Renewable Energy Resources
Uploaded by
shreyanshu.8705Renewable Energy Resources
Uploaded by
shreyanshu.8705Renewable energy resources
A renewable resource is defined as a natural resource that renews itself at a rate
that is faster, or equal to the rate of consumption.
Renewable resources differ from resources that once depleted never return, such
as fossil fuels. Renewable resources can include perpetually sustainable
resources that never run out, such as solar power.
Renewable energy is energy generated from natural resources—such as sunlight,
wind, rain, tides and geothermal heat—which are renewable (naturally
replenished).
1
1. Solar Energy
The Earth receives an incredible supply of solar energy.
Solar energy is a free, inexhaustible resource.
Solar energy can be utilized directly by two technologies:
Solar thermal
Solar photovoltaic
8 2
SOLAR THERMAL SYSTEM
Solar collectors are used to collect the solar energy and convert the incident
radiations into thermal energy by absorbing them.
This heat is extracted by flowing fluid (air or water or mixture with antifreeze) in the
tube of the collector for further utilization in different applications.
The collectors are classified as
Non concentrating collectors or Flat-plate collector
Concentrating (focusing) collectors
9 3
Non-Concentrating Collectors
In these collectors the area of collector to intercept the solar radiation is equal to the
absorber plate and has concentration ratio of 1.
Flat Plate Collectors is most important part of any solar thermal energy system.
It is simplest in design.
Flat plate collector absorbs both beam and diffuse components of radiant energy.
Sun rays striking the absorber plate are absorbed causing rise of temperature of transport
fluid.
Thermal insulation behind the absorber plate and transparent cover sheets (glass or
plastic) prevent loss of heat to surroundings.
4
NON- There are two types of Flat plates collector
CONCENTRATING Liquid heating collector
COLLECTOR Air heating collector
5
12 6
Applications of flat plate collectors
1. Solar water heating systems for residence, hotels, industry.
2. Desalination plant for obtaining drinking water from sea water.
3. Solar cookers for domestic cooking.
4. Drying applications.
5. Residence heating.
7
Concentrating Collectors
Energy delivery temperatures can be increased by decreasing the area from which
the heat losses occur.
Temperatures far above those attainable by FPC can be reached if a large amount
of solar radiation is concentrated on a relatively small collection area.
This is done by interposing an optical device between the source of radiation and
the energy absorbing surface.
Concentrating collector is a device to collect solar energy with high intensity of solar
radiation on the energy absorbing surface.
Such collectors use optical system in the form of reflectors or refractors.
The high temperature is achieved at absorber because of reflecting arrangement
provided for concentrating the radiation at required location using mirrors and
lenses. 8
Parabolic Disk
15 9
CONCENTRATING COLLECTORS
16 10
SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAIC (SPV) SYSTEM
SPV system convert solar energy directly into electrical energy.
Basic conversion device is SPV cell or solar cell.
A solar cell is basically an electrical current source, driven by a flux of
radiation.
Life span is about 20 years.
To increase power, groups of solar cells are electrically connected and
packaged into weather-tight modules and arrays to provide useful output
voltages and currents for a specific power output.
17 11
A SPV System typically consists
of 3 basic components.
PV cells - Electricity is
generated by PV cells, the
smallest unit of a PV system.
Modules - PV cells are wired
together to form modules
which are usually a sealed, or
encapsulated, unit of
convenient size for handling.
Arrays – Groups of panels
make up an array.
18 12
Applications
Space satellites
Remote radio communication booster stations
Marine warning lights
Lighting
Water pumping
Medical refrigeration in remote areas
Solar powered vehicles
Battery charging
13
Working Principle of Solar Cell
When light reaches the p-n junction, the light photons can easily enter in the
junction, through very thin p-type layer.
The light energy, in the form of photons, supplies sufficient energy to the
junction to create a number of electron-hole pairs.
The incident light breaks the thermal equilibrium condition of the junction.
The free electrons in the depletion region can quickly come to the n-type side
of the junction.
Similarly, the holes in the depletion can quickly come to the p-type side of the
junction. Once, the newly created free electrons come to the n-type side,
cannot further cross the junction because of barrier potential of the junction.
14
Similarly, the newly created holes once come
to the p-type side cannot further cross the
junction became of same barrier potential of
the junction.
As the concentration of electrons becomes
higher in one side, i.e. n-type side of the
junction and concentration of holes becomes
more in another side, i.e. the p-type side of the
junction, the p-n junction will behave like a
small battery cell.
A voltage is set up which is known as photo
voltage. If we connect a small load across the
junction, there will be a tiny current flowing
through it.
15
2. Wind Power
Power is generated from the wind by converting the speed of the wind into
electricity.
The faster the wind travels, the more electricity can be generated.
The main type of wind turbine design that work to generate power are horizontal
axis wind turbine (HAWT).
Wind-power generation is the fastest growing energy source.
22 16
Wind turbines are good media for generating electricity from a clean and renewable resource
for our homes and businesses. It comes with a couple of advantages for both humans and
the environment, namely the following:
A wind turbine can harness a plentiful energy source, wind.
The use of wind electricity can cut our carbon footprint because it doesn't release any
harmful gases or pollutants in the process of generating electricity.
The use of wind energy can cut our electricity bills because wind is free, and thus, after
the payment for the initial installation, electricity costs will be reduced.
We can store energy even on a calm day. If our houses are not connected to the power
grid, we can store the excess electricity produced from the wind turbine in batteries and
use it when there is no wind.
We can sell electricity back to the grid, meaning if our wind system is producing more
than what we need, someone else can use it, and thus, we can sell it.
17
Main Components of a Wind-turbine
1. Rotor
The portion of the wind turbine that collects energy from the wind is called the rotor.
The rotor usually consists of two or more wooden, fiberglass or metal blades which rotate
about an axis (horizontal or vertical) at a rate determined by the wind speed and the shape
of the blades.
The blades are attached to the hub, which in turn is attached to the main shaft.
It converts kinetic energy of wind into mechanical energy through a connected shaft.
18
2. Generator
The generator is that converts the turning motion of a wind turbine's blades into electricity.
Inside this component, coils of wire are rotated in a magnetic field to produce electricity.
The generator's rating, or size, is dependent on the length of the wind turbine's blades
because more energy is captured by longer blades.
It is important to select the right type of generator to match intended use.
19
3. Transmission
The number of revolutions per minute (rpm) of a wind turbine rotor can range between
some limits, depending on the model and the wind speed.
Most wind turbines require a gear-box transmission to increase the rotation of the
generator to the speeds necessary for efficient electricity production.
Without a transmission, wind turbine complexity and maintenance requirements are
reduced, but a much larger generator is required to deliver the same power output as the
AC-type wind turbines.
20
4. Tower
The tower is the main shaft that connects the rotor to the foundation. It also raises
the rotor height in the air where we can find stronger winds.
With HAWT, the tower houses the stairs to allow for maintenance and inspection.
The tower is the part on which a wind turbine is mounted. It is not just a support
structure. It also raises the wind turbine so that its blades safely clear the ground
and so it can reach the stronger winds at higher elevations.
Towers must be strong enough to support the wind turbine and to sustain vibration,
wind loading and the overall weather elements for the lifetime of the wind turbine.
Their costs will vary widely as a function of design and height.
21
5. Gearbox-
The gearbox alters the rotational velocity of the shaft to suit the generator.
6. Control and protection system-
The protection system is like a safety feature that makes sure that the turbine will not be
working under dangerous condition. This includes a brake system triggered by the signal of
higher speeds to stop the rotor from movement under excessive wind gusts.
7. Foundation-
The foundation or the base supports the entire wind turbine and make sure that it is well
fixed onto the ground or the roof for small household wind turbines. This usually consists of
a solid concrete assembly around the tower to maintain its structural integrity.
22
23
Working
A equipment found on the weather tight compartment at the top of a tower of
an HAWT, called nacelle.
The slow rotation of the shaft of an HAWT is normally increased with a
gearbox and passed to the generator.
Gearbox and generator are attached directly to the turbine shaft though a
braking system.
The electricity produced from the generator is taken with cables through the
tower to a substation and eventually to the grid.
The rotor, gearbox and generator are mounted on a platform which is able to
rotate or yaw about a vertical axis so that the rotor shaft is perpendicular to
the wind direction.
24
Contents
Analysis of Electric Circuits :
1. Sources
2. Source Transformation
Reference Books
– Chapter 2-4 of Reference 1; [Hughes E]
– Chapter 3 of Reference 2; [Nagasarkar & Sukhija]
– Chapter 1-2 of Reference 3; [Kothari & Nagrath]
B Tech. 1st Year Electrical & Electronics Systems (EE1002) 25
1. Basic circuit elements
• Electric Circuit
– An interconnection of simple electrical devices with at least one closed path
in which current may flow.
– An Electric circuit is a mathematical model that approximates the behavior
of an actual Electrical system.
– A combination of various elements (Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor, Voltage
source, Current source) connected in any manner what so ever is called an
electrical network.
B Tech. 1st Year Electrical & Electronics Systems (EE1002) 26
• Circuit Elements
– Two terminal component that cannot be sub-divided
– Described mathematically in terms of its terminal voltage & current
– 5 basic circuit elements
• Active Elements
– Voltage and Current sources
• Passive Elements
– Resistors, Inductors and Capacitors
B Tech. 1st Year Electrical & Electronics Systems (EE1002) 27
• Passive Element : The element which receives energy (or absorbs energy) and
then either convert it into heat (R) or can be stored it in an electric (C) or
magnetic (L) filed.
• Active Element : The elements that supply energy to the circuit.
Example: Voltage & Current sources
Transistor (can amplify power of a signal)
Note: Transformer is an example of passive element.
(Because it does not amplify the power level and power
remains same both in primary and secondary sides)
• Bilateral Element : Conduction of current in both directions in an element with
same magnitude. Example: R, C & L
• Unilateral Element : Conduction of current in one directions.
Example: Diode, Transistor
B Tech. 1st Year
28
Electrical & Electronics Systems (EE1002)
Basic Circuit Elements
Active Elements Passive Elements
1. Resistors
Sources
2. Inductors
3. Capacitors
Dependent Independent
sources sources
Voltage sources Current sources
Ideal (DC) Practical (DC) Ideal (DC) Practical (DC)
Voltage source Voltage source Current source Current source
+ -
+-
Vs Vs Rs Is Rs
Is
Vs
B Tech. 1st Year
29
Electrical & Electronics Systems (EE1002)
Passive Elements
Resistance (R): Property of opposition to flow of current
The voltage across the resistor is proportional to the current flowing
through it ; VR α I or VR = IR, ‘R’ = VR/I; Unit - Ohm
Inductance (L): Property of opposition to the rate of change of current
The voltage induced in the inductor is proportional to the rate of change
of current flowing through it;
eL = L (di/dt) = N (dФ/dt); L = N (dФ/di); Unit – Henry (H)
Capacitance (C): Property which opposes the rate of change of voltage;
The capacitive current is proportional to the rate of change of voltage
across it ; ic = C (dv/dt); Unit – Farad (F).
B Tech. 1st Year Electrical & Electronics Systems (EE1002) 30
Ohm’s Law
• That is,
𝑣 ∝𝑖
• Ohm (scientist) defined the constant of proportionality for a resistor to be
resistance, R.
• Thus the above eq. becomes,
𝑣 = 𝑖𝑅
which is the mathematical form of Ohm’s law.
B Tech. 1st Year Electrical & Electronics Systems (EE1002)
31
• To apply Ohm’s law, we must pay careful attention to the current direction and
voltage polarity.
• The direction of current and the polarity of voltage 𝑣 must conform with the
passive sign convention.
This implies that current flows from a higher potential to a lower potential in
order for 𝑣 = 𝑖𝑅 .
If current flows from a lower potential to a higher potential, 𝑣 = −𝑖𝑅
.
B Tech. 1st Year Electrical & Electronics Systems (EE1002) 32
• Since the value of 𝑅 can range from zero to infinity, it is important that
we
consider the two extreme possible values of 𝑅.
• An element with is called a short circuit, as shown in Fig.
• For a short circuit,
𝑣 = 𝑖𝑅 = 0
showing that the voltage is zero but
the current could be anything.
• In practice, a short circuit is usually a connecting wire assumed to be a perfect
conductor.
B Tech. 1st Year Electrical & Electronics Systems (EE1002) 33
• Similarly, an element with 𝑅 = ∞ is known as an open circuit, as shown in Fig.
• For an open circuit,
indicating that the current is zero
though the voltage could be anything.
Note : It should be pointed out that not all resistors obey Ohm’s law.
A resistor that obeys Ohm’s law is known as a linear resistor.
B Tech. 1st Year Electrical & Electronics Systems (EE1002) 34
Problems
Q. A coil has a current of 50 mA flowing through it when the applied voltage is
12 V. What is the resistance of the coil?
Sol. 𝑅 = V/I = 240𝛺
Q. A 100 V battery is connected across a resistor and causes a current of 5 mA to
flow. Determine the resistance of the resistor. If the voltage is now reduced to
25 V, what will be the new value of the current flowing?
Sol. 𝑅 = V/I = 20𝑘𝛺
Current when voltage is reduced to 25 ,
25
I = V/R = = 1.25𝑚𝐴
20×103
B Tech. 1st Year
Electrical & Electronics Systems (EE1002) 35
2. Sources
• Ideal Nature
– An ideal voltage source maintains a prescribed voltage regardless of the
current in the device. Internal resistance Rs = 0
– An ideal current source maintains a prescribed current regardless of the
voltage across the device. Internal resistance Rs =
– An ideal or practical source is called as ‘active element’
Note:-
B Tech. 1st Year Electrical & Electronics
36
• Ideal Sources
• Independent Voltage & Current Sources
– Circuit Representation
Ideal Voltage Sources (DC) Ideal Current Sources (DC)
Vs
+-
Vs Is
B Tech. 1st Year Electrical & Electronics
37
• Practical Sources
• Independent Voltage & Current Sources
– Circuit Representation
Practical Voltage Sources Practical Current Sources
Vs Rs
+- Is Rs
B Tech. 1st Year Electrical & Electronics Systems (EE1002) 38
3. Source Transformation
Rs +a
Conversion of Practical Voltage source
to Current source & vice versa
+
Vs -
-b
Voltage & Current sources shown in
the figure are electrically equivalent if
+a
Vs = Ip * Rp or (Ip = Vs/Rs)
Rs = Rp Ip Rp
-b
B Tech. 1st Year Electrical & Electronics Systems (EE1002) 39
• The series combination seems to behave identically to the parallel
combination.
• One can replace one configuration for the other where needed. And this
switch is called source transformation.
B Tech. 1st Year Electrical & Electronics Systems (EE1002) 40
Numerical Steps
• Each of these circuits has a series parallel structure that makes it possible to
simplify the circuit by the following steps:
• Performing source transformations.
• Replacing series or parallel resistors by an equivalent resistor.
• Replacing series voltage sources by an equivalent voltage source.
• Replacing parallel current sources by an equivalent current source.
Note:-
• Each simplification is done in such a way that the voltage or current measured
by the meter is not disturbed.
• Generally, that requires beginning the simplification at the opposite end of the
circuit from the meter and then working toward the meter.
B Tech. 1st Year Electrical & Electronics Systems (EE1002) 41
Worked Examples
Example 1
Consider the circuit shown in Figure. Find the value of the voltage measured by
the voltmeter.
Figure 1 The circuit considered in Example 1
Solution:
The voltmeter measures the voltage across the current source.
B Tech. 1st Year Electrical & Electronics Systems (EE1002) 42
(The color-coded probes of the voltmeter indicate the reference direction of the
voltage measured by the voltmeter.)
Figure 2 shows the circuit after the replacing the voltmeter by the equivalent open
circuit and adding a label to show the voltage measured by the meter.
Figure 2 The circuit from Figure 1 after the replacing the voltmeter by an open
circuit.
B Tech. 1st Year Electrical & Electronics Systems (EE1002) 43
Figures 3 through 17 illustrate the use of source transformations and equivalent
resistances to simplify the circuit.
Figure 3 Separating the circuit from Figure 2 into two parts.
Figure 4 The circuit from Figure 3 after doing a source transformation.
B Tech. 1st Year Electrical & Electronics Systems (EE1002) 44
Figure 5 The circuit from Figure 4 after changing the order of parallel elements.
Figure 6 Separating the circuit from Figure 5 into two parts.
B Tech. 1st Year Electrical & Electronics Systems (EE1002) 45
Figure 7 The circuit from Figure 6 after replacing parallel resistors with an
equivalent resistor.
Figure 8 Separating the circuit from Figure 7 into two parts.
B Tech. 1st Year Electrical & Electronics Systems (EE1002) 46
Figure 9 The circuit from Figure 8 after doing a source transformation.
Figure 10 The circuit from Figure 9 after changing the order of series elements.
B Tech. 1st Year
Electrical & Electronics Systems (EE1002) 47
Figure 11 Separating the circuit from Figure 10 into two parts.
Figure 12 The circuit from Figure 11 after replacing series voltage sources with
an equivalent voltage source
B Tech. 1st Year
48
Electrical & Electronics Systems (EE1002)
Figure 13 Separating the circuit from Figure 12 into two parts.
Figure 14 The circuit from Figure 13 after doing a source transformation.
B Tech. 1st Year Electrical & Electronics Systems (EE1002) 49
Figure 15 The circuit from Figure 14 after changing the order of parallel
elements.
Figure 16 Separating the circuit from Figure 15 into two parts.
B Tech. 1st Year Electrical & Electronics Systems (EE1002) 50
Figure 17 The circuit from Figure 16 after replacing parallel resistors with an
equivalent resistor.
Figure 18 The reduced circuit.
B Tech. 1st Year Electrical & Electronics Systems (EE1002) 51
B Tech. 1st Year Electrical & Electronics Systems (EE1002) 52
Example 2
Consider the circuit shown in Figure 19. Find the value of the resistance, R.
Figure 19 The circuit considered in Example 2.
Solution:
The voltmeter measures the voltage across one of the current sources.
Figure 20 shows the circuit after the replacing the voltmeter by the equivalent
open circuit and adding a label to show the voltage measured by the meter.
B Tech. 1st Year
53
Electrical & Electronics Systems (EE1002)
Figures 21 through 24 illustrate the use of source transformations and equivalent
resistances to simplify the circuit.
Figure 20 The circuit from Figure 19 after the replacing the voltmeter by an open
circuit.
Figure 21 Separating the circuit from Figure 20 into two parts.
B Tech. 1st Year Electrical & Electronics Systems (EE1002) 54
Figure 22 The circuit from Figure 21 after doing a source transformation.
Figure 23 Separating the circuit from Figure 22 into two parts.
B Tech. 1st Year Electrical & Electronics Systems (EE1002)
55
Figure 24 The circuit from Figure 23 after replacing series resistors with an
equivalent resistor
Figure 25 The circuit from Figure 24 after numbering the nodes.
Figure 25 shows the simplified circuit after numbering the nodes.
B Tech. 1st Year Electrical & Electronics Systems (EE1002)
56
SOME BASIC DEFINITIONS
Node- A node in an electric circuit is a point where two or more components
are connected together.
This point is usually marked with dark circle or dot. The circuit in fig. has nodes
a, b, c, and g.
Generally, a point, or a node in a circuit specifies a certain voltage level with
respect to a reference point or node.
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 7 57
SOME BASIC DEFINITIONS
Branch- A branch is a conducting path between two nodes in a circuit
containing the electric elements.
These elements could be sources, resistances, or other elements.
Fig. shows that the circuit has six branches: three resistive branches (a-c, b-c,
and b-g) and three branches containing voltage and current sources (a-, a-, and
c-g).
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 8 58
SOME BASIC DEFINITIONS
Loop- A loop is any closed path in an electric circuit i.e., a closed path or loop
in a circuit is a connecting sequence of branches which starting and end points
for tracing the path are, in effect, the same node and touches no other node
more than once.
Fig. shows three loops or closed paths namely, a-b-g-a; b-c-g-b; and a-c-b-a.
Further, it may be noted that the outside closed paths a-c-g-a and a-b-c-g-a are
also form two loops.
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 9 59
SOME BASIC DEFINITIONS
Mesh- a mesh is a special case of loop that does not have any other loops
within it or in its interior.
Fig. indicates that the first three loops (a-b-g-a; b-c-g-b; and a-c-b-a) just
identified are also ‘meshes’ but other two loops (a-c-g-a and a-b-c-g-a) are not.
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 10 60
1 - MESH & SUPER MESH
MESH CURRENT ANALYSIS
MESH / LOOP ANALYSIS PRINCIPLE – KVL
DIRECTION OF MESH CURRENT IS ARBITRARY AND IS GENERALLY SELECTED
BASED ON THE VOLTAGE SOURCE POLARITY.
MESH/LOOP EQUATIONS ARE WRITTEN BASED ON THE ASSUMED CURRENT
DIRECTIONS.
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 11 61
MESH CURRENT ANALYSIS…..
For the circuit shown, obtain the mesh equations
I1 I2 I3
mesh 1 : VB1 I1R1 R 2 I1 I 2 I1R1 R 2 I 2 0I 3
mesh 2 : 0 I 2 R 3 R 4 I 2 I 3 R 2 I 2 I1
0 I1R 2 R 2 R 3 R 4 I 2 R 4 I 3
mesh 3 : VB2 I 3 R 5 R 4 I 3 I 2
VB2 0I1 R 4 I 2 R 4 R 5 I 3
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 12 62
Exercise
For the circuit shown, determine the mesh currents i1 ,i2 and current through
the galvanometer
M1: 40 (i1) + 100 (i1 - i2) + 20 (i1 – i3) = 0
A
M2: 30 (i2) + 30 (i2 – i3) + 100 (i2 – i1) = 0
i1 i2
40 30 M3: 10 (i3) + 20 (i3 – i1) + 30 (i3 – i2) = 10
RG = 100
G v R i
20 30 Rearanging the mesh equations
0 160 100 20 i1
B 0 100 160 30 i
i3 2
10 20 30 60 i3
+-
10 10 V
Solve for i1 & i2
[ i1 = 0.10197A, i2 = 0.11184A. iG = 9.87 mA]
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 13 63
Super Mesh
• A super mesh occurs when a current source is contained between two
essential meshes.
• The circuit is first treated as if the current source is not there.
• This leads to one equation that incorporates two mesh currents.
• Once this equation is formed, an equation is needed that relates the two mesh
currents with the current source.
• This will be an equation where the current source is equal to one of the mesh
currents minus the other.
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 14 64
Example : Super Mesh
For the circuit shown, determine the current through the 3 ohm resistor
1(i1-i2) + 3(i3-i2) + 1 (i3) = 7
1(i2-i1) + 2 (i2) + 3 (i2-i3) = 0
1 i2 2 (i1 – i3 )= 7
v R i
i1
7V
7A 3
1
0 1 6 3 i1
7 1 4 4 i2
i3
2
7 1 0 1 i3
Current through 3 ohm resistor = i2 – i3 = 0.5 A (right to left)
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 15 65
2 - NODE & SUPER NODE
NODE VOLTAGE ANALYSIS
Node Voltage analysis Principle – KCL
One of the nodes is the reference node
Number of Node equations required = (Total No. of Nodes - 1)
While writing the node equations, it is assumed that the node under
consideration is at higher potential to that of other nodes connected to it
The current directions at a node is decided by the above assumption
Transform all convertible voltage sources to current sources, it helps
reducing the simplification.
Rearrange the node voltage equations in the form [G][v]=[i]
Solve for [v]
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 16 66
NODE VOLTAGE ANALYSIS
For the circuit shown, obtain the node voltage equations
1 2 Node 1
V1 VB1 V1 V1 V2 0
R1 R2 R3
Node 2
V2 VB2 V2 V2 V1 0
0; Reference node R5 R4 R3
1 1 1 1 VB1
-
1
V
Rearranging the terms 1R R2 R3 R3 R1
V
- 1 1 1 1 V
2
B2
R
R3 3 R4 R5 5
R
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 17 67
EXAMPLE
For the circuit shown, determine the current through the galvanometer.
1A
0.175 0.025 0.1 va 1
10 0.025 0.6833 0.0333 vb 0
vb 0.1 0.0333 0.1667 vc 1
40 A 30
0.175 1 0.1
va vc
0.025 0 0.0333
100
0.1 1 0.1667
vb -0.9865
20
B
30 0.175 0.025 0.1
Ref. va vb va va vc 0.025 0.6833 0.0333
1 0.1 0.0333 0.1667
40 20 10
vb va vb vb vc iG = vb/100 = - 9.865 mA
0
40 100 30
vc va vc vc vb
1
10 30 30
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 18 68
Super Node
• When a circuit contains voltage sources DIRECTLY connecting two essential
nodes,
the concept of the Super node is used to write the necessary nodal
equations.
• Note that there may be more than one super node in a circuit.
• Also, a super node may possibly include more than 2 nodes.
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 19 69
Example : Super Node
For the circuit shown obtain the node voltage V1
3 (v1 – v2) + 4 (v1 - v3) = -11
4S
3 (v2-v1) + 4 (v3-v1) + 5 v3 + 1 v2 = 28
-3A v3 – v2 = 22
Rearranging the equations
3S
22 V
v1 v2 - + v3 7 v1 – 3 v2 – 4 v3 = -11
-7 v1 + 4 v2 + 9 v3 = 28
1S -v2 + v3 = 22 11 3 4
5S
28 4 9
-8A
7 3 4 v1 11
1 1
7 4 9 v2 28
- 25 A 22
v1 4.5V
Ref. 7 3 4
0 1 1 v3 22 7 4 9
0 1 1
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 20 70
Numerical
Q. Determine the following loop currents.
6𝛺
Sol. We obtain,
How to solve this systems?
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 21 71
Method 1: Gaussian Elimination to Triangular form
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 22 72
Method 2: Cramer’s Rule
24 8 20 40 24 20
0 18 6 8 0 6
0 6 36 20 0 36
I1 I2
40 8 20 40 8 20
8 18 6 8 18 6
20 6 36 20 6 36
40 8 24
8 18 0
20 6 0
I3
40 8 20
8 18 6
20 6 36
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 23 73
DC NETWORK THEOREMS
• An electrical Circuit is an interconnection of electrical components
(e.g., batteries, resistors, inductors, capacitors, switches, transistors and
voltage sources & current sources).
• An electrical circuit is a network consisting of a closed loop, giving a return
path for the current.
• Using different theorems, response of the different sources (voltage &
current) on the particular load of the circuit can be calculated.
• These theorems are as given below,
1. Superposition Theorem
2. Thevenin Theorem
3. Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 7 74
SUPERPOSITION THEOREM
Statement:- In a linear network with several independent sources, the response in a particular branch
when all the sources are acting simultaneously is equal to the linear sum of individual responses
calculated by taking one independent source at a time. Superposition theorem is used only in linear
networks.
Problem-1-: Find the voltage drop across the 2 ohm (R2) resistor using superposition theorem.
Fig.1 Explanation of Superposition Theorem
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 8 75
In the above figure, the circuit with two voltage sources is divided into two individual circuits according
to this theorem’s statement.
In first case used only one voltage source and other voltage source is replace with their internal
resistance which is zero in case of voltage source and infinity in case of current source. So voltage
source is changed to short circuit and current source is changed by open circuit. And find the current in
the specific branch.
In First Case-: Applied only first voltage source and short circuit the second voltage source.
R2 and R3 are connected in parallel and equivalent resistant is connected in series with the R1.
R1eq = R2||R3 + R1
R1eq = 2||1 + 4
R1eq = 2/3 + 4
R1eq = 14/3 ohms
Current with draw from the source-1 is calculated by I1 = V1 / R1eq = 28*3/14 = 6 Amp
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 9 76
Now calculate the current in the R2 branch due the first voltage source only is I11 = I1* R3 /(R3 + R2)
= 6*1/(1+2) =2 Amp
In Second Case-: Applied only second voltage source and short circuit the first voltage source.
R1 and R2 are connected in parallel and equivalent resistant is connected in series with the R3.
R2eq = R1||R2 + R3
R2eq = 4||2 +4
R2eq = 8/6 + 4
R2eq = 16/3 ohms
Current with draw from the source-2 is calculated by I2 = V2 / R2eq = 7*3/16 = 1.31 Amp
Now calculate the current in the R2 branch due the second voltage source only is I21 = I2* R1 /(R2 + R1)
= 1.31*4/(4+2) = 0.873 Amp
Total current in the R2 branch is calculated by sum of the current flow due to the individual
voltage sources = 2 + 0.873 = 2.873 Amp
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 10 77
Problem-2-: Find the value of Ix using superposition theorem.
Fig.1
There are two sources so it is required to apply the source one by one as per superposition theorem
state to calculate the value of Ix. First apply 5 V voltage source and replace current source with open
terminal.
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 11 78
Step-1
Let's start with the voltage source and change the current source with its internal resistance (open circuit)
as shown in Fig 2.
Fig.2
In the Fig. it can be seen that the 4Ω and 2Ω resistors are connected in series so total resistor become 6Ω.
Similarly 3Ω and 1Ω resistors are also connected in series so total resistor become 4Ω. In addition
6Ω and 4Ω resistors are connected in the parallel to the source voltage as shown in Fig 3.
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 12 79
Fig.3
Now 4Ω and 6Ω are connected in parallel and equivalent resistance become :
R4Ω||6Ω =(4×6)/(4+6)=2.4Ω
Now calculate the value of Ix1
Ix1 =5V/2.4Ω=2.083A
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 13 80
To continue solving the circuit with the Superposition theorem, the voltage source is changed to the short circuit and only
current source is applied on the circuit and find the contribution of the current source on Ix. Ix2 is taken as the contribution of
the current source.
Fig.4
We can easily apply KCL and find Ix2 . So, 4Ω and 2Ω are connected in parallel and also 3Ω and 1Ω are connected in parallel:
R4Ω||2Ω=(4×2)/(4+2)=4/3Ω
R3Ω||1Ω =3/4Ω
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 14 81
V2Ω||4Ω=4/3*(−3) = −4V
V3Ω||1Ω =3/4*(−3) = −2.25V
Please note that the voltage drop on 4Ω||2Ω is the same as 4Ω and 2Ω voltage drops, because the circuits are equivalent and all
are connected to the same nodes. The same statement is correct for 3Ω||1Ω voltage drop and 3Ω and 1Ω voltage drops. So
V4Ω=V2Ω=V2Ω||4Ω= −4V
V3Ω||1Ω=V3Ω||1Ω=V 3Ω||1Ω = −2.25V
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 15 82
To find Ix2 all we need is to write KCL at one of the nodes:
Ix2 = I2Ω − I3Ω
I2Ω =V2Ω /2Ω=−4/2=−2A
I3Ω =V3Ω /3Ω=−2.25/3=−0.75A
Ix2 =−1.25A
Therefore, Using
Superposition,
Ix = Ix1 + I2x =2.083−1.25=0.8333A
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 16 83
THEVENIN’S THEOREM
Steps to Analyze an Electric Circuit
1.Open the load resistor.
2.Calculate / measure the open circuit voltage. This is the Thevenin Voltage (VTH).
3.Open current sources and short voltage sources.
4.Calculate /measure the Open Circuit Resistance. This is the Thevenin Resistance (RTH).
5.Now, redraw the circuit with measured open circuit Voltage (VTH) in Step (2) as voltage source and
measured open circuit resistance (RTH) in step (4) as a series resistance and connect the load resistor
which we had removed in Step (1). This is the equivalent Thevenin circuit of that linear electric
network or complex circuit which had to be simplified and analyzed by Thevenin’s Theorem. You
have done.
6.Now find the Total current flowing through load resistor by using the Ohm’s Law: IT = V TH / (RTH + RL).
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 7 84
THEVENIN TEOREM
Problem-1: Find VX by first finding V TH and RTH to the left of A-B using Thevenin Theorem.
12 4 A
+
30 V +
_ 6 2 VX
_
B
Step-1 Open the load resistor.
Step-2 Calculate the open circuit voltage. This is the Thevenin Voltage (VTH).
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 8 85
12 4 A
30 V + 6 (30)(6)
_ VAB 10V
6 12
B
Notice that there is no current flowing in the 4 resistor (A-B) is open. Thus there can be no voltage
across the resistor.
Step-3 & 4 Open current sources and short voltage sources and calculate the Open Circuit Resistance.
This is the Thevenin Resistance (RTH).
We now deactivate the sources to the left of A-B and find the resistance seen looking in these
terminals as shown in Fig.
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 9 86
12 4 A
6 RTH
B
RTH = 12||6 + 4 = 8
Step-5 Now draw the equivalent Thevenin circuit of that linear electric network or complex
circuit which had to be simplified and analyzed by Thevenin’s Theorem.
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 10 87
We connect this to the load in order to find VX.
RTH A
8 +
+
VTH _ 10 V 2 VX
_
B
(10)( 2)
VX 2V
28
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 11 88
Problem-2: In the circuit given circuit, find VAB by using Thevenin Theorem.
1.5 A
5
A
10
20 V _+ 20 17
Step-1 Open the load resistor.
Step-2 Calculate the open circuit voltage. This is the Thevenin Voltage (VTH).
We first find V TH with the 17 resistor removed. Next we find RTH by looking into terminals A-B
with the sources deactivated.
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 12 89
1.5 A
5
A
10
20 V _+ 20
20(20)
VOS VAB VTH (1.5)(10)
(20 5)
VTH 31V
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 13 90
5
A
10
20 RTH
To calculate the value of the thevenin resistance all sources are changed to their internal resistance like
voltage source is changed to short circuit and the current source is changed to open terminal. In addition
for calculating the value of RTH this circuit is viewed from the open terminal.
5(20)
RTH 10 14
(5 20)
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 14 91
RTH A
14 +
+
VTH _ 31 V 17 VAB
_
B
Now we can see that, VAB = V TH *17/(14+17)
VAB 17V
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 15 92
MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM
This theorem states that the output obtained from a network is maximum when the load resistance RL is equal to
the internal resistance of the network as seen from the terminals of the load.
According to Thevenin theorem, every network can be represented by a single voltage source (Thevenin source)
having an effective internal resistance Rth as shown in Figure.
Let us determine the value of load resistor RL so that source delivers maximum power to it.
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 16 93
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 17 94
Thus, for maximum power transfer, the load resistance RL must be made equal to the internal
resistance of the source (or of the whole network) Rth.
In this case, the efficiency will by very poor only 50%, but the low efficiency is of no importance because
the aim is to transfer the maximum power at the output. Now the maximum power transfer to the
load of the circuit is given by:
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 18 95
Problem-1: Find the value of load resistance RL for maximum power flow through it in the circuit shown in
Figure1.
Fig 1
The power drawn by the load resistor RL will be maximum when its value is equal to the Thevenin
equivalent resistance of the network. To determine Rth across terminal AB (load), remove RL and replace
the sources by their internal resistances, that is, short circuit the voltage source and open circuit the
current source, as shown in Figure 2.
Rth = 2.43Ω
The power transferred to the load by the source will be maximum
when:
RL Rth 2.43Ω
Fig 2
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 19 96
Problem-2: Determine the value of load resistance RL to give maximum power transfer and the power delivered
to the load as shown in Figure1.
Fig 1
The equivalent resistance of the network when viewed from terminals A and B after removing resistor
RL from the circuit and short circuiting the voltage source.
We get Thevenin resistance
Fig 2
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 20 97
Maximum power will be transferred to the load, when it is equal to Thevenin’s equivalent resistance Rth,
RL Rth 9 Ω
When the terminals A and B are open (i.e., load resistor RL is removed), the current flowing
through the mesh ECDFE, as shown in Figure.
Open-circuit voltage across AB, VAB VCD Eth 10 1 10 V
Maximum power delivered to the load,
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 21 98
THEVENIN’S THEOREM
Steps to Analyze an Electric Circuit
1.Open the load resistor.
2.Calculate / measure the open circuit voltage. This is the Thevenin Voltage (VTH).
3.Open current sources and short voltage sources.
4.Calculate /measure the Open Circuit Resistance. This is the Thevenin Resistance (RTH).
5.Now, redraw the circuit with measured open circuit Voltage (VTH) in Step (2) as voltage source and
measured open circuit resistance (RTH) in step (4) as a series resistance and connect the load resistor
which we had removed in Step (1). This is the equivalent Thevenin circuit of that linear electric
network or complex circuit which had to be simplified and analyzed by Thevenin’s Theorem. You
have done.
6.Now find the Total current flowing through load resistor by using the Ohm’s Law: IT = V TH / (RTH + RL).
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 7 99
THEVENIN TEOREM
Problem-1: Find VX by first finding V TH and RTH to the left of A-B using Thevenin Theorem.
12 4 A
+
30 V +
_ 6 2 VX
_
B
Step-1 Open the load resistor.
Step-2 Calculate the open circuit voltage. This is the Thevenin Voltage (VTH).
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 8 100
12 4 A
30 V + 6 (30)(6)
_ VAB 10V
6 12
B
Notice that there is no current flowing in the 4 resistor (A-B) is open. Thus there can be no voltage
across the resistor.
Step-3 & 4 Open current sources and short voltage sources and calculate the Open Circuit Resistance.
This is the Thevenin Resistance (RTH).
We now deactivate the sources to the left of A-B and find the resistance seen looking in these
terminals as shown in Fig.
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 9 101
12 4 A
6 RTH
B
RTH = 12||6 + 4 = 8
Step-5 Now draw the equivalent Thevenin circuit of that linear electric network or complex
circuit which had to be simplified and analyzed by Thevenin’s Theorem.
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 10 102
We connect this to the load in order to find VX.
RTH A
8 +
+
VTH _ 10 V 2 VX
_
B
(10)( 2)
VX 2V
28
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 11 103
Problem-2: In the circuit given circuit, find VAB by using Thevenin Theorem.
1.5 A
5
A
10
20 V _+ 20 17
Step-1 Open the load resistor.
Step-2 Calculate the open circuit voltage. This is the Thevenin Voltage (VTH).
We first find V TH with the 17 resistor removed. Next we find RTH by looking into terminals A-B
with the sources deactivated.
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 12 104
1.5 A
5
A
10
20 V _+ 20
20(20)
VOS VAB VTH (1.5)(10)
(20 5)
VTH 31V
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 13 105
5
A
10
20 RTH
To calculate the value of the thevenin resistance all sources are changed to their internal resistance like
voltage source is changed to short circuit and the current source is changed to open terminal. In addition
for calculating the value of RTH this circuit is viewed from the open terminal.
5(20)
RTH 10 14
(5 20)
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 14 106
RTH A
14 +
+
VTH _ 31 V 17 VAB
_
B
Now we can see that, VAB = V TH *17/(14+17)
VAB 17V
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 15 107
MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM
This theorem states that the output obtained from a network is maximum when the load resistance RL is equal to
the internal resistance of the network as seen from the terminals of the load.
According to Thevenin theorem, every network can be represented by a single voltage source (Thevenin source)
having an effective internal resistance Rth as shown in Figure.
Let us determine the value of load resistor RL so that source delivers maximum power to it.
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 16 108
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 17 109
Thus, for maximum power transfer, the load resistance RL must be made equal to the internal
resistance of the source (or of the whole network) Rth.
In this case, the efficiency will by very poor only 50%, but the low efficiency is of no importance because
the aim is to transfer the maximum power at the output. Now the maximum power transfer to the
load of the circuit is given by:
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 18 110
Problem-1: Find the value of load resistance RL for maximum power flow through it in the circuit shown in
Figure1.
Fig 1
The power drawn by the load resistor RL will be maximum when its value is equal to the Thevenin
equivalent resistance of the network. To determine Rth across terminal AB (load), remove RL and replace
the sources by their internal resistances, that is, short circuit the voltage source and open circuit the
current source, as shown in Figure 2.
Rth = 2.43Ω
The power transferred to the load by the source will be maximum
when:
RL Rth 2.43Ω
Fig 2
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 19 111
Problem-2: Determine the value of load resistance RL to give maximum power transfer and the power delivered
to the load as shown in Figure1.
Fig 1
The equivalent resistance of the network when viewed from terminals A and B after removing resistor
RL from the circuit and short circuiting the voltage source.
We get Thevenin resistance
Fig 2
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 20 112
Maximum power will be transferred to the load, when it is equal to Thevenin’s equivalent resistance Rth,
RL Rth 9 Ω
When the terminals A and B are open (i.e., load resistor RL is removed), the current flowing
through the mesh ECDFE, as shown in Figure.
Open-circuit voltage across AB, VAB VCD Eth 10 1 10 V
Maximum power delivered to the load,
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS SYSTEM EE1002 21 113
1. Introduction to Phasors
Rotation Vm v(wt) = Vm sin wt
v() = Vm sin
N S w Vm
v p 2p
a 0 0 wt
Vm
b -Vm
Coil
A phasor is a graphical representation of the magnitude and angular position
of a time varying quantity such as a voltage or current in which variation is
sinusoidal.
A phasor diagram can be used to show the relative relationship of two or
more sine waves of the same frequency.
114
Leading Sine Wave
Im
v(ωt)
Vm wt
i(ωt)
Phase angle is the angular difference between the two quantities under
consideration.
One quantity is the reference
Im leads Vm (or i leads v) by an angle where Vm is the reference.
Time domain: v(t) = Vm sin(ωt); i(t) = Im sin (ωt + )
Polar form: V = Vm / 0o; I = Im /
115
Lagging Sine Wave
i(ωt)
Vm 0 wt
Im
v(ωt)
Im lags Vm (or i lags v) by an angle
Time domain: v(t) = Vm sin(ωt); i(t) = Im sin (ωt - )
Polar form: V = Vm / 0o; I = Im /-
116
The ‘j’ operator
jA
O A
Any phasor when operated by ‘j’ is rotated in anticlockwise
direction by 90 degrees.
jOA = OA /90 ;
j*jOA = - OA = OA /180 ;
j2 1 OR j 1
117
Phasor Representation
Two forms of representation:
i Im
A
IA
• Polar form: represented by
magnitude and the angle 0 θ1 p IB 2p
A I A 1 θ2 B
B I B 2
y
A
• Rectangular form: represented θ2 θ1 X - Ref.
by its X and Y coordinates
A I A (cos( 1 ) jSin (1 ))
B
B I B (Cos(2 ) jSin (2 ))
118
Exercise
Convert the following into polar form using calculators
1 ) 3 j4 553.13
2) 8 j6 10 36.87
3) 8 - j6 10 - 36.87
Convert the following into rectangular form using calculators
1)530 4.33 j2.5
2)3 60 1.5 j2.59
3) 1045 7.07 j7.07
119
1. Pure resistive circuits
Let
i(t)
v(t) = Vm sin wt --------------- (1)
v( t )
i( t ) R
R v(t)
= Im sin wt -------------(2)
Im
I Where I = Irms
2
v(t)
Phasor diagram
V i(t)
I
Phase angle between V & I = 0 p/2 p 2p wt
Vm
Im
R
0
current through the resistor is in
phase with the voltage across it.
V & I are RMS values
120
Pure Resistive Circuits - Power Consumed
Instantaneous power,
p(t) = v(t).i(t) p(t)
= Vm Im sin2wt v(t)
i(t)
T
1
Average Power , P
T0 p( t ) dt
0 p/2 p 2p
wt
Vm I m
VI
2
2
V
P I2 R
R
121
2. Pure Inductive Circuits
Let
i(t)
v(t) Vmsinw t ........eq(1)
di(t)
+
e(t) L ;
dt v(t) L e(t)
di(t) -
v(t) e(t) L
dt
1 1
i(t)
L v(t) dt
L Vmsinw t dt v(t)
Vm
( cos wt ) i(t)
ωL
i(t) I msin(w t-90) ........eq(2) p/2 p 3p/2 2p wt
Vm
where I m ;
ωL
V V 00 ; I I 900
122
Pure Inductive Circuits - Phasor diagram
Current through pure inductor lags the
voltage across it by 900 .
Vm = wL Im.
= XL Im.
V̂ V0
XL = wL = 2pf L ----- inductive reactance,
in ohm 90º
V I m Vm / 2
Im m
XL 2 XL
V V Î I 90
I XL
XL I
Phasor Diagram Phase difference = 90º
V V0 0 ; I I 900
V V0 V
jX where XL
I 90 0 L
I I 123
Pure Inductive Circuits …
The inductive reactance is directly
Inductive
proportional to frequency.
reactance
XL = wL = 2pf L
The current through pure inductor
is inversely proportional to Current
frequency.
I = V/(wL)
0
Frequency
124
Pure Inductive Circuits -Power Consumed
Instantaneous power,
p(t) = v(t).i(t)
= Vm Im sinwt. sin(wt-90)
= - Vm Im coswt. sinwt
= -(Vm Im/2) sin2wt
v
Average Power Consumed in a
Pure Inductor i p
2p
1
P
2p p(wt ) d (wt ) 0
0
0 p/2 p 3p/2 2p
wt
The net (average/active) power
absorbed in a pure Inductor is
zero
125
3. Pure Capacitive Circuits
Let i(t)
v(t) Vm sinwt ........eq (1)
dv(t) v(t)
i(t) C ; C
dt
d(Vm sinwt)
i(t) C v(t)
dt
wCVm (coswt ) i(t)
i(t) I m sin( wt 90) ........eq (2)
p/2 p 3p/2 2p wt
where I m wCVm ;
V V0 0 ; I I90 0
126
Pure Capacitive circuits - Phasor diagram
Current through pure Capacitor leads the
voltage across it by 90º. Î I90
Vm = Im/(wC)
= XC Im.
XC = 1/(wC) = 1/(2pf C) -----
Capacitive reactance, in ohm
90º V̂ V0
V Im V / 2
Im m m
XC 2 XC
Phasor diagram
V V
I XC
XC I
Phase difference = 90º
Phasor Diagram
V V0 0 ; I I900
V V0 V
jX where XC
I90 0 C
I I 127
Pure Capacitive Circuits…
The capacitive reactance is inversely
proportional to frequency.
Capacitor current
XC = 1/ (w C)
Capacitive Reactance
The current through a pure capacitor
is directly proportional to frequency.
I=wCV
0
Frequency,w
128
Pure Capacitive Circuits - Power Consumed
Instantaneous power,
p(t) = v(t).i(t)
= Vm Im sinwt. sin(wt+90)
= Vm Im coswt. sinwt
= (Vm Im/2) sin2wt
Average Power Consumed in a Pure
Capacitor v
2p i p
1
P
2p p(wt ) d (wt ) 0
0
0 p/2 p 3p/2 2p
wt
The average/active power consumed by a pure Capacitor is zero.
129
1. Series RL Circuit
Phasor Diagram - R L
let i (t ) I msin w t; I I 0
Let I be the reference axis and v(t) i(t)
let us represent all the
quantities in polar form
VR IR; VL IX L 90 jwLI VL 90; V VL wLI X L I
V V ; 90º
v(t ) Vm sin (w t ) I
VR IR Reference
(phasor)
130
Series RL Circuit - Complex Impedance
Complex Impedance
V IZ VL wLI X L I
V VR VL RI jX L I
( R jX ) I I Zˆ 90º
L
I
VR IR
Zˆ ( R jX L ) Z Z Reference
(phasor)
Z (cos j sin )
Z wL X L
R Z cos ; X L Z sin
wL 90º
or Z ( R X2 2
L ) ; tan 1
I
R R Reference
(phasor)
The phase difference between V & I is termed as phase angle , .
Also is termed as Impedance angle
131
Series RL Circuit - Waveforms
i(t ) I m sin ωt
v(t ) Vm sin( wt )
v
p/2 p 3p/2 2p
wt
The current lags behind the voltage
by a phase angle
132
2. Series RC Circuit – Phasor diagram
Phasor Diagram -
R C
Let i(t) I m sin ω t I 0
Let I be the reference axis and
let us represent all the v(t) i(t)
quantities in polar form
VC IX C 90 jX C I ;
VR IR VR IR Reference
I
V V ; -90º
(phasor)
v(t ) Vm sin( w t ) V VC X C I
133
Series RC Circuit - Complex Impedance
Complex Impedance
VR IR Reference
V VR VC RI jX C I (phasor) I
-90º
( R jX C )I I Ẑ
V IZ VC X C I
Ẑ ( R jX C ) Z Z
Z (cos j sin ) R Reference
(phasor) I
R Z cos ; X C Z sin -90º
1 1
or Z ( R X C ) ; tan
1
XC
2
2 Z
wCR wC
The phase difference between V & I is termed as phase angle , .
is the Impedance angle
134
Series RC Circuit - Wave forms
i(t ) I m sin ωt
v(t ) Vm sin( wt )
v
p/2 p 3p/2 2p wt
The current Leads behind the voltage by a phase angle
135
Solved Examples
1. A resistance of 50 is connected in series with an inductance
of 100 mH across a 230V, 50 Hz, single phase AC supply.
Calculate
a) impedance
b) current drawn
c) power factor
d) power consumed
e) Draw the phasor diagram.
136
Ans.
a) Z = 5932.14 e)
V VL
b) I = 3.898 32.14 A
32.12º
c) Pf = 0.847 lag VR I
d) P = 759.15W
137
2. A resistance of 50 is connected in series with a capacitance
of 100 F across a 230V, 50 Hz, single phase AC supply.
Calculate
a) impedance
b) current drawn
c) power factor
d) power consumed
e) Draw the phasor diagram.
138
Ans.
a) Z = 59.272 32.48 e)
VR
b) I = 3.8832.48 A;
I
assu min g V V0 32.48º
0.847 lag VC
c) Pf = 0.843 lead V
d) P = 752.81W
139
Series RLC Circuit
Let i(t) = Im sinwt R L C
Impedance, Z=R+j(XL-XC)
(i) If XL=XC , resistive circuit v(t) i(t)
(ii) If XL>XC, RL series circuit
(iii) If XL<XC, RC series circuit
Note: - i(t) is the reference
140
Series RLC Circuit – Power consumed
Instantaneous power
p( t ) v ( t ) i ( t )
Vm sin w t I m sin wt
Average power
2p
1 Vm I m
P
2p 0 p(t ) d (wt ) 2 cos
P VI cos = Active Power
Cos is called the power factor
141
Power Triangle
V VI
VL V sin VI sin
90º 90º
I I
VR V cos VI cos
P = Average power = Active power = VI cos
measured in Watt
Q = Reactive power = VI sin
measured in VAr
(Volt-Amp reactive)
S = Absolute power = Apparent power = VI
measured in VA (Volt-Amp)
142
Complex Power
For inductive loads, current is lagging, the angle is negative.
Q = Reactive power = VI sin ( ) VI sin
But in SI units, lagging reactive power is +ve.
Hence, conjugate of the angle is used in power calculations.
S = VI* = V0o I * = VI = VI cos j VI sin
S=P+jQ
Similarly For capacitive loads, reactive power is –ve in SI units.
S = VI* = V0o I * = VI = VI cos j VI sin
S=P-jQ
143
Power Factor
- Ratio of active power to absolute power
- Also, cosine of the impedance angle is numerically same as power factor.
P VI cosφ
Power Factor cosφ
S VI
144
SERIES RESONANCE - RLC Series Circuit
Z R j(X L X C )
X L L
1
XC
C
v(t), variable frequency
Is said to be in resonance, when
Current is in phase with voltage
Inductive reactance =Capacitive reactance; XL = XC
Circuit Power factor is unity
Effective Circuit impedance is resistive; Z = R
145
SERIES RESONANCE - Resonant frequency (f0)
At series Resonance
Resonant frequency (f0)
XL XC
1
0 L
0 C
1 v(t), variable frequency
02
LC
1
o radians / sec
LC
1
fo hertz
2 LC
146
SERIES RESONANCE - Variation of Current
I0
I
Acceptor circuit
ωo ω
• at resonance Irms is maximum when XL = XC;
V
I o ; rms value
R
147
SERIES RESONANCE - Variation of phase angle
2
o ωo
ω
2
For -
ω< ωo; XC>XL leading current
ω= ωo; XC=XL in phase current
ω> ωo; XC<XL lagging current
148
Series Resonance - Bandwidth and Half Power frequencies
At 1 and 2 , I
Io i
2 IO
2
Io
Power
R
Io
2 2
1
2
Io R
2
= Half the power at
ω1 ωo ω2 ω
resonant frequency
ω1 = lower half power frequency
ω2 = upper half power frequency
Band Width = ω2- ω1
149
Relation between Band Width and Half Power Frequencies
Vo
Im pedance at 1 and 2 Z 2R
Io
2
At 1 , Z1 R j(X C X L ) At 2 , Z 2 R j(X L X C )
R 2 ( X C X L ) 2 2R R 2 (X L X C ) 2 2 R
1 1
X C X L R; 1 L R X L X C R; 2 L R
1C 2 C
R
2 2
R 1 R R 1
1 2
2L 2 L LC 2L 2L LC
R
Hence 2 1
L
150
Series Resonance - Q - Factor
Quality factor- a measure of selectivity
XL
Q
R
ωo ωo
(ω o L ) / R
R ω 2 ω1
L
Resonant frequency
Band Width
ωo L 1 1 L
Q ;
R ωo CR R C
151
SERIES RESONANCE - Voltage Magnification
At Series Resonance
Voltage across L or C VL or VC
Supply vol tage V
I X I X
O L O C Q
IO R IO R
Sharpness of resonance depends on R
Small R gives sharp resonance
Large R gives broad resonance
152
PARALLEL RESONANCE - Characteristics
At Resonance Voltage and current must be in phase
iR iL iC
Hence in the case of Parallel Resonance : R L C
v(t)
The admittance of the circuit is minimum
at resonance so Z is maximum & I in
minimum.
The current (maximum) drawn from the
supply is V/R
The currents IC and IL are equal and
opposite.
Power factor is unity
Net susceptance is zero
153
PARALLEL RESONANCE - Resonant frequency (fr)
For pure RLC parallel circuit
Let be variable and r = Resonant frequency (fr)
At resonance, the net susceptance is zero for
iR iL iC
Parallel Resonance.
R L C
1 1 v(t)
YL j ; YC j ;
XL XC
1 1 1
ωr C ; ωr rad/sec; f r Hz
ωr L LC 2π LC
Same expression as in case of Series resonance
154
PARALLEL RESONANCE - Resonant frequency (fr)
For the Circuit shown…
At resonance, the net susceptance is zero for
Parallel Resonance (C – 1/ L)=0 . R
(R j L) v(t)
C
Ẑ1 (R jX L ) (R j L); Ŷ1
(R) 2 (ωL) 2 L
1 1 1
Ẑ 2 jX C j ; Ŷ2 j ωC
ωC Z2 1
j
ωC
R L
Y Y1 Y 2 2 j 2 jC
R (L) 2
R (L) 2
L 1 R
2
r 1 R
2
C 2 fr
1
R ( r L ) 2 LC L 2 LC L
155
PARALLEL RESONANCE - Current magnification
I IC
C
v(t) IL I
ωL
L IC Φ V
Φ R
IL
At resonance, IL and IC >>>I I C I L Sin r L
tan
Current magnification, I I LCos R
156
PARALLEL RESONANCE - Variation of current
o ωr ω
At resonance Current is minimum (as its reactive part = 0);
𝑳
Thus, Maximum Impedance = Dynamic Impedance =
𝑹𝑪
Also called Rejector circuit.
157
𝑸 𝐅𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫
Defined as the ratio of the line current (𝐼𝑜 ) , circulating between
the two branches of the parallel circuit to the line current.
𝑉
were, 𝐼𝑜 =
𝐿Τ𝑅𝐶
𝜔𝐿
Thus, 𝑄𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝑅
And at resonance,
𝜔𝑜 𝐿 1 𝐿 1 𝐿
𝑄𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = . =𝑅
𝑅 𝐿𝐶 𝑅 𝐶
In series circuit 𝑄𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 gives Voltage Magnification &
In parallel circuit 𝑄𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 gives Current Magnification.
158
Solved Examples
[1] A series RLC circuit consisting of R=100Ω, L=10mH and C=100μF is
supplied by an ac supply of 100 volt at varying frequency.
Determine
a) Resonant frequency
b) Current at resonance
c) Half power frequencies
d) Q factor
e) Voltage across capacitor
159
Sol.
1
Re sonant frequency f o 159.15Hz
2 LC
Vo
At resonance I o I max 1A
R
1 99 rad / sec
2 10099 rad/sec
o L 2f o L
Q
R
R
1
R
L
C
0.099 0.1
Capacitor voltage Q * supply voltge 0.1*100 10 V
160
[2] An RLC series circuit of R=8Ω resistance should be designed to have a
bandwidth of 50 Hz. Determine the value of L and C so that the system
resonates at 200 Hz.
Given f 2 f1 50 Hz
o 2f o
Q
2 1 250
o L 1 L L 25.46mH
Q
R R C C 24.86F
161
[3] The parallel circuit shown in figure is made to resonate by varying L.
Find the value of L if ω=5000rad/sec .
Sol.
5 j10
Z1=5-j10Ω Y1 2 5
125
2 jX L
Z2=2+jXLΩ Y2 2 L 20F
2 X2L
10 XL
Im(Y1+Y2)=Im(Y) = 2 0
125 2 X L
2
XL = 12.17 Ω or 0.3286Ω
L = 65.73μH or 2.434mH
162
[4] Show that circuit given in figure will be at resonance at supply
L=0.5H C=1F
frequency
Sol.
5
Given ω=1.4 rad/sec vs=Cos(1.4t)
Find overall impedance (admittance)
If it results in real answer, then frequency at resonance is 1.4
rad/sec
Z 0.099 purely resistive at 1.4 rad/sec
163
Introduction
Semiconductors are materials whose electrical
properties lie between Conductors and Insulators.
Ex : Silicon and Germanium
Give the examples of Conductors and Insulators!
Difference in conductivity
164
Semiconductor Materials: Ge, Si, and GaAs
Semiconductors are a special class of elements having a
conductivity between that of a good conductor and
that of an insulator.
• They fall into two classes : single crystal and compound
• Single crystal : Germanium (Ge) and silicon (Si).
• Compound : gallium arsenide (GaAs),
cadmium sulfide (CdS),
gallium nitride (GaN),
gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)
The three semiconductors used most frequently in the
construction of electronic devices are Ge, Si, and GaAs.
165
Energy Levels
The farther an electron is from the nucleus, the higher is the
energy state.
166
Energy Levels
An electron in the valence band of silicon must absorb more energy than
one in the valence band of germanium to become a free carrier. [free
carriers are free electrons due only to external causes such as applied
electric fields established by voltage sources or potential difference.
167
Majority and Minority carriers
Two currents through a diode:
Majority Carriers
•The majority carriers in n-type materials are electrons.
•The majority carriers in p-type materials are holes.
Minority Carriers
•The minority carriers in n-type materials are holes.
•The minority carriers in p-type materials are electrons.
168
pn Junction
• This cannot occur in the case of the charged particles in a p-n junction because of the development
of space charge and the electric field ()
As electrons diffuse from the n region, positively charged donor atoms are
left behind. Similarly, as holes diffuse from the p region, they uncover
negatively charged acceptor atoms. These are minority carriers.
The net positive and negative charges in the n and p regions induce
an electric field in the region near the junction, in the direction from
the positive to the negative charge, or from the n to the p region.
The net positively and negatively charged regions
are shown in Figure. These two regions are referred to as the space charge
region (SCR). Essentially all electrons and holes are swept out of the space
charge region by the electric field. Since the space charge region is depleted of
any mobile charge, this region is also referred to as the depletion region
Density gradients still exist in the majority carrier concentrations at each edge of the space charge region.
This produce a "diffusion force" that acts the electrons and holes at the edges of the space charge region.
The electric field in the SCR produces another force on the electrons and holes which is in the opposite
direction to the diffusion force for each type of particle. In thermal equilibrium, the diffusion force and the
E-field () force exactly balance each other.
169
p-n Junctions
At the p-n junction, the excess
conduction-band electrons on the
n-type side are attracted to the
valence-band holes on the p-type
side.
The electrons in the n-type
material migrate across the The result is the formation of a
junction to the p-type material depletion region around the junction.
(electron flow).
Anode Cathode
P N
The electron migration results in a
negative charge on the p-type side
of the junction and a positive
charge on the n-type side of the
junction.
170
Diodes
The diode is a 2-terminal device.
A diode ideally conducts in only
one direction.
171
Diode Operating Conditions •
•
No bias
Forward bias
• Reverse bias
Reverse bias Forward bias
172
Diode Operating Conditions
No Bias
• No external voltage is applied: VD = 0V
• No current is flowing: ID = 0A
• Only a modest depletion region exists
173
Diode Operating Conditions
Forward Bias
External voltage is applied across the p-n junction in
the same polarity as the p- and n-type materials.
• The forward voltage causes the depletion region
to narrow.
• The electrons and holes are pushed toward the p-n
junction.
• The electrons and holes have sufficient energy to
cross the p-n junction.
174
Forward Bias Voltage
The point at which the diode changes from no-bias condition to
forward-bias condition occurs when the electrons and holes are
given sufficient energy to cross the p-n junction. This energy
comes from the external voltage applied across the diode.
The forward bias voltage required for a:
• gallium arsenide diode 1.2 V
• silicon diode 0.7 V
• germanium diode 0.3 V
175
Diode Operating Conditions
Reverse Bias
External voltage is applied across the p-n junction in
the opposite polarity of the p- and n-type materials.
• The reverse voltage causes the depletion region to
widen.
• The electrons in the n-type material are attracted
toward the positive terminal of the voltage source.
• The holes in the p-type material are attracted toward
the negative terminal of the voltage source.
176
Diode equation
• Where
• VT : is called the thermal voltage.
• Is: is the reverse saturation current.
• VD : is the applied forward-bias voltage across the diode.
n : is a factor function of operation conditions and physical
construction. It has range between 1 and 2. assume n=1 unless
otherwise noted.
K : is Boltzman’s constant =1.38 x 10-23
T: is temperature in kelvins = 273+temperature in C.
q : is the magnitude of electron charge = 1.6 x 10-19 C.
177
Diode characteristics
I (mA) Diode symbol
P N
Reverse saturation
current (magnified)
Vγ 1 V (volts)
Cut-in or knee Vγ is 0.2 ~ 0.3 for Ge
Breakdown voltage 0.6 ~ 0.7 for Si
(μA)
178
Temperature dependence of diode characteristics
Reverse saturation current approximately doubles for every 10
degree rise in temperature
I o2 I o1 2 (T2T 1)/10
• Where, Io1 is reverse sat current at temperature T1 and
I02 is reverse sat current at temperature T2
• Cut-in voltage decreases with increase in temperature
179
Load-Line Analysis
The analysis of diode can follow one of two paths: using the actual characteristics or applying an
approximate model for the device.
Load Line Analysis: is used to analyse diode circuit using its actual characteristics.
180
Load-Line Analysis
A straight line is defined by the parameters of the network.
It is called the load line because the intersection on the vertical axes is defined by the applied load R.
181
Load-Line Analysis
The maximum ID equals E/R, and the maximum V D equals E.
The point where the load line and the characteristic curve intersect is the Q-point, which identifies ID
and V D for a particular diode in a given circuit.
182
Diode Clippers
Clippers are networks that employ
diodes to “clip” away a portion of an
input signal without distorting the
remaining part of the applied waveform.
183
Diode Clippers
Determining vo for the diode in
the “on” state. 184
Example:
Determine the output waveform for the network.
Solution
185
Example:
Determine the output waveform for the network.
Solution
186
Parallel Clippers
The diode in a parallel
clipper circuit “clips” any
voltage that forward bias it.
DC biasing can be added in
series with the diode to
change the clipping level.
187
Example:
Determine vo for the network shown.
Solution
188
Example:
Determine vo for the network if Si
diode is used.
Solution
Determining vo for the diode in the
“on” state. 189
Examples:
190
Examples:
191
CLAMPERS
A clamper is a network constructed of a diode, a
resistor, and a capacitor that shifts a waveform to
a different DC level.
192
CLAMPERS
R is chosen such that the discharge
period 5τ=5RC is much larger than the
period T/2→T, and the capacitor is
assumed to hold onto all its charge.
Diode “on” and the capacitor Determining vo with the diode
charging to V volts. “off.” 193
CLAMPERS
194
Example
Determine vo for
the network.
Solution
Determining vo and VC with the diode in the “on” state. Determining vo with the diode in the “off” state. 195
Example
196
Clamper circuits
Clamping circuits with ideal diodes (5τ = 5RC >> T/2).
197
BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS
• The transistor is a three-layer semiconductor device consisting of
either two n- and one p- type layers of material or two p- and one
n- type layers of material.
• The former is called an npn transistor, while the latter is called a
pnp transistor
• So, there are two types of BJT-
i) pnp transistor ii) npn transistor
198
BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS
In each transistor following points to be noted-
i) There are two junction, so transistor can be considered as two
diode connected back to back.
ii) There are three terminals.
iii)The middle section is thin than other.
199
NAMING OF TRANSISTOR TERMINALS
• Transistor has three section of doped semiconductor.
• The section one side is called “emitter” and the opposite side is
called “collector”.
• The middle section is called “base”.
Transistor
symbol
200
NAMING OF TRANSISTOR TERMINALS
1) Emitter:
• The section of one side that supplies carriers is called
emitter.
• Emitter is always forward biased wr to base so it can
supply carrier.
• For “npn transistor” emitter supply holes to its junction.
• For “pnp transistor” emitter supply electrons to its
junction.
201
NAMING OF TRANSISTOR TERMINALS
2) Collector:
• The section on the other side that collects carrier is called
collector.
• The collector is always reversed biased wr to base.
• For “npn transistor” collector receives holes to its junction.
• For “pnp transistor” collector receives electrons to its
junction.
202
NAMING OF TRANSISTOR TERMINALS
3) Base:
• The middle section which forms two pn junction between
emitter and collector is called Base.
203
SOME IMPORTANT FACTORS TO BE
REMEMBERED-
• The transistor has three region named emitter, base and collector.
• The Base is much thinner than other region.
• Emitter is heavily doped so it can inject large amount of
carriers into the base.
• Base is lightly doped so it can pass most of the carrier to the
collector.
• Collector is moderately doped.
204
SOME IMPORTANT FACTORS TO BE
REMEMBERED-
• The junction between emitter and base is called emitter-base
junction(emitter diode) and junction between base and collector
is called collector-base junction(collector diode).
• The emitter diode is always forward biased and collector
diode is reverse biased.
• The resistance of emitter diode is very small (forward) and
resistance of collector diode is high (reverse).
205
TRANSISTOR OPERATION
1) Working of npn transistor:
Forward bias Is
applied to emitter-
base junction and
reverse bias is
applied to collector-
base junction.
The forward bias in the emitter-base junction
causes electrons to move toward base. This
constitute emitter current, IE. 206
207
208
TRANSISTOR OPERATION
1) Working of npn transistor:
As this electrons flow toward p-type base,
they try to recombine with holes. As base is
lightly doped only few electrons recombine
with holes within the base.
These recombined electrons constitute small
base current.
The remainder electrons crosses base and
constitute collector current.
209
TRANSISTOR OPERATION
2) Working of pnp transistor:
Forward bias is
applied to emitter-
base junction and
reverse bias is
applied to collector-
base junction.
The forward bias in the emitter-base junction
causes holes to move toward base. This
constitute emitter current, IE 210
TRANSISTOR OPERATION
2) Working of pnp transistor:
As this holes flow toward n-type base, they
try to recombine with electrons. As base is
lightly doped only few holes recombine with
electrons within the base.
These recombined holes constitute small base
current.
The remainder holes crosses base and
constitute collector current.
211
TRANSISTOR SYMBOL
212
TRANSISTOR OPERATING MODES
• Active Mode
• Base- Emitter junction is forward and
Base- Collector junction is reverse biased.
• Saturation Mode
• Base- Emitter junction is forward and Base-
Collector junction is forward biased.
• Cut-off Mode
• Both junctions are reverse biased.
213
COMMON EMITTER CONNECTION
• The common-emitter terminology is derived from
the fact that the emitter is common to both the
input and output sides of the configuration.
• First Figure shows common emitter npn configuration and second
figure shows common emitter pnp configuration.
214
COMMON EMITTER CONNECTION
• Base Current amplification factor ( ) :
• In common emitter connection input current is base
current and output current is collector current.
• The ratio of change in collector current to the
change in base current is known as base current
amplification factor, .
IC
I B
• Normally only 5% of emitter current flows to base,
so amplification factor is greater than 20. Usually
this range varies from 20 to 500.
215
RELATION BETWEEN AND
216
EXPRESSION FOR COLLECTOR CURRENT
217
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMON EMITTER CONFIGURATION
• Input Characteristics: VBE vs IB characteristics is
called input
characteristics.
IB increases rapidly
with VBE . It means input
resistance is very small.
IB is of the range of micro
amps.
218
219
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMON EMITTER CONFIGURATION
• VCE vs Ic
• Output Characteristics:
characteristics is
called output
characteristics.
• IC varies linearly
with VCE ,only
when VCE is very
small.
• As, VCE increases,
IC becomes
220
constant.
EXPRESSION FOR COLLECTOR CURRENT
221
COMPARISON OF TRANSISTOR CONNECTION
222
TRANSISTOR LOAD LINE ANALYSIS
• In transistor circuit analysis it is necessary to determine
collector current for various VCE voltage.
• One method is we can determine the collector current at any
desired VCE voltage, from the output characteristics.
• More conveniently we can use load line analysis to
determine operating point.
223
TRANSISTOR LOAD LINE ANALYSIS
• Consider common emitter npn
transistor ckt shown in figure.
• There is no input signal.
• Apply KVL in the output
ckt-
224
TRANSISTOR LOAD LINE ANALYSIS
225
OPERATING POINT
• It is called operating point because variation of
IC takes place about this point.
• It is also called quiescent point or Q-point.
226
Biasing
Biasing: The DC voltages applied to a
transistor in order to turn it on so that it
can amplify the AC signal.
227
OPERATING POINT
The DC input establishes an
operating or quiescent point
called the Q-point.
228
THE THREE STATES OF OPERATION
• Active or Linear Region Operation Base–Emitter junction is forward biased Base–
Collector junction is reverse biased
• Cutoff Region Operation
Base–Emitter junction is reverse biased
• Saturation Region Operation
Base–Emitter junction is forward biased Base–Collector junction is forward
biased
229
No matter what type of configuration a transistor is used in, the basic
relationships between the currents are always the same, and the base-
to- emitter voltage is the threshold value if the transistor is in the “on”
state
VBE 0.7V
I E ( 1)I B IC
IC IB
230
• The operating point defines where the transistor will
operate on its characteristics curves under dc conditions.
• For linear (minimum distortion) amplification, the dc
operating point should not be too close to the maximum
power, voltage, or current rating and should avoid the
regions of saturation and cutoff.
231
DC BIASING CIRCUITS
• Fixed-bias circuit
• Emitter-follower bias circuit
• Voltage divider bias circuit
232
I. FIXED BIAS
• The fixed-bias configuration is the simplest of
transistor biasing arrangements, but it is also quite
unstable
• For most configurations the dc analysis begins with a
determination of the base current
• For the dc analysis of a transistor network, all capacitors
are replaced by an open-circuit equivalent
233
Fixed-bias circuit 234
The dc equivalent circuit of the fixed bias circuit
where the capacitor is replaced with an open-circuit
235
THE BASE-EMITTER LOOP
From Kirchhoff’s voltage law:
+VCC – IBRB – VBE = 0
Solving for base current:
VCC VBE
IB
RB
236
COLLECTOR-EMITTER LOOP
Collector current:
I I B
C
From Kirchhoff’s voltage law:
VCE IC RC VCC 0
VCE VCC I C R C
237
EXAMPLE:
Determine the following for the fixed-bias configuration of
the figure shown:
(a) IBQ and ICQ (b) VCEQ (c) VB and VC (d)VBC
= 75
238
SATURATION
• Saturation conditions are normally avoided because the base-
collector junction is no longer reverse – biased and the output
amplified will be distorted.
For a transistor operating in the saturation region, the current is a
maximum value for the particular design. Change the design and
the corresponding saturation level may rise or drop
• The highest saturation level is defined by the maximum
collector current as provided by the specification sheet.
239
SATURATION
When the transistor is operating in saturation, current
through the transistor is at its maximum possible value.
V
I C sat CC
RC
VCE 0 V
In the previous example, the saturation level for the network is
given by:
VCC 12V
I Csat 5.45mA
RC 2.2k
240
LOAD LINE ANALYSIS
The variables IC and VCE are related by the equation:
VCE VCC I C RC
241
LOAD LINE ANALYSIS
The end points of the load line are:
ICsat
VCE= 0 V
IC= VCC/ RC
VCEcutoff
IC= 0 mA
VCE= VCC
The Q-point is the operating point:
• where the value of RB sets the value of IB
• that sets the values of VCE and IC
242
CIRCUIT VALUES AFFECT THE Q-POINT
[Movement of the Q-point with increasing level of IB]
243
CIRCUIT VALUES AFFECT THE Q-POINT
[Effect of an increasing level of RC on the load line the
Q-point]
244
CIRCUIT VALUES AFFECT THE Q-POINT
[Effect of lower values of VCC on the load line the Q-
point]
245
II. EMITTER-STABILIZED BIAS CIRCUIT
Adding a resistor (RE) to the
emitter circuit stabilizes the bias
circuit.
246
BASE-EMITTER LOOP
From Kirchhoff’s voltage law:
VCC - I B R B - VBE - I E R E 0
Since IE = ( + 1)IB:
VCC - I B R B - VBE - ( 1)I BR E 0
Solving for IB:
VCC -VBE
IB
R B ( 1)R E
247
COLLECTOR-EMITTER LOOP
From Kirchhoff’s voltage law:
IERE V I R V 0
CE C C CC
Since IE IC:
VCE VCC – I C (R C R E )
Also:
VE I E R E
VC VCE VE VCC - I C R C VB VCC –
I R R B VBE VE
248
EXAMPLE:
Determine the following for the emitter bias network of the figure shown:
(a) IB (b) IC (c) VCE (d) VC (e) VE (f) VB (g) VBC
+16 V
= 75
249
SATURATION LEVEL
VCC
I Csat
RC RE
250
LOAD-LINE ANALYSIS
VCE VCC IC (RC RE )
The endpoints can be determined from the load line.
VCEcutoff: ICsat:
VCE VCC VCE 0 V
I C 0 mA VCC
IC
RC R E
251
III. VOLTAGE DIVIDER BIAS
This is a very stable
bias circuit.
The currents and
voltages are nearly
independent of any
variations in .
252
EXACT ANALYSIS:
253
254
RTh R1 || R2 R2VCC
ETh V R 2
R1 R2
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law in the clockwise direction in the
Thevenin network,
ETh I B RTh VBE I E RE 0
ETh VBE
IB (Substituting IE = (+1)IB)
RTh ( 1)R E
VCE VCC IC (RC RE )
255
VOLTAGE DIVIDER BIAS ANALYSIS
Transistor Saturation Level
VCC
ICsat ICmax
RC RE
Load Line Analysis
Cutoff: Saturation:
VCC
VCE VCC IC
RC RE
I C 0mA
VCE 0V
256
OPAMP TERMINALS
+VCC
v1
Non-inverting +
input A Output
Inverting input –
v2
–VEE
Here, A= Large signal voltage gain
257
OP-AMP TERMINALS
If input is applied to non-inverting input terminal,
then output will be in-phase with input
If input is applied to inverting input terminal, then
output will be 180 degrees out of phase with input
If inputs are applied to both terminals, then output
will be proportional to difference between the two
inputs
258
OPAMP TERMINALS
Two DC power supplies (dual) are
required
Magnitudes of both may be same
The other terminal of both power
supplies are connected to common
ground
All input and output voltages are
measured with reference to the
common ground
259
OPAMP TERMINALS
Integrated Circuit
Pin Diagram
Pin 1 & 5 Offset null Pin 6 Output
Pin 2 & 3 input Pin 8 Not connected
Pin 4 & 7 VCC
260
INTERNAL BLOCK DIAGRAM
Differential Level
Intermediate Output
Amplifier Shifter
Stage Stage
Stage Stage
Dual input, Dual input Such as Complementary
Balanced output unbalanced output emitter follower symmetry
Differential amplifier Differential amplifier Using constant push-pull amplifier
current source
261
INTERNAL BLOCK DIAGRAM
Four stages can be identified –
Input stage or differential amplifier stage can amplify difference
between two input signals; Input resistance is very high; Draws
zero current from the input sources
Intermediate stage (or stages) use direct coupling; provide very
high gain
Level shifter stage shifts the dc level of output voltage to zero (can
be adjusted manually using two additional terminals)
Output stage is a power amplifier stage; has very small output
resistance; so output voltage is the same, no matter what is the
value of load resistance connected to the output terminal
262
OPEN-LOOP CONFIGURATION
If v1 = 0, then vo = –AOLv2 Inverting amplifier
If v2 = 0, then vo = AOLv1 Non- inverting amp
263
OPEN-LOOP CONFIGURATION
AOL is the open-loop voltage gain of OPAMP
Its value is very high
Typical value is 0.5 million
So, even if input is in micro volts, output will be in volts
But output voltage cannot cross the value of power supply
VCC
So, if input is in milli volts, output reaches saturation value
Vsat = VCC (or VEE)
264
OPEN-LOOP CONFIGURATION
If v1 = v2, then ideally output should be zero
But in practical Op-Amp, output is
v1 v 2
v o A cm
2
Where, ACM is the common-mode gain of Op-Amp
So, final gain equation is:
v1 v 2
v o A d v 1 v 2 A cm
2
v o A d v id A cm v icm 265
OPEN-LOOP CONFIGURATION
Common-mode rejection ratio
It is a measure of the ability of Op-Amp to reject the signals
common to both input terminals (noise)
Defined as
𝑨𝒅
𝑪𝑴𝑹𝑹 =
𝑨𝒄𝒎
𝑨𝒅
𝑪𝑴𝑹𝑹 𝒅𝑩 = 𝟐𝟎 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎
𝑨𝒄𝒎
266
PROBLEMS
An OPAMP has differential voltage gain of 100,000 and CMRR of 60
dB. If non inverting input voltage is 150 μV and inverting input
voltage is 140 μV, calculate the output voltage of OPAMP
Ans: 1.01 V
For an OPAMP, when v1 is 0.5 mV and v2 is –0.5 mV, output voltage
is 8 V. For the same OPAMP, when v1 = v2 = 1 mV, output voltage is
12 mV. Calculate the CMRR of the OPAMP
Ans: 56.48 dB
267
OPAMP equivalent circuit
Practical OPAMP
268
OPAMP CHARACTERISTICS
Differential mode gain Ad
It is the factor by which the difference between the two input signals is
amplified by the OPAMP
Common mode gain Acm
It is the factor by which the common mode input voltage is amplified by
the OPAMP
Common mode rejection ratio CMRR
Is the ratio of Ad to Acm expressed in decibels
269
OPAMP CHARACTERISTICS
Input resistance Ri
It is the equivalent resistance measured between the two input
terminals of OPAMP
Output resistance Ro
It is equivalent resistance measured between output terminal and
ground
Bandwidth
It is the range of frequency over which the gain of OPAMP is almost
constant
270
OPAMP CHARACTERISTICS
Output offset voltage Voo
It is the output voltage when both input voltages are zero
Denoted as Voo
Input offset voltage Vio
It is the differential input voltage that must be applied at the input
terminals in order to make output voltage equal to zero
Vio = |vdc1 – vdc2| for vo = 0
271
OPAMP CHARACTERISTICS
Input offset current Iio
It is the difference between the currents in the input terminals when
both input voltages are zero
Iio = | I1 – I2 | when v1 = v2 = 0
Input bias current Iib
It is the average of the currents in the input terminals when both
input voltages are zero
Iib = (I1 + I2) / 2 when v1 = v2 = 0
272
OPAMP CHARACTERISTICS
Slew rate SR
It is the maximum rate of change of output voltage with respect to
time
Slew rate has to be very high if OPAMP has to operate efficiently at
high frequencies
Supply voltage rejection ratio SVRR
It is the maximum rate at which input offset voltage of OPAMP
changes with change in supply voltage
273
OPAMP CHARACTERISTICS
Practical characteristics of 741C Ideal OPAMP
OPAMP Infinite differential mode
Differential mode gain is 200,000 gain
CMRR is 90 dB Zero common mode gain
Input resistance is 2 MΩ Infinite CMRR
Output resistance is 75 Ω Infinite input resistance
Unity-gain Bandwidth is 1 MHz Zero output resistance
Slew rate is 0.5 V / μs Infinite bandwidth
Output offset voltage is 1 mV Infinite slew rate
Input offset current is 20 nA Zero input offset voltage
Input bias current is 80 nA Zero input offset current
Zero output offset voltage
274
BASIC LAWS OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
Laws of complementation: The term complement means invert. i.e. to change 0’s to 1’s and 1’ to 0’s. The
following are the laws of complement. =1; = 0; =A.
“ OR” laws
0+0=0; 0+1=1; 1+0=1; 1+1=1
1+A=1; A+ A’ =1; A+A=A; 1+ A’ =1
“ AND’’ laws
0.0=0; 0.1=0; 1.0=0; 1.1=1; A. A’ =0; A.A=A
275
6
COMMUTATIVE LAW:
Property 1: This states that the order in which the variables OR makes no difference in output. i.e. A+B=B+A
A B A+B B A B+A
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 = 1 0 1
1 0 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
276
7
COMMUTATIVE LAW:
Property 2: This property of multiplication states that the order in which the variables are AND makes no
difference in the output. i.e. A.B=B.A
A B A.B B A B.A
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 = 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 277
8
COMMUTATIVE LAWS
The commutative law of addition for two variables is written as: A+B = B+A
A
B
A+B B
A
B+A
The commutative law of multiplication for two variables is written as: AB = BA
A
B
AB B
A
BA
278
ASSOCIATIVE PROPERTY
Property1: This property states that in the OR’ing of the several variables, the result is same regardless of
grouping of variables. For three variables i.e.(A OR’ed with B)or’ed with C is same as A OR’ed with (B OR’ed
with C)
i.e. (A+B)+C = A+(B+C)
279
10
ASSOCIATIVE PROPERTY
A B C A+B B+C (A+B)+C A+(B+C)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 1 1 = 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 1
1 0 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 280
11
ASSOCIATIVE PROPERTY
Property2: The associative property of multiplication states that, it makes no difference in what order the
variables are grouped when AND’ing several variables. For three variables(A AND’ed B)AND’ed C is same as A
AND’ed (B AND’ed C)
i.e. (A.B)C = A(B.C)
281
12
ASSOCIATIVE PROPERTY
A B C A.B B.C (A.B)C A(B.C)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 1 0 = 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 0 0 0
282
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 13
ASSOCIATIVE LAWS
The associative law of addition for 3 variables is written as: A+(B+C) = (A+B)+C
A A A+B
A+(B+C)
B B
(A+B)+C
C B+C C
The associative law of multiplication for 3 variables is written as: A(BC) = (AB)C
A A AB
A(BC)
B B
(AB)C
C BC C
283
DISTRIBUTIVE PROPERTY
Property 1: A(B+C) = A.B + A.C
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
A B C B+C A(B+C) A.B A.C A.B+A.C
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Column number 5= Column number 8, hence the proof. 284
15
DISTRIBUTIVE PROPERTY
Property 2: A + A’ B = A+B
A B A’ A’B A’B+A A+B
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 1 = 1
1 0 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 1
285
16
DISTRIBUTIVE LAWS
The distributive law is written for 3 variables as
follows: A(B+C) = AB + AC
B A AB
B+C
C B
X
X
A A
C AC
X=A(B+C) X=AB+AC
286
RULES OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
1. A 0 A 7. A A A
2. A 1 1 8. A A 0
3. A 0 0 9. A A
4. A 1 A 10. A AB A
5. A A A 11. A A B A B
6. A A 1 12.( A B )( A C ) A BC
___________________________________________________________
A, B, and C can represent a single variable or a combination of variables.
287
DEMORGAN’S THEOREMS
The complement of two or more NAND Negative-OR
ANDed variables is equivalent to the
OR of the complements of the
individual variables.
X Y X Y
The complement of two or more ORed NOR
variables is equivalent to the AND of Negative-AND
the complements of the individual
variables. X Y X Y
288
DE MORGON’S FIRST THEOREM
It states that “ the complements of product of two variables equal to
sum of the complements of individual variable”. i.e. (AB)’ = A’ +B’
A B A’ B’ A.B (AB)’ A’+B’
0 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 0 1 ≡ 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 0 0
289
20
A
A
DE MORGON’S SECOND THEOREM
It states that complement of sum of two variables is equal to product of complement of two individual
variables.
(A+B)’ = A’ . B’
290
21
A B A’ B’ A+B (A+B)’ A’ *B’
0 0 1 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 ≡ 0
1 0 0 1 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 1 0 0
291
22
DEMORGAN’S THEOREMS (EXERCISES)
Apply DeMorgan’s theorems to the expressions:
X Y Z
X Y Z
X Y Z
W X Y Z
292
FUNCTION MINIMIZATION USING BOOLEAN
ALGEBRA
Examples:
(a) a + ab = a(1+b)=a
(b) a(a + b) = a.a +ab=a+ab=a(1+b)=a.
(c) a + a'b = (a + a')(a + b)=1(a + b) =a+b
(d) a(a' + b) = a. a' +ab=0+ab=ab
293
THE OTHER TYPE OF QUESTION
Show that;
1- ab + ab' = a
2- (a + b)(a + b') = a
1- ab + ab' = a(b+b') = a.1=a
2- (a + b)(a + b') = a.a +a.b' +a.b+b.b'
= a + a.b' +a.b + 0
= a + a.(b' +b) + 0
= a + a.1 +0
= a +a=a
294
MORE EXAMPLES
Show that;
(a) ab + ab'c = ab + ac
(b) (a + b)(a + b' + c) = a + bc
(a) ab + ab'c = a(b + b'c)
= a((b+b').(b+c))=a(b+c)=ab+ac
(b) (a + b)(a + b' + c)
= (a.a + a.b' + a.c + ab +b.b' +bc)
=…
295
X
SIMPLIFY THE BOOLEAN EXPRESSION
1. X’Y’ Z+ X’ YZ
= ZX’[ Y’ +Y]
= Z X’[1]= ZX’
2. f = B(A+C)+C
=BA+BC+C
=BA+C(1+B)
=BA+C
296
27
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA PROPERTIES
Let X: Boolean variable, 0,1: constants
1. X + 0 = X -- Zero Axiom
2. X • 1 = X -- Unit Axiom
3. X + 1 = 1 -- Unit Property
4. X • 0 = 0 -- Zero Property
5. X + X = X -- Idepotence
6. X • X = X -- Idepotence
7. X + X’ = 1 -- Complement
8. X • X’ = 0 -- Complement
9. (X’)’ = X -- Involution
10. X+Y=Y+X
11. X•Y=Y•X -- Commutative
12. X + (Y+Z) = (X+Y) + Z
13. X•(Y•Z) = (X•Y)•Z -- Associative
14. X•(Y+Z) = X•Y + X•Z
15. X+(Y•Z) = (X+Y) • (X+Z) -- Distributive
16. (X + Y)’ = X’ • Y’
17. (X • Y)’ = X’ + Y’ -- DeMorgan’s
And many more… 297
LOGICAL SYMBOL: TWO INPUT OR GATE
Truth table for two input OR gate:
Input Output
A B Y= A+B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
298
9
AND GATE
The AND gate performs logical multiplication.
Two or more inputs and a single output.
The output of an AND gate is HIGH only when all the inputs are HIGH.
Even if any one of the input is LOW, the output will be LOW.
299
10
LOGICAL SYMBOL: TWO INPUT AND GATE
Truth table for two input AND gate:
Input Output
A B Y=A.B
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
300
1 1 1
11
NOT GATE (INVERTER)
The NOT gate performs the basic logical function called inversion or complementation.
The purpose of this gate is to convert one logic level into the opposite logic level.
It has one input and one output.
301
12
LOGICAL SYMBOL: NOT GATE
Truth Table
Input output
A Z= A’
0 1
1 0
302
13
NAND GATE
The output of a NAND gate is LOW only when all inputs are HIGH and output of the NAND is HIGH if one or
more inputs are LOW.
Input Output
A B Y = (AB)’
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
303
14
NOR GATE
The output of the NOR gate is HIGH only when all the inputs are LOW.
Input Output
A B Y= A B
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
304
15
XOR GATE OR EXCLUSIVE OR GATE
In this gate output is HIGH only when any one of the input is HIGH.
The circuit is also called as inequality comparator, because it produces output when two inputs are different.
305
16
XOR GATE OR EXCLUSIVE OR GATE
Input Output
A B Y = A B
Y = A B = A + B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
306
17
XNOR GATE OR EXCLUSIVE NOR GATE
An XNOR gate is a gate with two or more inputs and one output.
XNOR operation is complementary of XOR operation. i.e. The output of XNOR gate is High, when all the inputs
are identical; otherwise it is low.
307
18
Input Output
A B Y= AB +AB
Truth Table:
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
308
19
UNIVERSAL LOGIC GATE
NAND and NOR gates are called Universal gates or Universal building blocks, because both can be used to
implement any gate like AND,OR an NOT gates or any combination of these basic gates.
309
20
NAND GATE AS UNIVERSAL GATE
NOT operation:
AND operation:
310
21
OR operation:
NOR operation:
311
22
NOR GATE AS UNIVERSAL GATE:
NOT operation:
AND operation:
OR operation:
NAND operation:
312
23
PROBLEM
Draw the logic circuit for the Boolean expression. G = WXY + YZ
313
5
Obtain the AND-OR implementation for F.
F = X’Y’Z’ + XYZ’ Use not gates to design X’, Y’ and
Z’
314
6
COMBINATIONAL LOGIC CIRCUIT FROM LOGIC
FUNCTION (CONT.)
C
A F
F=A’ + B•C’ + A’•B’ B
F= A’ (1+ B’) + B•C’
G=A’+BC’ where F=G
C
B
A G
315
NAND CIRCUITS
To easily derive a NAND implementation of a Boolean
function:
Find a simplified SOP
Design SOP with basic gates
Change AND-OR circuit to a NAND circuit using bubble
Use the alternative symbols below
316
AND-OR (SOP) EMULATION
USING NANDS
Two-level implementations
a) Original SOP
b) Implementation with NANDs
317
AND-OR (SOP) EMULATION
USING NANDS (CONT.)
Verify:
(a) G = WXY + YZ
(b) G = ( (WXY)’ • (YZ)’ )’
= (WXY)’’ + (YZ)’’ = WXY + YZ
318
MULTILEVEL NAND CIRCUITS
Starting from a multilevel circuit:
1. Convert all AND gates to NAND gates with AND-NOT
graphic symbols.
2. Convert all OR gates to NAND gates with NOT-OR graphic
symbols.
3. Check all the bubbles in the diagram. For every bubble that
is not counteracted by another bubble along the same line,
insert a NOT gate or complement the input literal from its
original appearance.
319
SOP WITH NAND
(a) Original SOP
(b) Double inversion and grouping AND-NOT
(c) Replacement with NANDs
NOT-OR
320
TWO-LEVEL NAND GATE IMPLEMENTATION -
EXAMPLE
F (X,Y,Z) = m(0,6)
1. Express F in SOP form:
F = X’Y’Z’ + XYZ’
2. Obtain the AND-OR implementation for F.
3. Add bubbles and inverters to transform AND-OR to
NAND-NAND gates.
321
EXAMPLE (CONT.)
Two-level implementation with NANDs
F = X’Y’Z’ + XYZ’
322
EXAMPLE
Use NAND gates
and NOT gates to implement
Z=E’F(AB+C’+D’)+GH
AB
AB+C’+D’
E’F(AB+C’+D’)
E’F(AB+C’+D’)+GH
323
ANOTHER EXAMPLE!
324
NOR GATE
Also a “universal” gate because ANY digital circuit can be implemented with NOR
gates alone.
This can be similarly proven as with the NAND gate.
325
NOR CIRCUITS
To easily derive a NOR implementation of a Boolean
function:
Find a simplified POS
Design POS using basic gates
Change OR-AND circuit to a NOR circuit
Use the alternative symbols below
326
EXAMPLE (CONT.)
Two-level implementation with NORs
F = (F’)' = (X'+Y)(X+Y')Z'
327
XOR AND XNOR
X Y F = XY
0 0 0
0 1 1
X F 1 0 1
Y 1 1 0
X Y F = XY
0 0 1
0 1 0
X F
1 0 0
Y 1 1 1
328
XOR (also ) : the “not-equal” function
XOR(X,Y) = X Y = X’Y + XY’
EXCLUSIVE-OR (XOR) FUNCTION
Identities:
X0=X
X 1 = X’
XX=0
X X’ = 1
Properties:
XY=YX
(X Y) W = X ( Y W)
329
XOR FUNCTION IMPLEMENTATION
XOR(a,b) = ab’ + a’b
Straightforward: 5 gates
2 inverters, two 2-input ANDs, one 2-input OR
2 inverters & 3 2-input NANDs
Nonstraightforward:
4 NAND gates
330
XOR CIRCUIT WITH 4 NANDS
331
INTRODUCTION TO DRONE
• An unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) or uncrewed
aerial vehicle commonly known as a drone, is an
aircraft without any human pilot, crew or
passengers on board.
• UAVs are a component of an unmanned aircraft
system (UAS), which include additionally a ground-
based controller and a system of communications
with the UAV.
•The flight of UAVs may operate under remote control
by a human operator, as remotely- piloted aircraft
(RPA), or with various degrees of autonomy, such as
autopilot assistance, up to fully autonomous aircraft
that have no provision for human intervention.
• UAVs were originally developed through the
twentieth century for military missions
332
PARTS OF A DRONE
333
KEY PARTS
• As control technologies improved and costs fall, their use in the twenty-first century
is rapidly finding many more applications including aerial photography, product
deliveries, agriculture, policing and surveillance, infrastructure inspections.
PARTS OF A DRONE
• From an engineer’s view, the key parts of a drone system are the hardware,
software, andmechanical elements; and a perfect balance between the three
provides a flawless system design.
HARDWARE
• Hardware is the electrical part of the drone system, which is eventually a PCBA
(printed circuit board assembly).
• Hardware is a multilayer PCB that accommodates the SOC (system on a chip) and
different components of the subsystems interconnected through copper traces (part
of the PCB) or physical wires. Figure shows the PCBA assembled with SOC and
subsystems on the top side (primary side).
334
THE SOC
• • The SOC is a miniature computer on a chip of a present generation
systems, especially a drone system.
• It’s a semiconductor device and an integrated circuit that usually integrates
digital, analog, mixed signal, and radio frequency devices on a single chip.
• SOCs are most commonly used in mobile computing and embedded
systems.
• In general, there are three distinguishable types of SOCs: SOCs built around
a microcontroller, SOCs built around a microprocessor, and specialized
SOCs designed for specific applications that do not fit into the above two
categories.
• SOC usually consume less power and have a lower cost than the multichip
systems they replace.
335
Subsystems
• Subsystems or electrical subsystems are technologies required in a system
to fulfill the intended usage of the system. Broadly speaking, subsystems fall
into any one of the following computer architecture parts: input, output,
storage, and communication devices.
Input
• A touch panel, keyboard, mouse, microphone, camera, sensors, and remote
control are some examples of input devices of a system.
Output
• Displays, speakers, motors, fans, and LEDs are some examples of output
devices of a system.
Storage
• Memory, flash, hard disk drive, optical drive, secure digital, and solid-state
drive are some examples of the storage devices of a system.
Communication Devices
• Wired LAN (local area network), wireless LAN, mobile networks (3G, 4G,
and LTE),
• GPS (Global Positioning System), and USB are some examples of the
communication devices of a system.
• All of the subsystems listed above may or may not be a part of a particular
drone design. The target application picks the right subsystems to be part of
the drone system design.
336
PARTS OF A DRONE
SOFTWARE
There are four categories of software that need to use on the drone system:
• Firmware components
• OS and drivers
• Sensing, navigation, and control
• Application-specific components
MECHANICAL
• The mechanical system is basically the enclosures, form factor, or simple ID (industrial
design) of the drone.
• The ID determines the exterior and appearance of the drone. The ID of the drone will
usually have numerous mechanical parts in a complicated assembly with electrical parts
interconnected through mechanical or thermal interconnects.
• The most popular drone, has a quadcopter built from an X-frame or H-frame with four
servo motor/propeller units on each end with numerous other mechanical parts along with
the PCBA enclosed in plastic.
• A drone with frame as a base includes propellers, motors, landing gear, body (usually
PCBA, flight controllers, and motor drivers), and a battery.
337
CLASSIFICATION
UAVs may be classified like any other aircraft, according to design configuration such as
weight or engine type, maximum flight altitude, degree of operational autonomy,operational role,
etc.
Based on the weight
• Based on their weight, drones can be classified into five categories —
• nano (weighing up to 250 g), Micro air vehicles (MAV) (250 g - 2 kg), Miniature
UAV or small (SUAV) (2-25 kg), medium (25-150 kg), and large (over 150 kg).
Based on the degree of autonomy
• Drones could also be classified based on the degree of autonomy in their flight
operations. ICAO classifies uncrewed aircraft as either remotely piloted aircraft or fully
autonomous.
• Some UAVs offer intermediate degrees of autonomy. for example, a vehicle that is
remotely piloted in most contexts but having an autonomous return-to-base operation.
• Some aircraft types may optionally fly manned or as UAVs, which may include manned
aircraft transformed into uncrewed or Optionally Piloted UAVs (OPVs).
338
Based on the altitude
• Based on the altitude, the following UAV classifications have been used at industry
events such as Unmanned Systems forum:
• Hand-held 2,000 ft (600 m) altitude, about 2 km range
• Close 5,000 ft (1,500 m) altitude, up to 10 km range
• NATO type 10,000 ft (3,000 m) altitude, up to 50 km range
• Tactical 18,000 ft (5,500 m) altitude, about 160 km range
• MALE (medium altitude, long endurance) up to 30,000 ft (9,000 m) and range over
200 km
• HALE (high altitude, long endurance) over 30,000 ft (9,100 m) and indefinite range
• Hypersonic high-speed, supersonic (Mach 1–5) or hypersonic (Mach 5+) 50,000 ft
(15,200 m) or suborbital altitude, range over 200 km
• Orbital low earth orbit
CIS Lunar Earth-Moon transfer
• Computer Assisted Carrier Guidance System (CACGS) for UAVs
• Based on the composite criteria
339
TYPES OF DRONES
Drones can be categorized into the following six types based on their mission:
Combat: Combat drones are used for attacking in the high-risk missions.
• They are also known as Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicles (UCAV).
• • They carry missiles for the missions. Combat drones are much like planes.
Logistics: Logistics drones are used for delivering goods or cargo. There is
a number of famous companies, such as Amazon and Domino's, which deliver
goods and pizzas via drones. It is easier to ship cargo with drones when there
is a lot of traffic on the streets, or the route is not easy to drive.
Civil: Civil drones are for general usage, such as monitoring the agriculture
fields, data collection, and aerial photography. The following picture is of an
aerial photography drone:
Reconnaissance:
Civil: Civil drones are for general usage, such as monitoring the agriculture
fields, data collection, and aerial photography. The following picture is of an
aerial photography drone:
These kinds of drones are also known as mission-control drones. A drone is
assigned to do a task and it does automatically, and usually returns to the
base by itself, so they are used to get information from the enemy on the
battlefield. These kinds of drones are supposed to be small and easy to hide.
The following diagram is a reconnaissance drone for your reference, they may
vary depending on the usage:
340
Target and decoy:
• These kinds of drones are like combat drones, but the difference
is, the combat drone provides the attack capabilities for the
high-risk mission and the target and decoy drones provide the
ground and aerial gunnery with a target that simulates the
missile or enemy aircrafts.
Research and development:
• These types of drones are used for collecting data from the air.
For example, some drones are used for collecting weather data or
for providing internet.
TYPES BASED ON WING
There are three types of drones depending on their wings or flying mechanism:
Fixed wing:
• A fixed wing drone has a rigid wing. They look like airplanes. These types of drones have a very
good battery life, as they use only one motor (or less than the multi-wing).
• They can fly at a high altitude. They can carry more weight because they can float on air for the
wings. There are also some disadvantages of fixed wing drones. They are expensive and require a
good knowledge of aerodynamics. They break a lot and training is required to fly them.
• The launching of the drone is hard and the landing of these types of drones is difficult.
• The most important thing you should know about the fixed wing drones is they can only move
forward. To change the directions to left or right, we need to create air pressure from the wing.
341
ROTARY WING
Single rotor: Single rotor drones are simply like helicopter. They
are strong and the propeller is designed in a way that it helps to
both hover and change directions.Remember, the single rotor
drones can only hover vertically in the air.
• They are good with battery power as they consume less power
than a multirotor.
• The payload capacity of a single rotor is good. However, they
are difficult to fly.. Their wing or the propeller can be dangerous if
it loosens.
Multirotor:
Multirotor drones are the most common among the drones. They
are classified depending on the number of wings they have, such
as tricopter (three propellersor rotors), quadcopter (four rotors),
hexacopter (six rotors), and octocopter (eight rotors).
• The most common multirotor is the quadcopter.
• The multirotors are easy to control. They are good with payload
delivery. They can take off and land vertically, almost anywhere.
The flight is more stable than the single rotor and the fixed wing.
• One of the disadvantages of the multirotor is power
consumption. As they have a number of motors, they consume a
lot of power.
342
PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF DRONE:
343
• FEATURES
• Crewed and uncrewed aircraft of the same type generally have recognizably similar physical
components. The main exceptions are the cockpit and environmental control system or life
support systems.
• Some UAVs carry payloads (such as a camera) that weigh considerably less than an adult
human, and as a result, can be considerably smaller. Though they carry heavy payloads,
weaponized military UAVs are lighter than their crewed counterparts with comparable
armaments.
• Control systems for UAVs are often different than crewed craft. For remote human control, a
camera and video link almost always replace the cockpit windows; radiotransmitted digital
commands replace physical cockpit controls.
Autopilot software is used on both crewed and uncrewed aircraft, with varying feature sets .
344
PARTS OF BLOCK DIAGRAM
UAV computing capability followed the advances of computing technology,
beginning with analog controls and evolving into microcontrollers, then system-
on-a-chip (SOC) and single-board computers (SBC).
• System hardware for small UAVs is often called the flight controller (FC), flight
controller board (FCB) or autopilot.
• Sensors
Position and movement sensors give information about the aircraft state.
Exteroceptive sensors deal with external information like distance
measurements, while Exproprioceptive ones correlate internal and external
states.
• Non-cooperative sensors are able to detect targets autonomously so they are
used for separation assurance and collision avoidance.
• Degrees of freedom (DOF) refers to both the amount and quality of sensors
on board: 6 DOF implies 3-axis gyroscopes and accelerometers (a typical
inertial measurement unit –IMU), 9 DOF refers to an IMU plus a compass, 10
DOF adds a barometer and 11 DOF usually adds a GPS receiver.
345
Actuators
• UAV actuators include digital electronic speed controllers (which control the RPM
of the
motors) linked to motors/engines and propellers, servomotors (for planes and
helicopters mostly), weapons, payload actuators, LEDs and speakers.
• Software
• UAV software called the flight stack or autopilot. The purpose of the flight stack is
to obtain data from sensors, control motors to ensure UAV stability, and facilitate
ground control and mission planning communication.
• UAVs are real-time systems that require rapid response to changing sensor data.
As a result, UAVs rely on single-board computers for their computational needs.
Examples of such single-board computers include Raspberry Pis, Beagleboards,
etc. shielded with NavIO, PXFMini, etc. or designed from scratch such as NuttX,
preemptive-RT Linux, Xenomai, Orocos-Robot Operating System or DDS-ROS 2.0.
346
APPLICATION OF DRONES
An unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV), commonly known as a drone, is an aircraft
without a human pilot onboard. UAVs are a component of an unmanned aircraft
system, which includes a UAV, a ground-based controller, and a system of
communications between the two.
• The flight of UAVs may operate with various degrees of autonomy, either under
remote control by a human operator or autonomously by onboard computers.
• Drones are classified into different categories based on the applications.
Applications are broad, and from the design perspective, generally fall under three
major groups: military, industrial (enterprise), and commercial.
INDUSTRIAL
• The integration of drones and IoT (Internet of Things) technology has created
numerous industrial and enterprise use cases: drones working with on-ground IOT
sensor networks can help agricultural companies monitor land and crops, energy
companies survey power lines and operational equipment, and insurance
companies monitor properties for claims and/or policies.
347
MILITARY
• • Drones in military applications are used for anti-aircraft target practice,
intelligence gathering and, more controversially, as weapons platforms.
COMMERCIAL
• The commercial field is a growing development, where the largest,
strongest, fastest, and most capable drones on the market are targeted
toward the professional community.
They are the types of machines that the movie industry puts to work and that
commercial agencies use to inspect infrastructure.
• Some impressive self-piloted drones survey individual farmer’s fields.
Commercial drones are the smaller consumer products that make up just a
tiny portion of the overall drone market.
348
Introduction
In the world of automotive engineering, the question of which engine to
choose, be it an internal combustion engine (ICE) or an electric vehicle (EV),
has attracted significant attention. As society becomes more aware of
environmental impact, the decision between ICE and EV engines becomes
important.
Internal Combustion Engines (ICE)
ICE has been the dominant engine technology in the automotive industry for over
a century. These engines burn fossil fuels such as gasoline or diesel to
generate power. Here are some key points to consider when evaluating ICE
engines:
•Performance and Range: ICE engines are known for their power and long-range
capabilities. They offer quick acceleration and high top speeds, making them
suitable for those who enjoy spirited driving and long-distance travel.
•Refueling Infrastructure: Gasoline and diesel fueling stations are readily
available in most areas, making it convenient to refuel ICE vehicles. The
widespread infrastructure ensures you can find fuel almost anywhere, reducing
the worry of running out of power.
349
•Maintenance and Cost: ICE engines require regular maintenance, including oil
changes, filter replacement, and periodic tune-ups. These maintenance
procedures and fuel costs contribute to the overall ownership expense of ICE
vehicles.
•Environmental Impact: ICE engines have improved in terms of emissions
control, but they still contribute to air pollution and greenhouse gas
emissions. Burning fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide (CO2) and other
pollutants,
Electric which (EV)
Vehicles affect climate change and air quality.
With increasing concern for the environment and advances in battery
technology, electric vehicles have gained significant popularity in recent
years. Here are some key factors to consider when evaluating EVs:
•Environmental Impact: EVs produce zero tailpipe emissions, making them
attractive to those seeking green transportation options. Using
electricity, which can be generated from renewable sources, allows EVs to
reduce greenhouse gas emissions and improve air quality.
•Fuel and Maintenance Costs: The operating cost of EVs is lower than that of
ICE vehicles. The cost of electricity is generally lower than that of
gasoline or diesel, resulting in lower fuel expenses. In addition, EVs have
fewer moving parts, thereby reducing maintenance and repair costs over
time.
350
•Range and Charging Infrastructure: One of the primary concerns with EVs is
their limited range compared to ICE vehicles. However, advances in battery
technology have greatly improved range, and charging infrastructure is
expanding rapidly. Public charging stations and home charging solutions make
charging an EV convenient, although longer journeys may still require careful
planning.
•Performance and Driving Experience: EVs provide instant torque and smooth
acceleration while providing a pleasant driving experience. While they can't
match the top speeds of some high-performance ICE vehicles, EVs excel in low-
end acceleration and provide a quieter and more relaxed ride.
351
Why Electric Vehicles
Torque/Power vs. Speed Characteristics of
Characteristic Curves of an IC Engine Electric Motor
• It can be observed that the maximum power can be achieved at a particular speed of the
IC engine. But in case of electric motor maximum power can be developed constantly
above the base speed of the motor.
• Electric motors are capable of delivering a high starting torque as compared to IC engine.
352
The internal combustion engines work either on the principle of spark ignition or diesel
principle. In addition to the many advantages of the internal combustion engine, such as
high power to weight ratio and relatively compact energy storage, it has few fundamental
disadvantages:
i. Unlike the electric motors, the internal combustion engine cannot produce torque at
zero speed.
ii. The internal combustion engine produces maximum power at a certain engine speed.
iii. The efficiency of the engine, i.e. its fuel consumption, is very much dependent on the
operating point in the engine’s performance map.
353
General Configuration of a Electric Vehicle
Introduction:
The general configuration (Block Diagram of Electric Vehicle) of the EV is shown in Fig.1 .
The EV has three major subsystems:
Electric propulsion
Energy source
Auxiliary system
The electric propulsion subsystem comprises of:
The electronic controller
Power converter
Electric Motor (EM)
Mechanical transmission
Driving wheels
B Tech. 1st Year
354
Block Diagram of Electric Vehicle
355
The energy source subsystem consists of
The energy source (battery, fuel cell, ultracapacitor)
Energy management unit
Energy refueling unit
The auxiliary subsystem consists of
Power steering unit
Temperature control unit
Auxiliary power supply
356
In Figure 1 the black line represents the mechanical link, the green line represents the electrical link and the
blue line represents the control information communication.
Based on the control inputs from the brake and accelerator pedals, the electronic controller provides proper
control signals to switch on or off the power converter which in turn regulates the power flow between the
electric motor and the energy source.
The backward power flow is due to regenerative braking of the EV and this regenerative energy can be stored
provided the energy source is receptive.
The energy management unit cooperates with the electronic controller to control regenerative braking and its
energy recovery. It also works with the energy-refueling unit to control refueling and to monitor usability of the
energy source.
The auxiliary power supply provides the necessary power with different voltage levels for all EV auxiliaries,
especially the temperature control and power steering units.
357
Power Converter:
Power converter performs the following functions:
1. It modulates flow of power from the source to the motor is impart speed−torque
characteristics required by the load.
2. It regulates source and motor currents within permissible values, such as starting,
braking, and speed reversal conditions.
3. Selects the mode of operation of motor, i.e., motoring or braking.
4. Converts source energy in the form suitable to the motor.
358
Energy Management System (EMS)
To maximize the energy flow and efficiency of the motors and the storage network, a
central control system that handles all distinct modules and their operation is needed.
three management operations have to be executed:
1. Electrical Management: Charging and discharging processes to avoid
imbalances between individual cells and control charging voltage and current
based on battery parameters.
2. Thermal Management: Equalizing temperature between cells/ keep all
components at operating temperature, minimizing power losses .
3. Safety Management: Correct evaluation of sensor outputs and shutdown of
elements found in a high-risk situation, like a crash
359
In modern EV’s configuration:
Three phase motors are generally used to provide the traction force
The power converter is a three-phase PWM inverter
Mechanical transmission is based on fixed gearing and a differential
Li-ion battery is typically selected as the energy source
360
Introduction to Sensors and Transducers
• Measurement is an important subsystem in any major system, whether it may be a mechanical
system or an electronic system. A measurement system consists of sensors, actuators,
transducers and signal processing devices.
• A sensor converts a physical event into an electrical signal, whereas an actuator converts
electrical signal into a physical event. When sensors are used at input of a system, actuators are
used to perform output function in a system as they control an external device.
• Transducers are the devices that convert energy in one form into another form. Generally the
energy is in the form of a signal. Transducer is a term collectively used for both sensors and
actuators.
sensor intelligent
real
feedback
world
actuator system
361
Thermal sensors
• Thermal sensors are everywhere: in our kettles, refrigerators,
microwaves, and water heaters. Throughout the COVID-19
pandemic, non-contact thermal sensors have been used to
check temperatures.
• Thermal sensors are also present in medical systems, food
processors, boilers, and petrochemical systems.
362
The Role of Thermal Sensors
• Most electronic components are rated to operate under a range
of temperatures. However, an electronic component’s
performance can get derated with an increase in
temperature from a specified ambient. When the temperature
crosses the allowable maximum limit, the component gets
damaged due to heating or thermal runaway. Because of
this, thermal characteristics play a significant role in the
component selection of electronic circuits. In automotive,
industrial, and consumer electronic applications, performance
and reliability are maintained with the help of thermal sensors.
363
Thermocouple
s
• A thermocouple is a non-linear thermal sensor. The
sensitivity and temperature ranges of the
thermocouple vary with the types of metals bound
together. The accuracy of thermocouples is very
low, but they offer a broad range of operation, from
-200℃ to 1750 ℃.
• Thermocouples are the most commonly-used
thermal sensors in industrial, automotive, and
consumer applications. They work on the principle
of the Seebeck effect—the phenomenon in which
the temperature difference between two dissimilar
metal wires produces a voltage difference. The
voltage difference is proportional to the
temperature change. A look-up table is used to
convert the voltage difference to temperature
measurements.
364
Resistance Temperature Detectors
(RTD)
• A Resistance Temperature Detector (also known as a
Resistance Thermometer or RTD) is an electronic device used
to determine the temperature by measuring the resistance of an
electrical wire. This wire is referred to as a temperature sensor.
If we want to measure temperature with high accuracy, an RTD
is the ideal solution, as it has good linear characteristics over a
wide range of temperatures.
• The variation of resistance of the metal with the variation of the
temperature is given as, Where, Rt and R0 are the resistance
values at toC and t0oC temperatures. α and β are the constants
depends on the metals.
Rt = R0[1+α(t-t0)+β(t-t0)2+….]
365
This expression is for huge range of temperature. For small
range of temperature, the expression can be,
• Rt = R0[1+α(t-t0)]
In RTD devices; Copper, Nickel and Platinum are widely
used metals. These three metals are having different
resistance variations with respective to the temperature
variations. That is called resistance-temperature
characteristics.
366
Thermistors
Like RTDs, thermistors also make use of resistance in temperature
measurements. Thermistors use polymer or ceramic materials instead of platinum
and copper, which make them cheaper, but less accurate, than RTDs. There are
two types of thermistors:
Negative temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistors - In this type of thermistor, the
change in resistance is inversely proportional to the temperature variation.
Positive temperature coefficient (PTC) thermistors - In this type of thermistor, the
change in resistance is directly proportional to the temperature variation.
367
The basic requirements of a sensor:
1. Range: It indicates the limits of the input in which it can vary. In case of temperature measurement, a thermocouple can have a range of 25 –
250 0C.
2. Accuracy: It is the degree of exactness between actual measurement and true value. Accuracy is expressed as percentage of full range output.
3. Sensitivity: Sensitivity is a relationship between input physical signal and output electrical signal. It is the ratio of change in output of the
sensor to unit change in input value that causes change in output.
4. Stability: It is the ability of the sensor to produce the same output for constant input over a period of time.
5. Repeatability: It is the ability of the sensor to produce same output for different applications with same input value.
6. Response Time: It is the speed of change in output on a stepwise change in input.
7. Linearity: It is specified in terms of percentage of nonlinearity. Nonlinearity is an indication of deviation of curve of actual measurement
from the curve of ideal measurement.
8. Ruggedness: It is a measure of the durability when the sensor is used under extreme operating conditions.
9. Hysteresis: The hysteresis is defined as the maximum difference in output at any measurable value within the sensor’s specified range when
approaching the point first with increasing and then with decreasing the input parameter. Hysteresis is a characteristic that a transducer has in
being unable to repeat its functionality faithfully when used in the opposite direction of operation.
368
• The core causes the magnetic field generated by the primary winding to be
coupled to the secondaries. When the core is centered perfectly between
both secondaries and the primary, as shown, the voltage induced in each
secondary is equal in amplitude and 180 deg out of phase. Thus the LVDT
output (for the series-opposed connection shown in this case) is zero
because the voltages cancel each other.
• Displacing the core to the left causes the first secondary to be more
strongly coupled to the primary than the second secondary. The resulting
higher voltage of the first secondary in relation to the second secondary
causes an output voltage that is in phase with the primary voltage.
• Likewise, displacing the core to the right causes the second secondary to
be more strongly coupled to the primary than the first secondary. The
greater voltage of the second secondary causes an output voltage to be
out of phase with the primary voltage.
369
• Static Pressure
• Pressure can be defined as force per unit area that a fluid exerts on its
surroundings. The basic physics of static Pressure (P), is calculated as
force (F) divided by area (A).
• P=F/A
• The Force can be generated by liquids, gases, vapours or solid bodies.
370
• Working Principle of a Pressure Transducer
• Pressure transducers have a sensing element of constant area and respond
to force applied to this area by fluid pressure. The force applied will deflect
the diaphragm inside the pressure transducer. The deflection of the
internal diaphragm is measured and converted into an electrical output.
This allows the pressure to be monitored by microprocessors,
programmable controllers and computers along with similar electronic
instruments.
• Most Pressure transducers are designed to produce linear output with
applied pressure.
371
Strain Gauge Sensors or Piezoresistive
sensors
Strain Gauge Working Principle:
Piezoresistive means “pressure-sensitive resistance,” or a
resistance that changes value with applied pressure. The strain
gauge is a classic example of a piezoresistive element, a typical
strain gauge element shown here on the tip of my finger:
In order to be practical, a strain gauge must be glued (bonded)
on to a larger specimen capable of withstanding an applied force
(stress):
372
373
• As the test specimen is stretched or compressed by the
application of force, the conductors of the strain gauge are
similarly deformed. Electrical resistance of any conductor is
proportional to the ratio of length over cross-sectional area (R ∝
{ l / A } ), which means that tensile deformation (stretching) will
increase electrical resistance by simultaneously increasing
length and decreasing cross-sectional area while compressive
deformation (squishing) will decrease electrical resistance by
simultaneously decreasing length and increasing cross-
sectional area.
374
375
• As the diaphragm bows outward with applied fluid pressure, the
strain gauge stretches to a greater length, causing its resistance
to increase. This change in resistance imbalances the bridge
circuit, causing a voltage (Vout) proportional to the amount of
applied pressure. Thus, the strain gauge works to convert an
applied pressure into a measurable voltage signal which may
be amplified and converted into a 4-20 mA loop current signal
(or into a digital “fieldbus” signal).
376
Pressure Sensor Circuit
377
• One capacitor is charged positive with respect to ground, while the
other is charged negative with respect to ground, as the AC voltage
source alternates positive and negative. While one capacitor of the
pressure sensor is charging, the other is discharging through Rload,
producing an output voltage (Vout).
• If both capacitances are equal, the output voltage will alternate
equally between positive and negative values, having a DC average
value of zero. If one capacitance is larger than the other, it will store
additional charge on its plates, causing it to sway the output voltage
of the Twin-T circuit in the direction of its polarity. Thus, Vout
becomes more positive as pressure increases on one side of the
sensor, and more negative as pressure increases on the other side
of the sensor.
378
379
380
381
382
383
384
385
Namei Dluta
Regisen No 23FElOCSEOO708 Page :
Date:
Sedtien: k
EES al
Assigmet -
434
t2V 43V
V o:67V
T42
Tka
O.67V
He lahea ehesiwy , Va3-0.67=2.33)
O.67V
H
V= |-0.67
=o. 33 v
CuntyI=Y= 0.33V =|0.33A
386
Page:
Date :
Guuse:1=O.uA I=20°c TË= 4o°c
=0.44A
6.7V 3.3kn
A)
S.Gkn
-[3.3) 7 to.7=o
I=0.21nA I=s.l07A
acr 3.3k detor V3=IR
get
387
Page :
Date :
Vn
Ve 2lG9.7-14) =o7.14V
PIV = Vmo.7
4.
-2V (v) RsCka (v)
-2V
tl.3Y.
=-0.t=Vo Vo=L3 Y
25
|2+2-o7=Ve V,=l3.3V
-|2 -13.3=V,, V-25. 3V388
389
loR,tR
:Page:Date Roisere
Sitwai
luhetL=I
09.09
=
lOxk
ID,
477.3A
=
=47.73
V
R 63
X =L3
Vee
O.099S RtR
R=RR
’V
Ve
Se,
)
DATE:
PAGE No
Is Ve-VaE = 1.363-07
=(1s-34x62x16)-»41)
VeE .6svA
So
Ie
Ie=2.95A
0.OS 9A
Teacher 's Siçnature 390
DATE
PAGE NO.
So, Re= (vce -Voe)p
Rn= 9l. S2 kn
Ana
Comms
Cemmo emtte o
Como collecor
VEE
Yeacher's Sionature 391
Ana) E
(lo) Base
lo- coleto whut Heee
4.7 4.7kn
otht
I ase
- S
0.7 R22kA o
E(-sv) tlethanistoi
=- hcuta,
Vo
adia
chaacentie)
(Quthut
S Called'omom u
Comsotolat
s
PAGENO. DATE
o7V
state
lane
392
DATE
PAGE NO.
I= 2.07 mA
t E -R I -0.Vo
’lo-4.7(2.07)-o.7 =V.a
(4.)(207) =929
=72av
=4.5s4v
.33k
I=28. 18 nA dA
Teacher's Signature 393
394
Signatur
Teacher'
PAGE
NO.
DATE
A
|4.0A
=m
o.7v\
>V,=
tU,-O.7=0
Nous,
You might also like
- Hoval Ultragas (Honeywell MCBA Controls Manual)No ratings yetHoval Ultragas (Honeywell MCBA Controls Manual)11 pages
- Reboiler Calculations Design Guide PDF Free100% (2)Reboiler Calculations Design Guide PDF Free12 pages
- Unit 1 - Power Plant Engineering - WWW - Rgpvnotes.inNo ratings yetUnit 1 - Power Plant Engineering - WWW - Rgpvnotes.in10 pages
- Different Sources of Energy An AssignmentNo ratings yetDifferent Sources of Energy An Assignment17 pages
- RENEWABLE AND NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY(Notes)No ratings yetRENEWABLE AND NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY(Notes)35 pages
- alternativeenergysourcespresentation-160206111957 (2)No ratings yetalternativeenergysourcespresentation-160206111957 (2)56 pages
- Class Notes - PPE - ME702C - 1721644516No ratings yetClass Notes - PPE - ME702C - 172164451663 pages
- Module 1 Introduction To Energy ScienceNo ratings yetModule 1 Introduction To Energy Science19 pages
- How to Install & Design Solar Panels Like a ProfessionalFrom EverandHow to Install & Design Solar Panels Like a ProfessionalNo ratings yet
- Chapter 1 (Fundametals of Power System)No ratings yetChapter 1 (Fundametals of Power System)87 pages
- Necessity of Transmission & DistributionNo ratings yetNecessity of Transmission & Distribution80 pages
- 1.2 - Types of Renewable Energy SourcesNo ratings yet1.2 - Types of Renewable Energy Sources26 pages
- Renewable Energy Technologies - Assignment TwoNo ratings yetRenewable Energy Technologies - Assignment Two28 pages
- Practical 6: Gujarat Technological University Sarvajanik College of Engineering and TechnologyNo ratings yetPractical 6: Gujarat Technological University Sarvajanik College of Engineering and Technology25 pages
- Green Power and Other Renewable Source of EnergyNo ratings yetGreen Power and Other Renewable Source of Energy24 pages
- Renewable Energy Is Energy Which Comes From Natural Resources Such As Sunlight, Wind, Rain, Tides, and Geothermal Heat, Which Are Renewable (Naturally Replenished)No ratings yetRenewable Energy Is Energy Which Comes From Natural Resources Such As Sunlight, Wind, Rain, Tides, and Geothermal Heat, Which Are Renewable (Naturally Replenished)67 pages
- Unit - 4 Solar and Wind Power GenerationNo ratings yetUnit - 4 Solar and Wind Power Generation21 pages
- Alternative Sources of Energy in DetailNo ratings yetAlternative Sources of Energy in Detail22 pages
- Electrical Technology (EEN115C) : Research Project: Renewable EnergyNo ratings yetElectrical Technology (EEN115C) : Research Project: Renewable Energy8 pages
- Certificate Movable Tanker & Hazmat TankerNo ratings yetCertificate Movable Tanker & Hazmat Tanker2 pages
- Installation & Operation Manual of 4 Position R Type LBSNo ratings yetInstallation & Operation Manual of 4 Position R Type LBS5 pages
- SK 3239.124 Toptherm Fan-And-Filter UnitsNo ratings yetSK 3239.124 Toptherm Fan-And-Filter Units4 pages
- Nash Liquid Ring Vacuum Pumps - CompressNo ratings yetNash Liquid Ring Vacuum Pumps - Compress6 pages
- 2022-04-08 - HPGR Adantages in Ore GrindingNo ratings yet2022-04-08 - HPGR Adantages in Ore Grinding24 pages
- 2rain Water Harvesting 0 Electricity GenerationNo ratings yet2rain Water Harvesting 0 Electricity Generation23 pages