUSAL RELATIONSHIP
A causal relation between two events exists if the occurrence of the
first causes the other. The first event is called the cause and the second
event is called the effect. A correlation between two variables does not
imply causation.
CONCEPT OF INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLE

Independent and dependent variables

In research, variables are any characteristics that can take on different

values, such as height, age, species, or exam score.

In scientific research, we often want to study the effect of one variable

on another one. For example, you might want to test whether students
who spend more time studying get better exam scores.

The variables in a study of a cause-and-effect relationship are called

the independent and dependent variables.

 The independent variable is the cause. Its value is independent of

other variables in your study.
 The dependent variable is the effect. Its value depends on
changes in the independent variable.

Examples of independent and dependent variables

Research Question Independent Dependent
variable(s) variable(s)
Do tomatoes grow  The type of  The rate
fastest under light the of growth
fluorescent, tomato of the
incandescent, or plant is tomato
natural light? grown plant
under

What is the effect of  The type of  Your

Examples of independent and dependent variables
Research Question Independent Dependent
variable(s) variable(s)
diet and regular soda you blood
soda on blood sugar drink (diet sugar
levels? or regular) levels

How does phone use  The  Number of

before bedtime amount of hours of
affect sleep? phone use sleep
before bed  Quality of
sleep

How well do  The  Plant

different plant amount of growth
species tolerate salt salt added  Plant
water? to the wilting
plants’  Plant
water survival
rate

Independent and dependent variables in experiments

In experimental research, the independent variable is manipulated or
changed by the experimenter to measure the effect of this change on the
dependent variable.

Experiment exampleYou are studying the impact of a new medication

on the blood pressure of patients with hypertension.
To test whether the medication is effective, you divide your patients into
two groups. One group takes the medication, while the other group takes
a sugar pill placebo.
  Your independent variable is the treatment that you vary between
groups: which type of pill the patient receives.
 Your dependent variable is the outcome that you measure: the
blood pressure of the patients.

The independent variable is usually applied at different levels to see how

the outcome differs.

You can apply just two levels (e.g. the new medication and the placebo)
in order to find out if the independent variable has an effect at all.

You can also apply multiple levels (e.g. three different doses of the new
medication) to find out how the independent variable affects the
dependent variable.

Variables in other types of research

Outside of an experimental setting, researchers often cannot directly
manipulate or change the independent variable that they’re interested in.

Instead, they must find already-existing examples of the independent

variable, and investigate how changes in this variable affect the
dependent variable.

Research exampleYou are interested in whether a higher minimum wage

impacts employment rates.
You can’t control the minimum wage yourself. Instead, you look at a
state that raised its minimum wage last year, and compare it to a
neighboring state that did not.

 Your independent variable is the minimum wage.

 Your dependent variable is the employment rate.
By comparing the difference in outcomes between the two states (and
accounting for other factors), you can investigate whether the change in
minimum wage had an effect on employment rates.
In non-experimental research, it’s more difficult to establish a definite
cause-and-effect relationship, because other variables that you haven’t
measured might be influencing the changes. These are known
as confounding variables.

In types of research where the exact relationship between variables is

less certain, you might use different terms for independent and
dependent variables.

Other names for independent variables

Sometimes, the variable you think is the cause might not be fully
independent – it might be influenced by other variables. In this case, one
of these terms is more appropriate:

 Explanatory variables (they explain an event or outcome)

 Predictor variables (they can be used to predict the value of a
dependent variable)
 Right-hand-side variables (they appear on the right-hand side of
a regression equation).

Other names for dependent variables

Dependent variables are also known by these terms:

 Response variables (they respond to a change in another

variable)
 Outcome variables (they represent the outcome you want to
measure)
 Left-hand-side variables (they appear on the left-hand side of a
regression equation)
CONCOMITANT VARIABLE

A concomitant variable, or covariate, is a variable which we observe

during the course of our research or statistical analysis, but we cannot
control it and it is not the focus of our analysis. ... Ignoring them can
lead to skewed or biased data, and so they must often be corrected for in
a final analysis.

A concomitant variable (sometimes called a “covariate”) is a variable

that is not of primary interest in a study, but nonetheless may have some
interaction with the variable(s) of interest being studied.

Not accounting for these types of variables can lead to biased or

misleading results in an analysis, so it’s important to deal with them
when possible.

Example 1

Researchers want to understand the relationship between population

density and ice cream sales. However, a concomitant variable that likely
affects ice cream sales is weather.

EXTRANEOUS VARIABLE
In an experiment, an extraneous variable is any variable that you’re not
investigating that can potentially affect the outcomes of your research
study.

If left uncontrolled, extraneous variables can lead to inaccurate

conclusions about the relationship between independent and dependent
variables.
Why do extraneous variables matter?
Extraneous variables can threaten the internal validity of your study by
providing alternative explanations for your results.

In an experiment, you manipulate an independent variable to study its

effects on a dependent variable.

Example: Experimental studyIn a study on mental performance, you test

whether wearing a white lab coat, your independent variable, improves
scientific reasoning, your dependent variable.
You recruit students from a university to participate in the study. You
manipulate the independent variable by splitting participants into two
groups:

 Participants in the experimental group are asked to wear a lab

coat during the study.
 Participants in the control group are asked to wear a casual coat
during the study.

TREATMENT
In an experiment, the factor (also called an independent variable) is an
explanatory variable manipulated by the experimenter. Each factor has
two or more levels, i.e., different values of the factor. Combinations of
factor levels are called treatments.

CONTROL GROUP
The control group is composed of participants who do not receive the
experimental treatment. When conducting an experiment, these people
are randomly assigned to be in this group. They also closely resemble
the participants who are in the experimental group or the individuals
who receive the treatment.

Control group, the standard to which comparisons are made in an

experiment. Many experiments are designed to include a control group
and one or more experimental groups; in fact, some scholars reserve the
term experiment for study designs that include a control group. Ideally,
the control group and the experimental groups are identical in every way
except that the experimental groups are subjected to treatments or
interventions believed to have an effect on the outcome of interest while
the control group is not.