UNIT 1 – RESEARCH DESIGN

1.1 Overview of Research process and design

Research Design: What it is, Elements & Types

What is Research Design?

Research design is the framework of research methods and techniques
chosen by a researcher to conduct a study. The design allows researchers to
sharpen the research methods suitable for the subject matter and set up their studies
for success.

Creating a research topic explains the type of research (experimental, survey

research, correlational, semi-experimental, review) and its sub-type (experimental
design, research problem, descriptive case-study).

There are three main types of designs for research:

• Data collection
• Measurement
• Analysis
The research problem an organization faces will determine the design, not vice-
versa. The design phase of a study determines which tools to use and how they are
used.
Research Design Elements
Impactful research usually creates a minimum bias in data and increases trust in the
accuracy of collected data. A design that produces the slightest margin of error in
experimental research is generally considered the desired outcome. The essential
elements are:

1. Accurate purpose statement

2. Techniques to be implemented for collecting and analyzing research
3. The method applied for analyzing collected details
4. Type of research methodology
5. Probable objections to research
6. Settings for the research study
7. Timeline
8. Measurement of analysis

Characteristics of Research Design

A proper design sets your study up for success. Successful research studies provide
insights that are accurate and unbiased. You’ll need to create a survey that meets
all of the main characteristics of a design. There are four key characteristics:

• Neutrality: When you set up your study, you may have to make
assumptions about the data you expect to collect. The results projected in
the research should be free from bias and neutral. Understand opinions
about the final evaluated scores and conclusions from multiple individuals
and consider those who agree with the results.
• Reliability: With regularly conducted research, the researcher expects
similar results every time. You’ll only be able to reach the desired results
 if your design is reliable. Your plan should indicate how to form
research questions to ensure the standard of results.
• Validity: There are multiple measuring tools available. However, the only
correct measuring tools are those which help a researcher in gauging
results according to the objective of the research.
The questionnaire developed from this design will then be valid.
• Generalization: The outcome of your design should apply to a population
and not just a restricted sample. A generalized method implies that your
survey can be conducted on any part of a population with similar
accuracy.
The above factors affect how respondents answer the research questions, so they
should balance all the above characteristics in a good design.

Research Design Types

A researcher must clearly understand the various research design types to select
which model to implement for a study. Like research itself, the design of your
analysis can be broadly classified into quantitative and qualitative.

• Qualitative research
It determines relationships between collected data and observations based on
mathematical calculations. Statistical methods can prove or disprove theories
related to a naturally existing phenomenon. Researchers rely on qualitative
research methods that conclude “why” a particular theory exists and “what”
respondents have to say about it.

• Quantitative research
It is for cases where statistical conclusions to collect actionable insights are
essential. Numbers provide a better perspective for making critical business
decisions. Quantitative research methods are necessary for the growth of any
organization. Insights drawn from complex numerical data and analysis prove to be
highly effective when making decisions about the business’s future.

You can further break down the types of research design into five categories:
1. Descriptive: In a descriptive composition, a researcher is solely interested in
describing the situation or case under their research study. It is a theory-based
design method created by gathering, analyzing, and presenting collected data. This
allows a researcher to provide insights into the why and how of research.
Descriptive design helps others better understand the need for the research. If the
problem statement is not clear, you can conduct exploratory research.

2. Experimental: Experimental research establishes a relationship between the

cause and effect of a situation. It is a causal design where one observes the impact
caused by the independent variable on the dependent variable. For example, one
monitors the influence of an independent variable such as a price on a dependent
variable such as customer satisfaction or brand loyalty. It is an efficient research
method as it contributes to solving a problem.

The independent variables are manipulated to monitor the change it has on the
dependent variable. Social sciences often use it to observe human behavior by
analyzing two groups. Researchers can have participants change their actions and
study how the people around them react to understand social psychology better.

3. Correlational research: Correlational research is a non-experimental

research technique. It helps researchers establish a relationship between two
closely connected variables. There is no assumption while evaluating a relationship
between two other variables, and statistical analysis techniques calculate the
relationship between them. This type of research requires two different groups.

A correlation coefficient determines the correlation between two variables whose

values range between -1 and +1. If the correlation coefficient is towards +1, it
indicates a positive relationship between the variables, and -1 means a negative
relationship between the two variables.

4. Diagnostic research: In diagnostic design, the researcher is looking to evaluate

the underlying cause of a specific topic or phenomenon. This method helps one
learn more about the factors that create troublesome situations.

This design has three parts of the research:

• Inception of the issue

• Diagnosis of the issue
• Solution for the issue
5. Explanatory research: Explanatory design uses a researcher’s ideas and
thoughts on a subject to further explore their theories. The study explains
unexplored aspects of a subject and details the research questions’ what, how, and
why.

1.2 Use of Secondary and Exploratory data to

answer the research question

What is Secondary Data Analysis?

Secondary data analysis involves a researcher using the information that someone
else has gathered for his or her own purposes. Researchers leverage secondary data
analysis in an attempt to answer a new research question, or to examine an alternative
perspective on the original question of a previous study.

In order to fully understand secondary data analysis, it’s essential to familiarize

yourself with the difference between primary and secondary data.

Primary Data vs. Secondary Data

Primary data is original data that researchers collect for a specific purpose.
Secondary data, on the other hand, is collected for a different purpose other than the
one for which it is used.

To add context to the definition of secondary data, let’s consider an example.

If an entrepreneur is considering opening a new business, he or she could leverage

census data that has been collected by the government.

Although the entrepreneur would not be collecting the data his or herself, census
data includes information that could greatly benefit the entrepreneur, such as the
average age, household income and education level in a particular geographical
region.

By digging into this census data to inform the decision of whether or not the
entrepreneur should open the new business, the entrepreneur is performing
secondary data analysis.

Factors to Consider Before Conducting Secondary Data Analysis

There are certain factors that a researcher must consider before deciding to move
forward with secondary data analysis.

Because the researcher did not collect the data that he or she will be working with,
it’s imperative for him or her to become familiar with the data set. This
familiarization process entails:

• Learning about how the data was collected

• Learning who the population of the study was
• Learning what the objective of the original study was
• Determining what the response categories were for each question displayed
to survey respondents
• Evaluating whether or not weights need to be applied during the analysis of
the data
• Deciding whether or not clusters or stratification need to be accounted for
during the analysis of the data
The Advantages of Secondary Data Analysis

One of the most noticeable advantages of using secondary data analysis is its cost
effectiveness.

Because someone else has already collected the data, the researcher does not need
to invest any money, time, or effort into the data collection stages of his or her
study.

While sometimes secondary data must be purchased by a researcher looking to use

it to inform a study they’re working on, these costs are almost always lower than
what the expenses would be if the researcher were to create the same data set from
scratch.

Also, the data from a secondary data set is typically already cleaned and stored in an
electronic format, so the researcher can spend his or her time rolling up their sleeves
and analyzing the data instead of spending time having to prepare the data for
analysis.

Another benefit of analyzing secondary data instead of collecting and analyzing

primary data is the sheer volume and breadth of data that is publicly available today.

For instance, leveraging the findings from studies that the government has conducted
provides researchers with access to a volume of data that would have simply been
impossible for the researcher to amass themselves.

Longitudinal data at this scale is extremely powerful. The government could have
been collecting data on a single population for long, extended periods of time.

Instead of investing that time, by using the government’s publically available data
to perform secondary data analysis, the researcher has avoided years of intensive
labor.

The Disadvantages of Secondary Data Analysis

The biggest disadvantage of performing secondary data analysis is that the

secondary data set might not answer the researcher’s specific research question to
the degree that the research would have hoped.
If a researcher sets out to perform a study with a very particular question in mind, a
secondary data set might not contain the precisely specific information that would
allow the researcher to answer his or her question.

Similarly, when a researcher has a specific question or goal in mind, it can

sometimes be difficult to identify secondary data that is valid for use, as the data
might not have been collected during the timeframe the researcher was hoping for,
or in correct the geographical region, etc.

Another disadvantage is that no matter what a researcher does to vet a secondary

data set, they will never be able to know exactly how the data was collected, and
how well that process was executed.

Without being the one who is actually developing surveys and distributing them to
the appropriate populations, it’s impossible to know the extent to which the
researchers that collected the data went to ensure validity or quality, or if they
experienced issues such as low response rates or respondents misunderstanding what
a question was truly asking.

Simply put, since the researcher conducting the study did not collect the data he or
she will be using, he or she ultimately has no control over what their secondary data
set contains.

Conclusion

Secondary data analysis is a convenient and powerful tool for researchers looking to
ask broad questions at a large scale.

While it has its benefits, such as its cost effectiveness and the breadth and depth of
data that it provides access to, secondary data analysis can also force researchers to
alter their original question, or work with a data set that otherwise is not ideal for
their goals.

The next time you’re looking to perform a large-scale research study, consider
secondary data analysis.

Research is a continuous process that needs improvement as time goes by, and
as such is non-exhaustive. Although, a lot of researchers working on novel
projects, most researchers work on existing theories or formulations and build
on them.
Researchers may decide to work on a problem that has not been studied very
clearly to establish priorities, develop operational definitions and improving
the final research design. This type of research is what is called exploratory
research.

What is Exploratory Research

Exploratory research is the process of investigating a problem that has not been
studied or thoroughly investigated in the past . Exploratory type of research is
usually conducted to have a better understanding of the existing problem, but
usually doesn’t lead to a conclusive result.

Researchers use exploratory research when trying to gain familiarity with an

existing phenomenon and acquire new insight into it to form a more precise
problem. It begins based on a general idea and the outcomes of the research
are used to find out related issues with the topic of the research.

In exploratory research, the process of the research varies according to the

finding of new data or insight. Also referred to as interpretative research or
grounded theory approach, the outcomes of this research provide answers to
questions like what, how and why.

Characteristics of Exploratory Research

• Exploratory research is inexpensive, highly interactive and open-

ended in nature.
• There is usually no prior relevant information available from past
researchers.
• It has no predefined structure.
• It answers questions like how and why aiding the researcher to acquire
more information about the research.
• The absence of relevant information from past research means the
researcher will spend a lot of time studying materials in detail.
Therefore, spending so much time conducting exploratory research.
• Since there is no standard for carrying out exploratory research, it is
usually flexible and scattered.
• There must a few theories which can verify your outcome.
• Researchers cannot form a conclusion based on exploratory research.
• The research problem must be important and valuable
• Exploratory research mostly deals with qualitative data.
Exploratory Research Methods

There are several exploratory research methods available for data gathering
and research. However, exploratory research has been classified into two main
methods, namely the primary and secondary research methods. The process of
conducting research tends to be more difficult when dealing with a problem
that hasn’t been deeply investigated before.
Primary Research Methods

In primary research methods, data is collected directly from the subject of

investigation. The subject, in this case, maybe a group of people or an
individual.

It doesn’t matter whether the data is collected by the researcher himself or

through a third party, the main purpose of the research should be fulfilled. The
purpose of conducting this research is to collect information about the problem
which requires in-depth analysis.

Some of the primary research methods used in exploratory research include:

• Observations

In this primary research method, the researcher does not come in close contact
with the subject. Rather, the subject is being watched from afar. Subject
observation can be done in two ways.

The first is that the subject is aware that he/she is being observed while the
second way is that the subject is not aware of it. The latter method is said to
gather fairer data because the subject may behave differently when he/she is
aware that (s)he is being watched.

• Surveys

Surveys are used to collect data from a predefined subject(s). It can be used
collected to study trends, opinions, and behaviour of a group of people.

Online form builders like Formplus have made it easier to conduct surveys
online and reach diverse demography of participants from all over the world.
Although, rarely in use these days, researchers can also conduct offline
surveys.

• Interviews

Although more stressful and time-consuming than others, the interview

technique is the best in terms of collecting detailed and correct data. Interviews
can be conducted in person, via phone call or video call.

Interviews can also be recorded by the researcher in case he/she needs to go

back to it and confirm specific information.
 • Focus Groups

Focus group is often used by researchers when trying to collect data from a
group of people with similar characteristics. The research can be done using
any of the three methods explained above.

For example, a focus group of fresh graduates may be investigated on how

they spend their time.

Secondary Research Methods

Secondary research method uses existing resources on the subject under study.
Existing sources like newspapers, magazines, articles, papers, etc. are what
researchers conduct for exploratory research.

All the resources used must be cited in publications. Some of the secondary
research methods used in exploratory research include:

• Literature

Literature research is the process of conducting old resources like publications,

textbooks, articles, magazines, etc. All this information can be gathered in both
sift copy and hard copy documents.

For example, an undergraduate student conducting his/her final project

research will need to conduct textbooks, publications, papers, articles, etc.

• Online Sources

With the advent of technology, this research has gained much popularity
among millennials. Online research sources are the cheapest and easiest
method of research.

With access to the internet and a personal computer or mobile phone, a

researcher can browse through as many resources as possible. They can also
be downloaded for further use in the future.

The setback of this method is the difficulty of combing through the many
online resources to find genuine information. Researchers face the possibility
of ending up with incorrect data because false information may be difficult to
identify.
 • Case Study

A researcher might find relevant information on the problem under study by

studying existing cases. For example, a mathematician trying to formulate a
model to solve the queuing problem in an airport may conduct existing
research in similar areas.

A case study could be research that solved the queuing problem in a shopping
mall. This research will be studied and modified to suit that of the airport
queuing problem.

A researcher may decide to get more creative by using informal sources like
email newsletter subscription, RSS feeds, google alerts, google trends or even
design a bot that combs through the large repository of data online.

How To Conduct Exploratory Research

Step 1 – Identify the problem

This is a common starting point for all types of research. Here, the researcher
identifies the purpose of the research by answering the “what question”.For
example, when investigating a crime scene, the FBI needs to first identify what
happened. Was it theft, murder or a case of child abuse?

Step 2 – Create the hypothesis

After identifying the problem, the researcher goes ahead to check whether
there have been prior investigations regarding the subject matter. But when the
researcher realizes that there are no previous investigations, he/she arrives at a
hypothesis based on the questions obtained while identifying the problem.

If you are investigating a crime scene, an autopsy will be performed on the

dead body to answer how he/she was killed. Questions like, Was he in a gang?,
Fighting over a business deal? or very rich? will answer the question of why he
was killed.

With this information, the investigator can arrive at a hypothesis.

Step 3 – Conduct further research

To conduct further research, the researcher needs to first obtain relevant data
that will assist in the research process. Some of the methods of collecting data
include interviews, surveys, online sources, etc.
Once the data has been collected, the researcher will continue the investigation
through descriptive methods. This process uses qualitative data.

Examples of Exploratory Research

In this section, we shall be considering three examples of exploratory research
and will be going through the research process as explained above.

Exploratory Research Example on Murder Investigation

A fresh or inconclusive murder case will be investigated using exploratory

research because it has not been investigated clearly in the past. To gain a
better understanding of how exploratory research is used to conduct a murder
investigation, let us review this popular crime movie titled Murder on the
Orient Express.

Adapted from Agatha Christie’s novel, we see in this movie that the first thing
detective Hercule Poirot did was to identify the problem which is the murder
of Ratchett. After that was the question of how he was killed.

The how consists of the murder weapon, how it was used, the time he was
murdered, etc. The last piece of information the detective needed to nail the
culprit was the why.

By discovering why Ratchett was murdered, the detective can easily arrive at
a hypothesis on who the murderer is. In the search for why the detective used
a primary research approach to collect relevant data that will aid the
investigation.

When an avalanche stops the Orient Express dead in its tracks, the world’s
greatest detective–Hercule Poirot–arrives to interrogate all passengers and
search for clues before the killer can strike again. After a series of interviews,
the detective was able to arrive at a hypothesis on who the killer was.

The results of any criminal investigation will remain a hypothesis until tried
under a court which will either confirm or nullify the hypothesis. The evidence
acquired during the investigation is what will assist the court in making a
decision.
Exploratory Research Example on Product Research

Organizations conduct two major research when working on a new product or

service. The first one is conducted before developing the product while the
second one is conducted after product development.

Our focus will be on the exploratory research conducted after product

development. For tech products, it is called the beta testing stage of product
development.

If a new feature is added to an existing app, for example, product researchers

will want to investigate whether the feature will be well received among the
users. If the feature added to the app is something that is already in existence,
then the research is not exploratory.

For example, if telegram adds a status feature to its app, the beta research stage
of the app is not exploratory. This is because this feature is something that is
already in existence, and they can easily get enough information from
WhatsApp.

However, if it is a new feature like the Snapchat filters when they just came
out, the research is explanatory. In this case, exploratory research is carried out
using a focus group of beta testers.

Trend Analysis

A good example of trend analysis research is studying the relationship between

an increased rate of charity and crime rate in a community. Will giving food,
clothes, etc. to the people in a community help decrease the rate at which
people steal?

This exploratory research may be conducted through observations. A sample

crime laden community will be given charity for a certain period, while the
crime rate during this period will be observed.

This kind of research is better carried out when the subject is not aware they
are under observation. An alternative to this approach is using the case study
method.

Although this research may not have been done in this specific community,
something similar may have been done in the past. If that is the case, the
research can be easily carried out by investigating the case study to get relevant
information.
This will make the research process easier and a hypothesis easier to come by.

How to use Formplus for Exploratory Surveys

Start creating exploratory surveys with Formplus in three easy steps.

Step 1: Register or Sign up

• Visit www.formpl.us on your desktop or mobile device.

• Sign up through your Email, Google or Facebook in less than 30
seconds.

Step 2: Create Your Exploratory Survey

We will be creating a product research exploratory survey in this guide.

Consider a software company that just added some new features to their app.
The app is currently in the beta testing stage and they are taking an exploratory
survey to get feedback from the beta testers.
Radio Choice Multiple Choice Question

• Click on the Choice Options section of the form builder menu.

• Create Radio multiple choice questions by clicking on the radio tab.
• Edit the question with your preferred stem and choice options.
Open-Ended Question

• Click on the Inputs section of the form builder menu.

• Create a short text open-ended question by clicking on the Short Text
tab.

• Edit the label and placeholder text as preferred.

Checkbox Multiple Choice Question

• Click on the Choice Options section of the form builder menu.

• Create a checkbox multiple choice question by clicking on the radio tab.
• Edit the question with your preferred stem and choice options.
Matrix Rating Multiple Choice Question

• Click on the Ratings section of the form builder menu.

• Create a matrix rating by clicking on the Matrix tab.
• Edit the table as preferred.
• Save your exploratory survey.
You can also add more questions as preferred.

Step 3: Customise and Share

This is the final stage where you customise your form and start sharing with
respondents.

Feel free to customise your forms as you please. You can also add logic in the
settings before sharing.

• Copy the link or click on the “Preview Form” button to see how your
form looks like.

Advantages of Exploratory Research

• Exploratory research is inexpensive to perform, especially when using
the second method for research.
• Exploratory does not have a standard process and as such is very
flexible.
• Information gathered from exploratory research is very useful as it helps
lay the foundation for future research.
• It gives researchers more insight into the problem under study.
• Researchers don’t have to waste time conducting irrelevant research
when using an exploratory approach. It helps the researcher if the topic
is worth investigating at an early stage.

Disadvantages of Exploratory Research

• It produces an inconclusive result.
• Exploratory research provides qualitative data, which may be difficult
to interpret. The interpretation of qualitative data may be bias and/or
judgemental.
• Many of the data collected through secondary sources may be old and
outdated.
• If collected through online sources, the researcher may be prone to
collecting false information.
• Exploratory research mostly involves a smaller sample whose result may
be incorrect for a larger population.

Conclusion
Research is built on the incredible inquisitive and resourceful minds of
researchers and the urge to solve problems. This stems from the child-like
tendency to frequently ask questions like what, why and how—a trademark of
exploratory research.

Exploratory research is one of the three main objectives of market research,

with the other two being descriptive research and causal research. It is
commonly used for various applied research projects.

Applied research is often exploratory because there is a need for flexibility in

approaching the problem. Also, there are often data limitations and a need to
decide within a short period.

1.3 Qualitative Research: Definition, Types, Methods and

Examples

What is qualitative research?

Qualitative research is defined as a market research method that focuses on
obtaining data through open-ended and conversational communication.

This method is not only about “what” people think but also “why” they think so. For
example, consider a convenience store looking to improve its patronage. A
systematic observation concludes that the number of men visiting this store are more.
One good method to determine why women were not visiting the store is to conduct
an in-depth interview of potential customers in the category.
For example, on successfully interviewing female customers, visiting the nearby
stores and malls, and selecting them through random sampling, it was known that
the store doesn’t have enough items for women and so there were fewer women
visiting the store, which was understood only by personally interacting with them
and understanding why they didn’t visit the store, because there were more male
products than female ones.

Qualitative research is based on the disciplines of social sciences like psychology,

sociology, and anthropology. Therefore, the qualitative research methods allow for
in-depth and further probing and questioning of respondents based on their
responses, where the interviewer/researcher also tries to understand their motivation
and feelings. Understanding how your audience takes decisions can help derive
conclusions in market research.

Types of qualitative research methods with examples

Qualitative research methods are designed in a manner that help reveal the behavior
and perception of a target audience with reference to a particular topic. There are
different types of qualitative research methods like an in-depth interview, focus
groups, ethnographic research, content analysis, case study research that are usually
used.

The results of qualitative methods are more descriptive and the inferences can be
drawn quite easily from the data that is obtained.

Qualitative research methods originated in the social and behavioral sciences. Today
our world is more complicated and it is difficult to understand what people think and
perceive. Online qualitative research methods make it easier to understand that as it
is more communicative and descriptive.

The following are the qualitative research methods that are frequently used. Also,
read about qualitative research examples:
1. One-on-one interview:

Conducting in-depth interviews is one of the most common qualitative research

methods. It is a personal interview that is carried out with one respondent at a time.
This is purely a conversational method and invites opportunities to get details in
depth from the respondent.

One of the advantages of this method provides a great opportunity to gather precise
data about what people believe and what their motivations are. If the researcher is
well experienced asking the right questions can help him/her collect meaningful
data. If they should need more information the researchers should ask such follow
up questions that will help them collect more information.

These interviews can be performed face-to-face or on phone and usually can last
between half an hour to two hours or even more. When the in-depth interview is
conducted face to face it gives a better opportunity to read the body language of the
respondents and match the responses.
2. Focus groups:

A focus group is also one of the commonly used qualitative research methods, used
in data collection. A focus group usually includes a limited number of respondents
(6-10) from within your target market.

The main aim of the focus group is to find answers to the “why” “what” and “how”
questions. One advantage of focus groups is, you don’t necessarily need to interact
with the group in person. Nowadays focus groups can be sent an online survey on
various devices and responses can be collected at the click of a button.

Focus groups are an expensive method as compared to the other online qualitative
research methods. Typically they are used to explain complex processes. This
method is very useful when it comes to market research on new products and testing
new concepts.

3. Ethnographic research:

Ethnographic research is the most in-depth observational method that studies people
in their naturally occurring environment.

This method requires the researchers to adapt to the target audiences’ environments
which could be anywhere from an organization to a city or any remote location. Here
geographical constraints can be an issue while collecting data.

This research design aims to understand the cultures, challenges, motivations, and
settings that occur. Instead of relying on interviews and discussions, you experience
the natural settings first hand.

This type of research method can last from a few days to a few years, as it involves
in-depth observation and collecting data on those grounds. It’s a challenging and a
time-consuming method and solely depends on the expertise of the researcher to be
able to analyze, observe and infer the data.

4. Case study research:

The case study method has evolved over the past few years and developed into a
valuable qualitative research method. As the name suggests it is used for explaining
an organization or an entity.

This type of research method is used within a number of areas like education, social
sciences and similar. This method may look difficult to operate, however, it is one
of the simplest ways of conducting research as it involves a deep dive and thorough
understanding of the data collection methods and inferring the data.

5. Record keeping:

This method makes use of the already existing reliable documents and similar
sources of information as the data source. This data can be used in new research.
This is similar to going to a library. There one can go over books and other reference
material to collect relevant data that can likely be used in the research.

6. Process of observation:

Qualitative Observation is a process of research that uses subjective methodologies

to gather systematic information or data. Since, the focus on qualitative observation
is the research process of using subjective methodologies to gather information or
data. Qualitative observation is primarily used to equate quality differences.

Qualitative observation deals with the 5 major sensory organs and their functioning
– sight, smell, touch, taste, and hearing. This doesn’t involve measurements or
numbers but instead characteristics.

Qualitative research: data collection and analysis

A. Qualitative data collection

Qualitative data collection allows collecting data that is non-numeric and helps us to
explore how decisions are made and provide us with detailed insight. For reaching
such conclusions the data that is collected should be holistic, rich, and nuanced and
findings to emerge through careful analysis.

1. Whatever method a researcher chooses for collecting qualitative data, one

aspect is very clear the process will generate a large amount of data. In
addition to the variety of methods available, there are also different methods
of collecting and recording the data.
For example, if the qualitative data is collected through a focus group or one-to-one
discussion, there will be handwritten notes or video recorded tapes. If there are
recording they should be transcribed and before the process of data analysis can
begin.

2. As a rough guide, it can take a seasoned researcher 8-10 hours to transcribe

the recordings of an interview, which can generate roughly 20-30 pages of dialogues.
Many researchers also like to maintain separate folders to maintain the recording
collected from the different focus group. This helps them compartmentalize the data
collected.
3. In case there are running notes taken, which are also known as field notes,
they are helpful in maintaining comments, environmental
contexts, environmental analysis, nonverbal cues etc. These filed notes are
helpful and can be compared while transcribing audio recorded data. Such
notes are usually informal but should be secured in a similar manner as the
video recordings or the audio tapes.
B. Qualitative data analysis

Qualitative data analysis such as notes, videos, audio recordings images, and text
documents. One of the most used methods for qualitative data analysis is text
analysis.

Text analysis is a data analysis method that is distinctly different from all other
qualitative research methods, where researchers analyze the social life of the
participants in the research study and decode the words, actions, etc.

There are images also that are used in this research study and the researchers analyze
the context in which the images are used and draw inferences from them. In the last
decade, text analysis through what is shared on social media platforms has gained
supreme popularity.

Characteristics of qualitative research methods

 1. Qualitative research methods usually collect data at the sight, where the
participants are experiencing issues or problems. These are real-time data
and rarely bring the participants out of the geographic locations to collect
information.
2. Qualitative researchers typically gather multiple forms of data, such as
interviews, observations, and documents, rather than rely on a single data
source.
3. This type of research method works towards solving complex issues by
breaking down into meaningful inferences, that is easily readable and
understood by all.
4. Since it’s a more communicative method, people can build their trust on the
researcher and the information thus obtained is raw and unadulterated.

Qualitative research method case study

Let’s take the example of a bookstore owner who is looking for ways to improve
their sales and customer outreach. An online community of members who were the
loyal patrons of the bookstore were interviewed and related questions were asked
and the questions were answered by them.

At the end of the interview, it was realized that most of the books in the stores were
suitable for adults and there were not enough options for children or teenagers.

By conducting this qualitative research the bookstore owner realized what the
shortcomings were and what were the feelings of the readers. Through this research
now the bookstore owner can now keep books for different age categories and can
improve his sales and customer outreach.

Such qualitative research method examples can serve as the basis to indulge in
further quantitative research, which provides remedies.

When to use qualitative research

Researchers make use of qualitative research techniques when they need to capture
accurate, in-depth insights. It is very useful to capture “factual data”. Here are some
examples of when to use qualitative research.

• Developing a new product or generating an idea.

• Studying your product/brand or service to strengthen your marketing strategy.
• To understand your strengths and weaknesses.
• Understanding purchase behavior.
• To study the reactions of your audience to marketing campaigns and other
communications.
• Exploring market demographics, segments, and customer care groups.
 • Gathering perception data of a brand, company, or product.

Qualitative research methods vs quantitative research methods

The basic differences between qualitative research methods and quantitative
research methods are simple and straightforward. They differ in:

• Theiranalytical objectives
• Types of questions asked
• Types of data collection instruments
• Forms of data they produce
• Degree of flexibility

Attributes Qualitative research methods Quantitative research methods

This research method focuses on

Analytical Quantitative research method focuses on
describing individual experiences
objectives describing the characteristics of a population.
and beliefs.

Types of
questions Open-ended questions Closed-ended questions
asked

Data Use semi-structured methods such

Use highly structured methods such as structured
collection as in-depth interviews, focus
observation using questionnaires and surveys
Instrument groups, and participant observation

Form of data
Descriptive data Numerical data
produced

Participant responses affect how and Participant responses do not influence or

Degree of
which questions researchers ask determine how and which questions researchers
flexibility
next ask next
1.4 OBSERVATION STUDIES
Most people think of a traditional experimental design when they consider research and
published research papers. There is, however, a type of research that is more observational in
nature, and it is appropriately referred to as “observational studies.”

There are many valuable reasons to utilize an observational study design. But, just as
in research experimental design, different methods can be used when you’re considering this
type of study. In this article, we’ll look at the advantages and disadvantages of an observational
study design, as well as the 3 types of observational studies.

What is Observational Study Design?

An observational study is when researchers are looking at the effect of some type of
intervention, risk, a diagnostic test or treatment, without trying to manipulate who is, or who
isn’t, exposed to it.

This differs from an experimental study, where the scientists are manipulating who is
exposed to the treatment, intervention, etc., by having a control group, or those who are not
exposed, and an experimental group, or those who are exposed to the intervention, treatment,
etc. In the best studies, the groups are randomized, or chosen by chance.

Any evidence derived from systematic reviews is considered the best in the hierarchy
of evidence, which considers which studies are deemed the most reliable. Next would be any
evidence that comes from randomized controlled trials. Cohort studies and case studies follow,
in that order.

Cohort studies and case studies are considered observational in design, whereas the randomized
controlled trial would be an experimental study.

The 3 types of Observational Studies

The different types of observational studies are used for different reasons. Selecting the best
type for your research is critical to a successful outcome. One of the main reasons observational
studies are used is when a randomized experiment would be considered unethical. For example,
a life-saving medication used in a public health emergency. They are also used when looking
at aetiology, or the cause of a condition or disease, as well as the treatment of rare conditions.

Case Control Observational Study

Researchers in case control studies identify individuals with an existing health issue or
condition, or “cases,” along with a similar group without the condition, or “controls.” These
two groups are then compared to identify predictors and outcomes. This type of study is helpful
to generate a hypothesis that can then be researched.

Cohort Observational Study

This type of observational study is often used to help understand cause and effect. A cohort
observational study looks at causes, incidence and prognosis, for example. A cohort is a group
of people who are linked in a particular way, for example, a birth cohort would include people
who were born within a specific period of time. Scientists might compare what happens to the
members of the cohort who have been exposed to some variable to what occurs with members
of the cohort who haven’t been exposed.

Cross Sectional Observational Study

Unlike a cohort observational study, a cross sectional observational study does not explore
cause and effect, but instead looks at prevalence. Here you would look at data from a particular
group at one very specific period of time. Researchers would simply observe and record
information about something present in the population, without manipulating any variables or
interventions. These types of studies are commonly used in psychology, education and social
science.

Cohort, cross sectional, and case-control studies are often referred to as observational studies
because the investigator simply observes. No interventions are carried out by the investigator.
With the recent emphasis on evidence based medicine and the formation of the Cochrane
Database of randomised controlled trials, such studies have been somewhat glibly maligned.
However, they remain important because many questions can be efficiently answered by these
methods and sometimes they are the only methods available.

The objective of most clinical studies is to determine one of the following—prevalence,

incidence, cause, prognosis, or effect of treatment; it is therefore useful to remember which
type of study is most commonly associated with each objective (table 1)

Table 1

While an appropriate choice of study design is vital, it is not sufficient. The hallmark of good
research is the rigor with which it is conducted. A checklist of the key points in any study
irrespective of the basic design is given in box 1.

Study purpose

The aim of the study should be clearly stated.

Sample

The sample should accurately reflect the population from which it is drawn.

The source of the sample should be stated.

The sampling method should be described and the sample size should be justified.

Entry criteria and exclusions should be stated and justified.

The number of patients lost to follow up should be stated and explanations given.

Control group

The control group should be easily identifiable.

The source of the controls should be explained—are they from the same population as the
sample?

Are the controls matched or randomised—to minimise bias and confounding.

Quality of measurements and outcomes

Validity—are the measurements used regarded as valid by other investigators?

Reproducibility—can the results be repeated or is there a reason to suspect they may be a “one
off”?

Blinded—were the investigators or subjects aware of their subject/control allocation?

Quality control—has the methodology been rigorously adhered to?

Completeness

Compliance—did all patients comply with the study?

Drop outs—how many failed to complete the study?

Deaths

Missing data—how much are unavailable and why?

Distorting influences

Extraneous treatments—other interventions that may have affected some but not all of the
subjects.

Confounding factors—Are there other variables that might influence the results?

Appropriate analysis—Have appropriate statistical tests been used?

Validity

All studies should be internally valid. That is, the conclusions can be logically drawn from the
results produced by an appropriate methodology. For a study to be regarded as valid it must be
shown that it has indeed demonstrated what it says it has. A study that is not internally valid
should not be published because the findings cannot be accepted.

The question of external validity relates to the value of the results of the study to other
populations—that is, the generalisability of the results. For example, a study showing that 80%
of the Swedish population has blond hair, might be used to make a sensible prediction of the
incidence of blond hair in other Scandinavian countries, but would be invalid if applied to most
other populations.

Every published study should contain sufficient information to allow the reader to analyse the
data with reference to these key points.
In this article each of the three important observational research methods will be discussed with
emphasis on their strengths and weaknesses. In so doing it should become apparent why a given
study used a particular research method and which method might best answer a particular
clinical problem.

COHORT STUDIES

These are the best method for determining the incidence and natural history of a condition. The
studies may be prospective or retrospective and sometimes two cohorts are compared.

Prospective cohort studies

A group of people is chosen who do not have the outcome of interest (for example, myocardial
infarction). The investigator then measures a variety of variables that might be relevant to the
development of the condition. Over a period of time the people in the sample are observed to
see whether they develop the outcome of interest (that is, myocardial infarction).

In single cohort studies those people who do not develop the outcome of interest are used as
internal controls.

Where two cohorts are used, one group has been exposed to or treated with the agent of interest
and the other has not, thereby acting as an external control.

Retrospective cohort studies

These use data already collected for other purposes. The methodology is the same but the study
is performed posthoc. The cohort is “followed up” retrospectively. The study period may be
many years but the time to complete the study is only as long as it takes to collate and analyse
the data.

Advantages and disadvantages

The use of cohorts is often mandatory as a randomised controlled trial may be unethical; for
example, you cannot deliberately expose people to cigarette smoke or asbestos. Thus research
on risk factors relies heavily on cohort studies.

As cohort studies measure potential causes before the outcome has occurred the study can
demonstrate that these “causes” preceded the outcome, thereby avoiding the debate as to which
is cause and which is effect.

A further advantage is that a single study can examine various outcome variables. For example,
cohort studies of smokers can simultaneously look at deaths from lung, cardiovascular, and
cerebrovascular disease. This contrasts with case-control studies as they assess only one
outcome variable (that is, whatever outcome the cases have entered the study with).

Cohorts permit calculation of the effect of each variable on the probability of developing the
outcome of interest (relative risk). However, where a certain outcome is rare then a prospective
cohort study is inefficient. For example, studying 100 A&E attenders with minor injuries for
the outcome of diabetes mellitus will probably produce only one patient with the outcome of
interest. The efficiency of a prospective cohort study increases as the incidence of any
particular outcome increases. Thus a study of patients with a diagnosis of deliberate self harm
in the 12 months after initial presentation would be efficiently studied using a cohort design.

Another problem with prospective cohort studies is the loss of some subjects to follow up.
This can significantly affect the outcome. Taking incidence analysis as an example (incidence
= cases/per period of time), it can be seen that the loss of a few cases will seriously affect the
numerator and hence the calculated incidence. The rarer the condition the more significant this
effect.

Retrospective studies are much cheaper as the data have already been collected. One
advantage of such a study design is the lack of bias because the outcome of current interest was
not the original reason for the data to be collected. However, because the cohort was originally
constructed for another purpose it is unlikely that all the relevant information will have been
rigorously collected.

Retrospective cohorts also suffer the disadvantage that people with the outcome of interest are
more likely to remember certain antecedents, or exaggerate or minimise what they now
consider to be risk factors (recall bias).

Where two cohorts are compared one will have been exposed to the agent of interest and one
will not. The major disadvantage is the inability to control for all other factors that might differ
between the two groups. These factors are known as confounding variables.

A confounding variable is independently associated with both the variable of interest and the
outcome of interest. For example, lung cancer (outcome) is less common in people with asthma
(variable). However, it is unlikely that asthma in itself confers any protection against lung
cancer. It is more probable that the incidence of lung cancer is lower in people with asthma
because fewer asthmatics smoke cigarettes (confounding variable). There are a virtually
infinite number of potential confounding variables that, however unlikely, could just explain
the result. In the past this has been used to suggest that there is a genetic influence that makes
people want to smoke and also predisposes them to cancer.

The only way to eliminate all possibility of a confounding variable is via a prospective
randomised controlled study. In this type of study each type of exposure is assigned by chance
and so confounding variables should be present in equal numbers in both groups.

Finally, problems can arise as a result of bias. Bias can occur in any research and reflects the
potential that the sample studied is not representative of the population it was drawn from
and/or the population at large. A classic example is using employed people, as employment is
itself associated with generally better health than unemployed people. Similarly people who
respond to questionnaires tend to be fitter and more motivated than those who do not. People
attending A&E departments should not be presumed to be representative of the population at
large.

How to run a cohort study

If the data are readily available then a retrospective design is the quickest method. If high
quality, reliable data are not available a prospective study will be required.
The first step is the definition of the sample group. Each subject must have the potential to
develop the outcome of interest (that is, circumcised men should not be included in a cohort
designed to study paraphimosis). Furthermore, the sample population must be representative
of the general population if the study is primarily looking at the incidence and natural history
of the condition (descriptive).

If however the aim is to analyse the relation between predictor variables and outcomes
(analytical) then the sample should contain as many patients likely to develop the outcome as
possible, otherwise much time and expense will be spent collecting information of little value.

Key points

Cohort studies

• Cohort studies describe incidence or natural history.

• They analyse predictors (risk factors) thereby enabling calculation of relative risk.
• Cohort studies measure events in temporal sequence thereby distinguishing causes from
effects.
• Retrospective cohorts where available are cheaper and quicker.
• Confounding variables are the major problem in analysing cohort studies.
• Subject selection and loss to follow up is a major potential cause of bias.

Each variable studied must be accurately measured. Variables that are relatively fixed, for
example, height need only be recorded once. Where change is more probable, for example,
drug misuse or weight, repeated measurements will be required.

To minimise the potential for missing a confounding variable all probable relevant variables
should be measured. If this is not done the study conclusions can be readily criticised. All
patients entered into the study should also be followed up for the duration of the study. Losses
can significantly affect the validity of the results. To minimise this as much information about
the patient (name, address, telephone, GP, etc) needs to be recorded as soon as the patient is
entered into the study. Regular contact should be made; it is hardly surprising if the subjects
have moved or lost interest and become lost to follow up if they are only contacted at 10 year
intervals!

Beware, follow up is usually easier in people who have been exposed to the agent of interest
and this may lead to bias.

Examples

There are many famous examples of Cohort studies including the Framingham heart study,2 the
UK study of doctors who smoke3 and Professor Neville Butler‘s studies on British children
born in 1958.4 A recent example of a prospective cohort study by Davey Smith et al was
published in the BMJ5 and a retrospective cohort design was used to assess the use of A&E
departments by people with diabetes.6

CROSS SECTIONAL STUDIES

These are primarily used to determine prevalence. Prevalence equals the number of cases in a
population at a given point in time. All the measurements on each person are made at one point
in time. Prevalence is vitally important to the clinician because it influences considerably the
likelihood of any particular diagnosis and the predictive value of any investigation. For
example, knowing that ascending cholangitis in children is very rare enables the clinician to
look for other causes of abdominal pain in this patient population.

Cross sectional studies are also used to infer causation.

At one point in time the subjects are assessed to determine whether they were exposed to the
relevant agent and whether they have the outcome of interest. Some of the subjects will not
have been exposed nor have the outcome of interest. This clearly distinguishes this type of
study from the other observational studies (cohort and case controlled) where reference to
either exposure and/or outcome is made.

The advantage of such studies is that subjects are neither deliberately exposed, treated, or not
treated and hence there are seldom ethical difficulties. Only one group is used, data are
collected only once and multiple outcomes can be studied; thus this type of study is relatively
cheap.

Many cross sectional studies are done using questionnaires. Alternatively each of the subjects
may be interviewed. Table 2 lists the advantages and disadvantages of each.

Any study with a low response rate can be criticised because it can miss significant differences
in the responders and non-responders. At its most extreme all the non-responders could be
dead! Strenuous efforts must be made to maximise the numbers who do respond. The use of
volunteers is also problematic because they too are unlikely to be representative of the general
population. A good way to produce a valid sample would be to randomly select people from
the electoral role and invite them to complete a questionnaire. In this way the response rate is
known and non-responders can be identified. However, the electoral role itself is not an entirely
accurate reflection of the general population. A census is another example of a cross sectional
study.

Market research organisations often use cross sectional studies (for example, opinion polls).
This entails a system of quotas to ensure the sample is representative of the age, sex, and social
class structure of the population being studied. However, to be commercially viable they are
convenience samples—only people available can be questioned. This technique is
insufficiently rigorous to be used for medical research.

How to run a cross sectional study

Formulate the research question(s) and choose the sample population. Then decide what
variables of the study population are relevant to the research question. A method for contacting
sample subjects must be devised and then implemented. In this way the data are collected and
can then be analysed

Advantages and disadvantages

The most important advantage of cross sectional studies is that in general they are quick and
cheap. As there is no follow up, less resources are required to run the study.
Cross sectional studies are the best way to determine prevalence and are useful at identifying
associations that can then be more rigorously studied using a cohort study or randomised
controlled study.

The most important problem with this type of study is differentiating cause and effect from
simple association. For example, a study finding an association between low CD4 counts and
HIV infection does not demonstrate whether HIV infection lowers CD4 levels or low CD4
levels predispose to HIV infection. Moreover, male homosexuality is associated with both but
causes neither. (Another example of a confounding variable).

Often there are a number of plausible explanations. For example, if a study shows a negative
relation between height and age it could be concluded that people lose height as they get older,
younger generations are getting taller, or that tall people have a reduced life expectancy when
compared with short people. Cross sectional studies do not provide an explanation for their
findings.

Rare conditions cannot efficiently be studied using cross sectional studies because even in large
samples there may be no one with the disease. In this situation it is better to study a cross
sectional sample of patients who already have the disease (a case series). In this way it was
found in 1983 that of 1000 patients with AIDS, 727 were homosexual or bisexual men and 236
were intrvenous drug abusers.6 The conclusion that individuals in these two groups had a higher
relative risk was inescapable. The natural history of HIV infection was then studied using
cohort studies and efficacy of treatments via case controlled studies and randomised clinical
trials.

Examples

An example of a cross sectional study was the prevalence study of skull fractures in children
admitted to hospital in Edinburgh from 1983 to 1989.7 Note that although the study period was
seven years it was not a longitudinal or cohort study because information about each subject
was recorded at a single point in time.

A questionnaire based cross sectional study explored the relation between A&E attendance and
alcohol consumption in elderly persons.9

A recent example can be found in the BMJ, in which the prevalence of serious eye disease in a
London population was evaluated.10

Key points

Cross sectional studies

• Cross sectional studies are the best way to determine prevalence

• Are relatively quick
• Can study multiple outcomes
• Do not themselves differentiate between cause and effect or the sequence of events
CASE-CONTROL STUDIES

In contrast with cohort and cross sectional studies, case-control studies are usually
retrospective. People with the outcome of interest are matched with a control group who do
not. Retrospectively the researcher determines which individuals were exposed to the agent or
treatment or the prevalence of a variable in each of the study groups. Where the outcome is
rare, case-control studies may be the only feasible approach.

As some of the subjects have been deliberately chosen because they have the disease in
question case-control studies are much more cost efficient than cohort and cross sectional
studies—that is, a higher percentage of cases per study.

Case-control studies determine the relative importance of a predictor variable in relation

to the presence or absence of the disease. Case-control studies are retrospective and cannot
therefore be used to calculate the relative risk; this a prospective cohort study. Case-control
studies can however be used to calculate odds ratios, which in turn, usually approximate to the
relative risk.

How to run a case-control study

Decide on the research question to be answered. Formulate an hypothesis and then decide what
will be measured and how. Specify the characteristics of the study group and decide how to
construct a valid control group. Then compare the “exposure” of the two groups to each
variable.

Advantages and disadvantages

When conditions are uncommon, case-control studies generate a lot of information from
relatively few subjects. When there is a long latent period between an exposure and the disease,
case-control studies are the only feasible option. Consider the practicalities of a cohort study
or cross sectional study in the assessment of new variant CJD and possible aetiologies. With
less than 300 confirmed cases a cross sectional study would need about 200 000 subjects to
include one symptomatic patient. Given a postulated latency of 10 to 30 years a cohort study
would require both a vast sample size and take a generation to complete.

In case-control studies comparatively few subjects are required so more resources are available
for studying each. In consequence a huge number of variables can be considered. This type of
study is therefore useful for generating hypotheses that can then be tested using other types of
study.

This flexibility of the variables studied comes at the expense of the restricted outcomes studied.
The only outcome is the presence or absence of the disease or whatever criteria was chosen to
select the cases.

The major problems with case-control studies are the familiar ones of confounding variables
(see above) and bias. Bias may take two major forms.
Sampling bias

The patients with the disease may be a biased sample (for example, patients referred to a
teaching hospital) or the controls may be biased (for example, volunteers, different ages, sex
or socioeconomic group).

Observation and recall bias

As the study assesses predictor variables retrospectively there is great potential for a biased
assessment of their presence and significance by the patient or the investigator, or both.

Overcoming sampling bias

Ideally the cases studied should be a random sample of all the patients with the disease. This
is not only very difficult but in many instances is impossible because many cases may not have
been diagnosed or have been misdiagnosed. For example, many cases of non-insulin dependent
diabetes will not have sought medical attention and therefore be undiagnosed. Conversely
many psychiatric diseases may be differently labelled in different countries and even by
different doctors in the same country. As a result they will be misdiagnosed for the purposes
of the study. However, in reality you are often left studying a sample of those patients who it
is possible to recruit. Selecting the controls is often a more difficult problem.

To enable the controls to represent the same population as the cases, one of four techniques
may be used.

1. A convenience sample—sampled in the same way as the cases, for example, attending
the same outpatient department. While this is certainly convenient it may reduce the
external validity of the study.
2. Matching—the controls may be a matched or unmatched random sample from the
unaffected population. Again the problems of controlling for unknown influences is
present but if the controls are too closely matched they may not be representative of the
general population. “Over matching” may cause the true difference to be
underestimated.

The advantage of matching is that it allows a smaller sample size for any given effect to be
statistically significant.

3. Using two or more control groups. If the study demonstrates a significant difference
between the patients with the outcome of interest and those without, even when the
latter have been sampled in a number of different ways (for example, outpatients, in
patients, GP patients) then the conclusion is more robust.
4. Using a population based sample for both cases and controls. It is possible to take a
random sample of all the patients with a particular disease from specific registers. The
control group can then be constructed by selecting age and sex matched people
randomly selected from the same population as the area covered by the disease register.

Overcoming observation and recall bias

Overcoming retrospective recall bias can be achieved by using data recorded, for other
purposes, before the outcome had occurred and therefore before the study had started. The
success of this strategy is limited by the availability and reliability of the data collected.
Another technique is blinding where neither the subject nor the observer know if they are a
case or control subject. Nor are they aware of the study hypothesis. In practice this is often
difficult or impossible and only partial blinding is practicable. It is usually possible to blind the
subjects and observers to the study hypothesis by asking spurious questions. Observers can
also be easily blinded to the case or control status of the patient where the relevant observation
is not of the patient themselves but a laboratory test or radiograph.

Key points

Case-control studies

• Case-control studies are simple to organise

• Retrospectively compare two groups
• Aim to identify predictors of an outcome
• Permit assessment of the influence of predictors on outcome via calculation of an odds
ratio
• Useful for hypothesis generation
• Can only look at one outcome
• Bias is an major problem

Blinding cases to their case or control status is usually impracticable as they already know that
they have a disease or illness. Similarly observers can hardly be blinded to the presence of
physical signs, for example, cyanosis or dyspnoea.

As a result of the problems of matching, bias and confounding, case-control studies, are often
flawed. They are however useful for generating hypotheses. These hypotheses can then be
tested more rigorously by other methods—randomised controlled trials or cohort studies.

Examples

Case-control studies are very common. They are particularly useful for studying infrequent
events, for example, cot death, survival from out of hospital cardiac arrest, and toxicological
emergencies.

A recent example was the study of atrial fibrillation in middle aged men during exercise.11

https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.316.7147.1784

1.5 EXPERIMENTS AND SURVEYS

Research methods are procedures that span the steps from nonspecific assumptions to detailed
approaches of data collection, analysis, and interpretation. These are essentially well-planned,
value-neutral and scientific.

Generally, the research method includes experimental study, focus groups, survey method,
numerical schemes, theoretical procedures, etc. However, each study domain demands a
specific type of research method.
For instance, for research that requires investigation of characteristics, opinions or behaviours
of a group of people, survey method can be used.

Whereas, research that demands explanation based on observations, collected facts, and
measurements, the experiment research method is used.

The Key Aspects of Experimental Research

There are various attributes that are formative of and unique to experimental research in
addition to its main purpose. Understanding these is key to understanding this kind of research
in-depth and what to expect when performing it.

The following enumerates the defining characteristics of this kind of research:

1. It includes a hypothesis, a variable that will be manipulated by the researcher

along with the variable that will be measured and compared.
2. The data in this research must be able to be quantified.
3. The observation of the subjects, however, must be executed qualitatively.
4. It can be conducted in a laboratory in field settings, i.e., field research.
1. The latter is rarer, as it is difficult to manipulate treatments and to control
external occurrences in a live setting.
5. It relies on making comparisons between two or more groups (the variables).
6. Some variables are given an experimental stimulus called a treatment; this is the
treatment group.
7. The variables that do not receive a stimulus are known as the control group.
8. First, researchers must consider how the variables are related and only afterward can
they move on to making predictions that can be tested.
9. Time is a crucial component when putting forth a cause-and-effect relationship.
10. There 3 types of experimental research:
1. Pre-experimental research design
2. True experimental research design
3. Quasi-experimental research design

The Three Types of Experimental Research

Experimental research encompasses three subtypes that researchers can implement. They all
fall under experimental research, differing in how the subjects are classified. They can be
classified based on their conditions or groups.

Pre-experimental research design:

This entails a group or several groups to be observed after factors of cause and effect are
implemented.

1. Researchers implement this research design when they need to learn whether further
investigation is required for these particular groups.
2. Pre-experimental research has its own three subtypes:
1. One-shot Case Study Research Design
2. One-group Pretest-posttest Research Design
3. Static-group Comparison
Quasi-experimental Research Design

Representing half or pseudo, the moniker “quasi” is used to allude to resembling true
experimental research, but not entirely.

1. The participants are not randomly assigned, rather they are used when randomization
is impossible or impractical.
2. Quasi-experimental research is typically used in the education field.
3. Examples include: the time series, no equivalent control group design, and the
counterbalanced design.

True Experimental Research Design

This kind of experimental research design studies statistical analysis to confirm or debunk a
hypothesis.

1. It is regarded as the most accurate form of research.

2. True experimental research can produce a cause-effect relationship within a group.
3. This experiment requires the fulfillment of 3 components:
1. A control group (unaltered) and an experimental group (to undergo changes in
variables)
2. Random distribution
3. Variables can be manipulated

variables, determination of cause & effect of a study hypothesis, and can be used in
collaboration with other research designs.

▪ Survey method

Derived from Latin word ‘supervidere’ (meaning – to see), survey method, best suited
for descriptive research, studies the opinion, behaviours, attributes and feelings of an
individual or a group of people. This process collection of numbered data and statistically
analysing responses to the questions in order to test the hypothesis about the nature of
relationships within a group.

For instance, if you are intended to study the happiness levels among employees’ working in
a specific organisation. Here the data will be collected through questionnaires, phone calls,
Emails, etc. Upon collecting the data regarding the individuals’ perceived emotional states,
statistical tests such as getting the weighted mean can be utilised to assess the responses.

Based on the design, survey research method can be divided into three types of studies: cross-
sectional, longitudinal and correlational study.

• Cross-sectional study – Defined as observational research type, this study evaluates

data of variables gathered at a given point of time across a sample population.
• Longitudinal study – This method uses repeated or continuous measures to follow
certain individuals over an extended period of time ( more often years or decades).
• Correlational study – This non-experimental design studies two different variables
and runs a statistical analysis to determine the relation between the variables without
the interference of external variables.
The significant features of the survey research method include:

• Involvement in the process of sampling from a population

• Developing instrument for data collection process
• Collecting data via interviews or questionnaires
• Acquiring greater response rate

Survey method offers several benefits of which include – primary data collected is easy to
analyse, data can be collected at a faster rate and easily, offers precise information, and is
flexible.

Data gathering is a flexible and exciting process; especially when you use surveys. There are
different survey methods that allow you to collect relevant information from research
participants or the people who have access to the required data.

For instance, you can conduct an interview or simply observe the research participants as they
interact in their environment. Typically, your research context, the type of systematic
investigation, and many other factors should determine the survey method you adopt.

In this article, we will discuss different types of survey methods and also show you how
to conduct online surveys using Formplus.

What is a Survey Method?

A survey method is a process, tool, or technique that you can use to gather information in
research by asking questions to a predefined group of people. Typically, it facilitates the
exchange of information between the research participants and the person or organization
carrying out the research.

Survey methods can be qualitative or quantitative depending on the type of research and the
type of data you want to gather in the end. For instance, you can choose to create and administer
an online survey with Formplus that allows you to collect statistical information from
respondents. For qualitative research, you can conduct a face-to-face interview or organize a
focus group.

Types of Survey Methods

Interviews

An interview is a survey research method where the researcher facilitates some sort of
conversation with the research participant to gather useful information about the research
subject. This conversation can happen physically as a face-to-face interview or virtually as a
telephone interview or via video and audio-conferencing platforms.

During an interview, the researcher has the opportunity to connect personally with the research
subject and establish some sort of relationship. This connection allows the interviewer
(researcher) to gain more insight into the information provided by the research participant in
the course of the conversation.
An interview can be structured, semi-structured, or unstructured. In a structured interview, the
researcher strictly adheres to a sequence of premeditated questions throughout the
conversation. This is also known as a standardized interview or a researcher-administered
interview and it often results in quantitative research findings.

In a semi-structured interview, the researcher has a set of premeditated interview questions but
he or she can veer off the existing interview sequence to get more answers and gain more clarity
from the interviewee. The semi-structured interview method is flexible and allows the
researcher to work outside the scope of the sequence while maintaining the basic interview
framework.

Just as the name suggests, an unstructured interview is one that doesn’t restrict the researcher
to a set of premeditated questions or the interview sequence. Here, the researcher is allowed to
leverage his or her knowledge and to creatively weave questions to help him or her to get useful
information from the participant. This is why it is also called an in-depth interview.

Advantages of Interviews

1. Interviews, especially face-to-face interviews, allow you to capture non-verbal nuances

that provide more context around the interviewee’s responses. For instance, the
interview can act in a certain way to suggest that he or she is uncomfortable with a
particular question.
2. Interviews are more flexible as a method of survey research. With semi-structured and
unstructured interviews, you can adjust the conversation sequence to suit prevailing
circumstances.

Disadvantages of Interviews

1. It is expensive and time-consuming; especially when you have to interview large

numbers of people.
2. It is subject to researcher bias which can affect the quality of data gathered at the end
of the process.

Surveys

A survey is a data collection tool that lists a set of structured questions to which respondents
provide answers based on their knowledge and experiences. It is a standard data gathering
process that allows you to access information from a predefined group of respondents during
research.

In a survey, you would find different types of questions based on the research context and the
type of information you want to have access to. Many surveys combine open-ended and closed-
ended questions including rating scales and semantic scales. This means you can use them for
qualitative and quantitative research.

Surveys come in 2 major formats; paper forms or online forms. A paper survey is a more
traditional method of data collection and it can easily result in loss of data. Paper forms are
also cumbersome to organize and process.
Online surveys, on the other hand, are usually created via data collection platforms like
Formplus. These platforms have form builders where you can create your survey from scratch
using different form fields and features. On Formplus, you can also find different online survey
templates for data collection.

One of the many advantages of online surveys is accuracy as it typically records a lower margin
of error than paper surveys. Also, online surveys are easier to administer as you can share them
with respondents via email or social media channels.

Advantages of Surveys

1. Surveys allow you to gather data from a large sample size or research population. This
helps to improve the validity and accuracy of your research findings.
2. The cost of creating and administering a survey is usually lower compared to other
research methods.
3. It is a convenient method of data collection for the researcher and the respondents.

Disadvantages of Surveys

1. The validity of the research data can be affected by survey response bias.
2. High survey dropout rates can also affect the number of responses received in your
survey.

Observation

Just as the name suggests, observation is a method of gathering data by paying attention to the
actions and behaviors of the research subjects as they interact in their environment. This
qualitative research method allows you to get first-hand information about the research subjects
in line with the aims and objectives of your systematic investigation.

If you have tried out this survey method, then you must have come across one or more of the
4 types of observation in research. These are; Complete observer method, observer as
participant method, participant as observer method, and complete participant method.

In the complete observer method, the researcher is entirely detached or absorbed from the
research environment. This means that the participants are completely unaware of the
researcher’s presence and this allows them to act naturally as they interact with their
environment. You can think of it as a remote observation.

The observer as participant method requires the researcher to be involved in the research
environment; albeit with limited interaction with the participants. The participants typically
know the researcher and may also be familiar with the goals and objectives of the systematic
investigation.

A good example of this is when a researcher visits a school to understand how students interact
with each other during extra-curricular activities. In this case, the students may be fully aware
of the research process; although they may not interact with the researcher.

In the participant as observer method, the researcher has some kind of relationship with the
participants and interacts with them often as he or she carries out the investigation. For instance,
when an anthropologist goes to a host community for research, s/he builds a relationship with
members of the community while the host community is aware of the research.

In the complete participant method, the researcher interacts with the research participants
and is also an active member of the research environment. However, the research participants
remain unaware of the research process; they do not know that a researcher is among them and
they also do not know that they are being observed.

Advantages of Observation Method

1. It is one of the simplest methods of data collection as it does not require specialization
or expertise in many cases.
2. The observation method helps you to formulate a valid research hypothesis for your
systematic investigation. You can test this hypothesis via experimental research to get
valid findings.

Disadvantages of Observation Method

1. When the participants know they are being observed, they may act differently and this
can affect the accuracy of the information you gather.
2. Because observation is done in the participant’s natural environment; that is an
environment without control, the findings from this process are not very reliable.

Focus Groups

A focus group is an open conversation with a small number of carefully-selected participants

who provide useful information for research. The selected participants are a subset of your
research population and should represent the different groups in the larger population.

In a focus group, the researcher can act as the moderator who sets the tone of the conversation
and guides the discourse. The moderator ensures that the overall conversations are in line with
the aims and objectives of the research and he or she also reduces the bias in the discussions.

If you are conducting qualitative research with a large and diverse research population, then
adopting focus groups is an effective and cost-efficient method of data collection. Typically,
your focus group should have 6-10 participants, usually 8; including the moderator.

Based on the focus of your research, you can adopt one or more types of focus groups for your
investigation. Common types of focus groups you should consider include:

• Dual-moderator focus group

• Mini focus group
• Client-involvement focus group
• Virtual or online focus groups.

Advantages of Focus Groups

 1. Focus groups are open-ended and this allows you to explore a variety of opinions and
ideas that may come up during the discussions.
2. Focus groups help you to discover other salient points that you may not have considered
in the systematic investigation.

Disadvantages of Focus Groups

1. Participants may not communicate their true thoughts and experiences and this affects
the validity of the entire process.
2. Participants can be easily influenced by the opinions of other people in the group.

How to Conduct Online Surveys with Formplus

As we’ve mentioned earlier, an online survey allows you to gather data from a large pool of
respondents easily and conveniently. Unlike paper forms, online surveys are secure and it is
also easy to distribute them and collate responses for valid research data.

Formplus allows you to create your online survey in a few easy steps. It also has several features
that make data collection and organization easy for you. Let’s show you how to conduct online
surveys with Formplus.

• Create your Formplus account here. If you already have a Formplus account, you can
log in at www.formpl.us.

• On your Formplus dashboard, you will find several buttons and options. Click on the
“create new form” button located at the top left corner of the dashboard to begin.

• Now, you should have access to the form builder. The Formplus builder allows you to
add different form fields to your survey by simply dragging and dropping them from
the builder’s fields section into your form. You will find the fields section at the left
corner of the form builder.First, add the title of your form by clicking on the title tab
just at the top of the builder.
• Next, click on the different fields you’d like to have in your survey. You can add rating
fields, number fields, and more than 30 other form fields as you like.

• After adding the fields to your survey, it is time to populate them with questions and
answer-options as needed. Click on the small pencil icon located beside each field to
access their unique editing tab.
• Apart from adding questions and answer-options to the fields, you can also make
preferred fields to be compulsory or make them read-only.
• Save all the changes you have made to the form by clicking on the save icon at the top
right corner. This gives you immediate access to the builder’s customization section.

• Formplus has numerous customization options that you can use to change the outlook
and layout of your online survey without any knowledge of CSS. You can change your
form font, add your organization’s logo, and also add preferred background images
among other things.
 • To start collecting responses in your online survey, you can use any of the Formplus
multiple form sharing options. Go to the builder’s “share” section, choose your
preferred option, and follow the prompt provided. If you have a WordPress website,
you can add the survey to it via the WordPress plugin.

• Don’t forget to track your form responses and other important data in our form analytics
dashboard.

Advantages of Online Surveys

1. Online surveys are a faster method of data collection: They help you to save time
by accelerating your data collection process. Typically, respondents would spend ⅓ of
the time used in completing a paper survey for an online survey. This means you will
record almost-immediate responses from participants.
2. Apart from saving time, you also get to save cost. For instance, you do not have to
spend money on printing paper surveys and transporting them to respondents. Also,
many online survey tools have a free subscription plan and also support affordable
premium subscription plans. You can check out Formplus pricing here.
3. Online surveys reduce the margin of error in data collection. This allows you to gather
more accurate information and arrive at objective research findings.
4. It is flexible and allows participants to respond as is convenient. For instance, Formplus
has a save and resume later feature that allows respondents to save an incomplete survey
and finish up when it is more convenient. The order of the questions in an online survey
can also be changed.
5. Online surveys make the data collection process easy and seamless. By leveraging the
internet for distribution, you can gather information from thousands of people in your
target population.
6. Because online surveys are very convenient, they result in increased survey response
rates because participants can complete the survey according to their own pace, chosen
time, and preferences.

Conclusion

When conducting research, many survey methods can help you to gather, analyze and process
data effectively. In this article, we have looked at some of these methods in detail including
interviews, focus groups, and the observation approach.

As we’ve shown you, each of these survey methods has its strengths and weaknesses. This is
why your choice should be informed by the type of research you are conducting and what you
want to get out of it. While some of these methods work best for qualitative research, others
are better suited for quantitative data collection.
Key differences between experiment and survey method

Features Experiment method Survey method

Source of Information is obtained due to change in Data is acquired from

information behaviour of independent variable informants

More often deals with

Data handled Deals with primary data
secondary data

Sample studied Studies smaller sample Studies larger sample

Commonly
employed in Utilised in descriptive
Utilised in experimental research
research
(research type)

Field of study Used in social &

Used in physical & natural science
focused behavioural science

Experiment
Conducted in lab or field study Conducted in field research
performed in

Hardship faced in verifying if the effect

Difficulty in identifying the
Challenges faced is actually caused by the independent
responses are genuine
variable

Equipment Uses software/tool Doesn’t use any tool

Cost of experiment High low

Involves manipulation of independent Does not involve any

Manipulation
variable manipulation

May or may not follow

Randomisation Follows randomisation mandatorily
randomisation

Choosing the right research method is vital for any research. Hence make sure you understand
the requirements of your study and choose the research method accordingly.