Introduction to Sociology

Instructor: Ms. Rabia Sohail

 Lesson #1: “Introduction”
Definitions:
 Sociology is the study of society and human social action. The word sociology
comes from the suffix "-logy" which means "study of," derived from Greek, and the
stem "socio-" which is from the Latin word “socius”, meaning member, friend,
or ally, thus referring to people in general.

 According to R.E. Park, sociology is the science of collective behavior.

 According to Morris Ginsberg, sociology is the study of human interactions,

interrelations, and their conditions and consequences.

 Moreover, sociology is also defined as the study of societies, giving special emphasis
on modern societies. It is the systematic study of social institutions; their nature,
functions, interactions, and sequences of change and continuity.

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Scope and Subject Matter of sociology:
Scope means the subject matter or the areas of the study or the boundaries of a
subject. What we have to study in a particular subject is known as its scope. Every
science has its own field of inquiry. It becomes difficult to study a science systematically
unless its boundary or scope is determined precisely. But there is no one opinion about
the scope of sociology. However, there are two main schools of thought regarding the
scope of sociology:

1) Specialistic or Formalistic school: The supporters of this school i.e. George

Simmel, Max Weber believe that sociology is purely independent science and specific in
nature.

2) Synthetic school: The supporters of this school i.e. Emile Durkheim, Auguste Comte
& Herbert Spencer believe that sociology is closely related to other social sciences
and its scope is very vast.

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To be cont. . . .

Sociology is the study of human social relationships and groups. Sociology's subject
matter is diverse, ranging from crime to religion, from the family to the state, from the
divisions of race and social class to the shared beliefs of a common culture, and from
social stability to radical change in whole societies. Sociology plays an important role to
understand society and human behavior. It tries to answer all the questions that human
will certainly question themselves at some point in their lives.

Sociology as a Science:

A science may be defined in two ways:

1) A science is a body of organized, verified knowledge which has been secured through
scientific investigation.

2) A science is a method of study whereby a body of organized, verified knowledge is

discovered.
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To be Cont. . .
 If the first definition is accepted, then sociology is a science to the extent that it
develops a body of organized, verified knowledge which is based on scientific
investigation.

 If a science is defined as a method of study, then sociology is a science to the

extent that it uses scientific methods of study.

During human history, few of our actions have been based on verified knowledge,
for people through the ages have been guided mainly by folklore, habit, and
guesswork. Until a few centuries ago, very few people accepted the idea that we
should find out about the natural world by systematic observation of the natural
world itself, rather than by consulting ancestors or intuition. Therefore, study of
sociology as a science has replaced folklore with knowledge.

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Historical Perspective/ Background of Sociology:

 It emerged in the early 19th century in response to the challenges of

modernity. Increasing mobility and technological advances resulted in the
increasing exposure of people to cultures and societies different from their
own. The impact of this exposure was varied, but for some people, it included
the breakdown of traditional norms and customs and warranted a revised
understanding of how the world works.
 Basically, 19th and 20th centuries were times of many social upheavals and
changes in the social order. The political revolutions sweeping Europe during
the 18th and 19th centuries led to a focus on social change and the
establishment of social order that still concerns sociologists today. Many early
sociologists were also concerned with the Industrial Revolution and the rise of
capitalism and socialism. Additionally, the growth of cities and religious
transformations were causing many changes in people‟s lives.
 Sociology is the youngest of the recognized social sciences. Auguste Comte in
France coined the word „sociology‟ in his ‘Positive Philosophy‟, published in
1838. He believed that a science of sociology should be based on systematic
observation and classification, not on authority and speculation.
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To be Cont. . .

 Herbert Spencer in England published his ‘Principles of Sociology‟ in 1876. He applied the theory
of organic evolution to human society and developed a grand theory of „social evolution‟ which
was widely accepted for several decades.

 Lester F. Ward, an American published his „Dynamic Sociology‟ in 1883, calling for social progress
through intelligent social action.

All these founders were social philosophers. They proclaimed that sociologists should collect,
organize, and classify factual data. They called for scientific investigation but they did little of it
themselves.

 Emile Durkheim gave the most notable early demonstration of scientific methodology in sociology.
In his „Rules of Sociological Method‟, published in 1895, he outlined the methodology which he
pursued in his study „SUICIDE‟, published in 1897.

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To be Cont. . .
 Other classical theorists of sociology from the late 19th and early 20th centuries
include Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, Max Weber, W.E.B. DuBois, and Harriet
Martineau.

 These pioneers of sociology all had a vision of using sociology to call attention to
social concerns and bring about social change. In Europe, for example, Karl Marx
teamed with wealthy industrialist Friedrich Engels to address class inequality.
Writing during the Industrial Revolution, when many factory owners were lavishly
wealthy and many factory workers despairingly poor. In Germany, Max Weber was
active in politics. In Britain, Harriet Martineau advocated for the rights of girls
and women, and in the U.S.,W.E.B. DuBois focused on the problem of racism.

 In addition, courses in sociology appeared in many universities in 1890s and

American Sociological Society was organized in 1905.

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Lesson #3: “Sociological Methodology”
Definitions:
 Social Research is a method used by social scientists and researchers to learn about
people and societies so that they can design products/services that cater to various
needs of the people.

 Social Research is the process of discovering new knowledge.

 Social Research is defined as careful consideration of study regarding a particular

concern or problem using scientific methods.

Types of Social Research:

There are four main types of Social Research: Qualitative and Quantitative Research,
Primary and Secondary Research.

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To be Cont. . .

 Qualitative Research: Qualitative Research is defined as a method to collect

data via open-ended and conversational discussions. It involves collecting and
analyzing non-numerical data to understand concepts, opinions or experiences. A
good example of a qualitative research method would be unstructured interviews
which generate qualitative data through the use of open questions.

 Quantitative Research: Quantitative research is defined as a systematic

investigation of phenomena by gathering quantifiable data and performing statistical,
mathematical, or computational techniques. It is an extremely informative source of
data collection conducted via mediums such as surveys, and questionnaires. An
example of quantitative research is the survey conducted to understand the
amount of time a doctor takes to tend to a patient when the patient walks into the
hospital.

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Primary Research: Primary Research is conducted by the researchers themselves. There
are a list of questions that a researcher intends to ask which need to be customized
according to the target market.

Secondary Research: Secondary Research is a method where information has already

been collected by research organizations or marketers. Newspapers, online
communities, reports, audio-visual evidence etc. fall under the category of secondary
data.

Social Research Methods or Techniques:

Surveys: A survey is conducted by sending a set of pre-decided questions to a sample of
individuals from a target market. This will lead to a collection of information and
feedback from individuals that belong to various backgrounds, ethnicities, age-groups
etc. Surveys can be conducted via online and offline mediums.

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To be Cont. . .

Experiments: An experimental research is conducted by researchers to observe the

change in one variable on another, i.e. to establish the cause and effects of a variable. In
experiments, there is a theory which needs to be proved or disproved by careful
observation and analysis. An efficient experiment will be successful in building a cause-
effect relationship while proving, rejecting or disproving a theory.

Interviews: The technique of garnering opinions and feedback by asking selected

questions face-to-face, via telephone or online mediums is called interview research.
There are formal and informal interviews – formal interviews are the ones which are
organized by the researcher with structured open-ended and close-ended questions
and format while informal interviews are the ones which are more of conversations
with the participants and are extremely flexible to collect as much information as
possible.

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To be Cont. . .

Observation: In observational research, a researcher is expected to be involved in the daily life of all
the participants to understand their routine, their decision-making skills, their capability to handle
pressure and their overall likes and dislikes. These factors and recorded and careful observations
are made to decide factors such as whether a change in law will impact their lifestyle or whether a
new feature will be accepted by individuals.

Importance of Social Research:

Social science deals with the study of society and the relationship among individuals within a
society. It includes business, sociology, commerce, demography, etc. Social science research
provides authentic information to the people that are scientifically proven so that end users can
rely upon it. It also helps us in finding the solutions to different social problems. It focuses on the
fact that if we are able to find the root cause of any problem, we can find a more effective solution
to it. Social research is an important source of knowledge. It opens new ways of knowledge and
wisdom. It gives knowledge to the researcher about the unknown facts. It paves out the way of
ignorance and gives new direction in a social life.
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Issues in Social Research:
In fact, social research deals with social a phenomenon which is quite different than
the natural phenomena. Hence, there are fundamental difference between research
in social sciences and that of physical or natural sciences.
 Dynamic Nature of Social Phenomena: Man is a social animal and the human
societies undergo constant change. What is true today may be not useful
tomorrow. The techniques used in past may prove useless for present and future
studies. On account of this dynamic nature of social phenomena our task of
analyzing data becomes very much complicated and the inferences drawn may be
misleading.
 Problem of maintaining objectivity: The problem of impartiality is in part a
problem of objectivity. It is generally argued that the social scientists are less
objective than natural scientist because their own interest affected by the findings
of their studies, hence leading to prejudice and bias.
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 Researchers face ethical challenges in all stages of the study, from designing to reporting.
These include anonymity, confidentiality, informed consent, researchers' potential
impact on the participants and vice versa.

 Unpredictability: Predictability is one of the most important characteristics of

science. In case of physical science, high degree of predictability is possible but it is not
so in case of social data. But this statement is also partially true; the social scientist can
roughly estimate the behavior of the group.

 Difficulty in Hypothesis Formulation: The hypothesis formulation is very difficult.

Every person cannot form a hypothesis about a problem, but it requires the skill of the
research.

 Problem of Questionnaire: The construction of a good questionnaire is also

required skill. The questionnaire should be simple, easy and in local language, otherwise
it is difficult.

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 Dependent on Others: A researcher cannot do everything by himself.
He involves other persons in the field.

 Problem of data Collection: People are not ready to provide correct

information to a researcher. So, data collection in field gives a difficulty in
the flied to a research.

 Lack of Economic Stability: If visiting team have financial problems,

then it will hinder the way of social research to complete the research in a
more efficient and effective way.

 Lack of Transport & Communication: Transport and communication

gape also hinder the way of social research.

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 Time Management :Research is completed in a specific time but some projects
are not able to complete it in defined time.

 Political Instability: In some areas political instability hinder the way of research
process.The research remains incomplete.

 Environmental Differences: Sometimes the difference between various

environments brings hurdle in the way of social research.

 Cultural Differences: Difference in cultures is also responsible for the scarcity of

research study.

 Diseases & No Treatment Facility: If there are diseases in a locality and have
no specific treatment facility, it leads to hinder the way of social research.

 Religious Differences: Religious differences and section violence produce a

hurdle in the way of social research.

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Happy learning!
Good luck!

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