1.

1 Sociology as a Scientific Discipline

Auguste Comte, the French Philosopher, coined the word Sociology for the first time in
his work Positive Philosophy in about 1838 and defines Sociology as, “the science of
social phenomena subject to natural and invariable laws, the discovery of which is the
subject of investigation.” The term has been derived from two different words: Latin
word Socius, meaning companion and the Greek word logos meaning study or science.
Thus the etymological meaning of sociology is the science of society. John Stuart Mill, a
social thinker and philosopher of the 19thcentury proposed the word ethology for this new
science.
How did it emerge as a scientific discipline?
The fact is that in the writings of philosophers, religious teachers and legislators of all
and epochs, observations and ideas which are relevant to modern sociology. In this
regard, Kautilya’s Arthashastra and Aristotle’s Politics analyze political system in ways
civilizations which are still of interest of the Sociologists of today. It is very much
considerable to mention here that the circumstances in which this new science of
society emerged and is obviously distinguished from other social thought is the major
concern of analysis. The following historical and socio- political situations are
responsible for the emergence of sociology:
1. Ancient philosopher’s contribution: The philosophers like Plato, Aristotle and
others described the very nature of society and emphasized on the solution of
the problems of the society in order to better the society. However, they couldn’t
give the concrete solution at last.
2. Reformation movement: New ideas in religion in 16th century Europe that led to
attempts to reform the Roman Catholic Church which, in turn, led to the
formation of the Protestant churches and that challenged the very orthodoxy of
the Christianity. It created an environment to change the old ideas within the
philosophy of religion.
The Enlightenment Movement: It is the period in the 17th and 18th century when many
writers and writers, philosophers and scientists began to argue that science and reason
were more important than religion and tradition and rejected the ideas that social and
natural phenomena occurred due to some scientific factors.
3. Industrial Revolution: The industrial revolution occurred in England in
18th century and spread from there to other countries in western Europe, to the
United States, and then to the other parts of the world. It is primarily a radical
change in methods of production. It ensured the establishment and rise of
factory system. Industrial revolution is characterized by the replacement of hand
production by machine production centered in factories. Material possibilities of
an industrial society generated social problems and following the industrial
revolution a concept was developed that poverty was no longer a natural
phenomenon but was the result of human ignorance and or of exploitations.
Subsequent advancement in the study of social science was that the existing
social problems could be studied under the methods of social survey.
 4. French revolution: French revolution occurred in France in the later part of
18th century, completed in 1779 A.D. Following the French revolution a
conviction was developed that non of the social thought and political system
exist for long time and created a new thought in the European philosophical
domain.
These and other socio- political events created circumstances which a French
philosopher, Auguste Comte was inspired to give new name to new social
science, Sociology with a new objective to study and address the society and social
problems. More importantly, the application of the aforementioned study method, social
survey, was the result of industrial revolution which, in spite of economic growth and
advancement, created poverty and other social problems. It developed a growing
conviction that the methods of natural sciences should and could be applied to the study
of human affairs and that human and social phenomena could be classified and
measured. This thinking, as developed by four founding fathers of sociology- Auguste
Comte, a French philosopher; Herbert Spencer, an English philosopher; Emile Durkheim,
a French philosopher; Max Weber, a German philosopher- was named
as Positivism. Later, when Emile Durkheim published a book, ‘Methods in
Sociology’, the idea of ‘application of fundamental of science in the study of society or
human affairs’ got recognized and was greatly consolidated in Sociological study. All of
these facts made sociology a scientific discipline.
Some definitions:
Emile Durkheim, “Sociology is the science of social institutions.”

Alex Inkeles, “Sociology is the study of systems of social actions and of their inter-
relations.”

Morris Ginsberg, “In the broadest sense, sociology is the study of human interactions and
interrelations, their conditions and consequences.”

In a more general sense, Sociology is the scientific study of human social relations or
group life. Sociologists examine the ways in which social structures and institutions –
such as class, family, community and power- and social problems- such
as crime and abuse– influence society. Furthermore, the basic concept of
Sociology, social interaction, is the elementary component of all relationships and
groups that make human society.
Micro and Macro Sociology: Sociology which concentrates on the details of particular
interactions as they occur in everyday life is known by micro sociology, whereas
Sociology that studies the larger patterns of relations among major social sectors, such as
the state and economy, international relations, etc.
1.2 Nature of Sociology
Nature: Despite founding father’s argument and their claim Sociology to be a scientific
discipline, nature of sociology can be discussed far and against its scientific nature.
 1. Sociology deserves a scientific character: For this argument, we have the
following facts:
1. Society is an open laboratory: Like the natural sciences lab. society
functions as an open laboratory where a sociologist can study the society
and social problems of various degree and nature. Due to this resemblance
of natural science to social science this discipline cane regarded as the
scientific discipline.
2. Experimentation: In Sociological study too experimentation may be the
important factor to study the human affairs. Natural science experimentation
is equally applicable to the study of society. For example, a micro credit
loan provided to the rural women of Nepalese society can be experimented
with the consideration of control groupand experimental group and that
experimentation with those provided loan and those provided not loan.
3. Comparative Method: It is primarily a pure science study method and is
equally applicable to the study of two different cultural groups.
4. Prediction: Natural sciences can predict the phenomena occurring naturally
in the future. Similarly, a sociologist can predict the future social behavior
with different social problems and social life.
5. Generalization: Major achievements in natural sciences study is the
generalization made or conclusion drawn after the completion of the study.
In the similar manner, social aspects can be generalized after a research is
conducted.
6. Rational & American science

2. Sociology does not deserve a scientific character: For this argument, the
following factors justify the non- scientific nature of Sociology:
1. Open laboratory concept is less concrete and reliable since human society is
always changeable and dynamic, unlikely to create the universality, in terms
of time and space.
2. Experimentation in human society is ethically less applicable and can not be
applied with rigid scientific formulae and principles.
3. Comparative study as applied in natural science is not so reliable and does
not follow the particular principles of comparisons, the ways to find out
similarities and differences.
4. Human behavior is less predictable since their social lives are influenced
externally which does not obey the fixed rules and regulation of natural
science.
5. The concept of generalization as applied in physics or biology or chemistry
can not be explained in case of social science study. Generalization in social
science is, therefore, not reasonably applied, as generalization in this case
may not necessarily build up the theory.
The above discussion concludes that Sociology is both empirical and rational. The
former is the approach which emphasizes the experiences and experimentation, the basic
quality of natural science and latter stresses reason and the theories that come from
logical conclusion.
Subject matter of Sociology.
In order to explain the subject matter of sociology it should answer the three basic
questions: How and why societies emerge? How and why societies persist? How and why
societies change? On the basis of answering these questions Sociology can determine its
subject matter:
1. Sociological Analysis: To analyze human society and its culture in its totality is
the sociological perspective. It tries to explain evolution of society and its major
stages. It also analyzes factors and forces causing historical transformation of
society. In order to carry out all of these undertakings and analyze it, sociology
adopts scientific method. it is reconstruction of society
2. It studies primary unit of social life: It is concerned with social relationship,
individual personality, groups of all varieties, communities, associations,
organizations, etc.
3. important social institutions: family, marriage, political institution, economic
institution, kinship, educational institution, Sociology tries to analyze
development, structure and function of these soci9al institutions.
4. Study of social process: Social processes are the fundamental ways in which
men interact and establish relationship. Sociology analyzes the fundamental
social processes like co-operation, competition, conflict, accommodation,
assimilation, etc.
5. Method of Research: In order to conduct sociological research it applies various
methods like observation, interview, case study, etc. and describes how these are
applicable in different situations with different nature of study.
6. Concepts, propositions, and theories: In order to understand social phenomena
sociological study tries to formulate concept, propositions, and theories which,
in turn, help in conducting further study.
7. Specialization in study: In trying to resolve the problem specific social aspects
sociology tries to carry out its study on specific area of social life. For example,
Urban Sociology, Rural Sociology, Industrial Sociology, etc. can help find out
specific nature of social life of people living in different area of society.

Social Stratification
Meaning:
Men have long dreamed of an egalitarian society, a society in which all members are
equal. Obviously the egalitarian society remains as dream. The term social inequality,
here, refers to the existence of socially created inequalities. Social stratification is a
particular form of social inequality. It refers to the presence of a social groups which are
ranked one above the other, usually in terms of the amount of power, prestige and wealth
their members possess. Those who belong to a particular group or stratum have some
awareness of common interest and common identity. They share a similar life style and
on the basis of which they are distinguished from members of other social strata. The
Nepalese caste system is the example of social stratification system.
Definition:
Ogburn and Nimkoff defines social stratification as, “The process by which individuals
and groups are ranked in a more or less enduring hierarchy of status.”

Social Class
Social class has been a principal type of stratification since the emergence of class

based society, especially with the end of primitive communism in the evolutionary

Process of society which was explained and analyzed by Karl Marx and Engles in the
later part of the 19th century. The term, therefore, has taken an important place in
sociological literature.
Scholarly Analysis
1. Aristotle, an ancient philosopher, explained about two millennia ago that population
tented to be divided into three groups: the very rich, the very poor, and those in between.
2. Adam Smith, an economist and social scientist, divided society into those who live
on the rent of the land, wages of labor, and the profits of trade.
3. Thorstein Veblen divided society into the workers, who struggle for subsistence,
and leisure class so wealthy that its main concern is “conspicuous consumption” to show
how rich they are.
4. Karl Marx, a champion in class based society and class conflict analysis divided
society into wage worker (he termed it as proletariat), capitalists (the bourgeoisie), and
middle group (the petty bourgeoisie).
5. Similarly, Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1937 gave a vivid picture of lower- class life.

Definition
Horton and Hunt, the authors of the work, ‘Sociology’, defines social class as, “astratum
of people of similar position in the social status continuum.”
Marx attempted to reduce all forms of inequality to economic class and argued
that classes formed the only significant social groups in society.
Max Weber’s analysis, a deviation from Marx’s analysis, is on the importance of status
groups. The fact is that in certain situations status rather than class provides the basis
for the formation of social groups whose members perceive common interest and group
identity.
Moreover, like Marx and Weber, many modern sociologists use economic factors as the
basic criteria for differentiating social classes. In this regard, the British sociologist
Anthony Giddens identifies three major classes in advanced capitalist society. They
are: an upper class based on the ‘ownership of property in the means of production’, a
middle class based on the ‘ possession of educational or technical qualifications’ and a
lower or working class based on the ‘ possession of manual labor power’.
Nature and Characteristics of Social Class

C.N. Shankar Rao in his book ‘Sociology’ has described the characteristics of social
class, the important of which are given below:

1. Class is a status group: Class is related to status. Different statuses arise in a

society as people do different things, engage in different activities and pursue
different goals.
2. Mode of feeling: Class system exhibits three modes of feeling. They are: a
feeling of equality in relation to the members of one’s own class; a feeling of
inferiority in relation to those who occupy the higher status in the socio-
economic continuum; a feeling of superiority in relation to those who occupy
the lower status in the hierarchy.
3. Element of Prestige: Each social class has its own status in society. Status is
associated with prestige.
4. Mode of living: A social class is distinguished from other classes by its
customary modes of behavior. This is mostly referred to as ‘life styles’ which
include such matters as the mode of dress, the kind of houses and neighbor on
lives in, the cultural products one enjoys, the kind of books, magazines and TV
shows to which one is exposed, one’s way of spending money and so on.
5. Social Class is an open group: An open class is one in which vertical mobility is
possible
6. Social class is an Economic Group: The basis of social class is mostly
economic.
7. Class consciousness: It is the consciousness which makes the members of the
same class aware on the socio-economic status of their own class. In Marx’s analysis,
class consciousness creates an atmosphere for the working class people to seek their right
go against the capitalist class in order to seize the power for their own sake.
8. Class consciousness and Class struggle: Karl Marx laid great emphasis on class
consciousness among the working class and it leads to their class identification, class
solidarity and finally to class struggle.

Class Structure in Nepal: Class Discussion

What is Caste?
Caste and class are the two main forms of social stratification. However, the caste
system is greatly confined within Indian sub-continent, especially in Nepal and India.
Broadly speaking, the caste system, the joint family system and village life are still the
three basic pillars of Indian and Nepalese life, even after the Jana Andolan II in Nepal.
Caste is closely connected with Hindu philosophy and religion. The philosophy of
Hinduism has a greater influence over the various aspects of the life of the people:
customs and tradition, marriage and family, morals and manners, food and dress habits,
occupations and hobbies. Caste system is immensely supported by rituals and ceremonies
and it is believed to have had a divine origin and sanction. More significantly, caste
system is a barrier for social mobility in caste ridden society. Social mobility, here, is the
act of moving from one social position to another, especially the class based position.
An open classsociety is one in which mobility high whereas a closed class society is one
in which there is little mobility. Caste system, in this regard, is closed society in which
people are confined to the occupations and statuses of their statuses of their ancestors and
it is the most extreme example of closed class society.
The origin of the Word Caste and System
The term ‘Caste’ is derived from Spanish word ‘casta’ meaning breed or ‘lineage’. The
Portuguese used the term caste first to denote the divisions in the Indian caste system.
The Sanskrit word for caste is Varna which means color. Color in the original form caste
signifies the basis of divisions along with occupation.
The origin of this caste system in Nepalese and Indian society relates with the
‘Chaturvarna’ system of Hindu philosophy. Chaturvarna doctrine explains the Hindu
society was divided into four main varnas, namely, Brahmins, the kashtriyas,
the Vaishyas and the Shudras. The Varna system which was prevalent during Vedic
period was mainly based on the division of occupation and labor. The caste system,
therefore, has its origin to the Varna system. The present caste system is the modified
form of the original.
Definitions
Maciver and Page argues that when status is wholly predetermined, so that men are born
to their lot in life without any hope of changing it, then class takes the extreme form of
caste. Quoting the Report of Indian Statutory Commission, they mention, “Every Hindu
necessarily belongs to the caste of his parents and in that caste he inevitably remains. No
accumulation of wealth and no exercise of talents can alter his caste status; and marriage
outside his caste is prohibited or severely discouraged.”
C.H.Cooley defines caste as, “when a class is somewhat strictly hereditary, we may call it
a caste.”
D.N. Majumdar and T.N. Madan argued that caste is ‘closed group’
Social Stratification and Caste System
The social stratification is the particular form of social inequality. It refers to the presence
of social groups which are ranked one above other, usually in terms of amount
of power, prestige, and wealth their members possess. In this regard, the Indian and the
Nepalese caste system provide an example of social stratification.
Hindu society in traditional India was divided into five main strata: four Varnas or castes,
and a fifth group, the outcaste, whose members were known as untouchables. The
emergence of caste system in Nepalese society dates back to ancient period when, the
legendary says, Gopal dynasty accompanied with the lord Krishna entered Kathmandu
valley and imposed Hindu rules- regulations. Historians argue that the Hindu Aryan
entered Nepal at three different time periods:
 1. At 1st century A.D. through Kathmandu Valley,
2. At about 12th century A.D. through Karnali basin,
3. From 16th century onwards through different Nepal- India boarders, especially to
terai of Nepal.
All of these arrival of Hindu people has ensured the influence of Hinduism, so the
influence of Caste system. In a more concrete way and in a state level, the king Jayasthiti
Malla at around 14th century A.D. divided the then Newari society into four castes and
sixty four sub-castes. Later in the second part of the 19th century, in 1854 A.D., the then
Rana Prime Minister Jang Bahadur Rana, divided whole Nepalese society into four
different castes in his promulgated legal code. This later division has consolidated the
Nepalese caste system and has sown the seed of conflict among the people of privileged
and underprivileged castes with a deeply rooted casteism into Nepalese society.
Characteristics of Caste system
C.N. Shankar Rao in his work, ‘sociology’ has described the characteristics of casteism.
The important of which are given below:

1. Caste is taken as a hierarchical division of society. A sense of ‘highness’ and

‘lowness’ or ‘superiority’ and ‘inferiority’ is associated with caste ranking.
2. The caste system has imposed certain restrictions on food habits of the members
and they differ from caste to caste.
3. The caste system puts restriction on the range of social relations too. The idea of
‘pollution’ and ‘purity’ have explained and defined the boundary of social
relations between different castes with the preordained touchability and
untouchability.
4. Social and religious disabilities of certain castes are clearly exhibited in the
orthodox caste system. Generally, the so called impure castes are forced to live
on the outskirts of the city or village.
5. Restriction on occupational choice is another feature of orthodox caste system.
6. Caste system imposes restriction on marriage too. Endogamy is a rule of
marriage according to which an individual has to marry within his or her group
only.

Ethnicity

As explained and defined by Uwe Kievelitz (has presented a paper at a seminar on

Ethnicity and Nation-Building), ethnicity is a collective identity formation. It is such
group identity formation which refers to relationships between groups- above the family
level- which consider themselves, or are considered, as culturallydistinctive from other
groups with whom they have minimum of interaction. He, again, argues that such ethnic
groups can be defined as endogamous collectivities which follow a distinctive identity
through selected traditions.
Origin of the word ‘Ethnicity’ and emergence of its Application
The term ‘ethnicity’ first appeared in the 1950s in the English language and it is first
recorded in a dictionary in the Oxford English Dictionary of 1953. However, the term is a
derivative of the much older term and more commonly used adjective ‘ethnic’, which in
the English language goes back to the Middle Ages. The English adjective ‘ethnic’ in
turn derives from the ancient Greek term ethnos and it was used as a synonym of gentile,
that is, non-Christian and non-Jewish pagan in New Testament Greek. As the English
language has no concrete noun for ethnos or ethnie, the French term is used here to
denote an ‘ethnic community’ or ‘ethnic group’.
Erikson has pointed out the characteristics of ethnicity which are common to
the Nationalism are given below:
1. Ethnicity is social process and social relations rather than static cultural
phenomena.
2. It is based on the idea of fictive kinship between the members of the respective
group (ethnic group).
3. It is the creation of such relations through everyday interactions.
4. Ethnicity is significantly based on the postulate of
unity and homogeneity and common belief in shared culture and origins as the
basis for the collectivity.
5. Ethnicity is the relational concept, including the drawing of clear boundaries,
i.e., a cognitive division between a homogenous ‘us’ and a differentiated ‘them’.
6. The concept relates to forms of social organization and active social
construction which means that the phenomenon is not ‘natural’, but created by
social groups.
7. The form of social organization has effects on people’s consciousness in as
much as they produce a sense of ‘difference’ with regard to certain others.

Ethnicity in Nepal:
Nepal exhibits a complex case of ethnicity. The following attributes are more
considerable to mention for the Nepalese ethnic phenomenon.

1. It is a multiethnic state which can be differentiated on linguistic and ethnic

grounds.
2. The country exhibits, like Britain and other European countries, a combination
of dynastic principles of social organization with emerging ethnic and
nationalist ideologies.
3. Its limited natural and political resources are quite unequally divided between
different coctivities of people.
4. Ethnicity has been based upon the practice of under representation and severe
social discrimination.
 5. Ethnicity has greatly been the concern of seeking of social and political right in
Nepal. And it has taken the shape of political conflict and political identity.
6. The social reality is that the ethnic groups as developed due to ethnicity, a
process of forming collective identity, has been greatly dominated by main
stream groups- Brahman, chhetry and thakuri- in various aspects of socio-
political life.
7. Ethnicity and state restructuring have been the hot concern or agenda in the
socio-political aspects in the aftermath of second Jana Andolan in Nepal. More
importantly, the issue is closely connected with federalism,
Gender based stratification
The word gender is being used sociologically and has been one of the major agendas of
discourse, including the socio-political, intellectual and disciplinary discussion and
debates. In Nepal, it has been the hot issue before and after the 2ndJana Andolan. Gender
issues like woman’s violence, the concern of property right, the question of proportionate
representative in NGOs and GOs, attitudes and belief system towards woman, religious
and cultural based discrimination, etc. are making the hot debate among the various
group of people, including political parties, feminists, social worker, etc.
Meaning:
According to Kamala Bhasin, an Indian scholar and feminist, defined gender as- in its
new incarnation gender refers to the socio-cultural definition of man and woman, the
way societies distinguish man and woman and assign them social roles.
Whereas sex is the biological predisposition of man and woman, gender is the socio-
cultural and political manifestation of man and woman. As elsewhere, gender is the key
locus of the cultural structure in Nepal. The construction of gender and gender relations
may very from society to society in terms of age, life related positions within family,
caste, ethnicity, class, region, etc. Gender based discrimination is highly experienced with
the patrilineality and patrilocality which contribute to an extremely unequal level of life
opportunities between man and woman.

How the gender based discrimination is expressed?

1. The high rituals and other values (especially, Hindu based rituals in Nepal) attached
to son as against daughters make emphasis on gender specific socialization.

2. Highly gender based access to household productive resources, income and

household decision making and schooling are the issues greatly discussed and these are
the specific concern of gender based discrimination in Nepal.

Unpaid economic participation, unequal access to public decision making structures and
low public facilities, a

Barriers and mal practices to gender equity and gender based Relation in Nepal
  Patriarchal society- That means the authority of family and society lie on male
head of the family.
 Patrilineal Society- That means descent and property transforms from male head
of family to offspring
 Belief, Values and norms are as against to woman’s welfare and justice-
Chaupadi and Dewaki in far western region of Nepal, for instance, provide
evidence of how woman’s dignity , justice and their basic right are threatened
and violated
 Non sense practices prevailing in society- The popular non-sense practices like
witchcrafts and dowry system in many parts of Nepal, especially in the middle
Terai, are as against the practices of woman’s justice and welfare.
 Category of work and burden- Women in developing countries like ours have to
shoulder 3 burdens at a time- reproduction, house hold chores and outside work
(in underdeveloped societies reproduction is taken as burden, since many of the
women can not get proper care and health facilities during the gestation period
and in the post delivery period).
 Lack of implementation of woman related law- Due to the deeply rooted social
values, woman’s law like property right bill and abortion bill are not being
effectively implemented.
 Domestic violence and sexual abuses- Domestic violence is on increasing and
sexual abuses are rampant. But the law related to these problems are either not
effective or are ambiguous in meaning and interpretation, giving the defendant
or culprit more chances to get free.
 Religion and social beliefs- Some religions like Hindu and Islam, in its extreme
form, are barriers for the uplift and equity of women (many aspects mentioned
in their religious books are against the welfare of woman)
 Maternal mortality rate- As compared to other SAARC countries and developed
countries, the maternal and neo-natal mortality rate in Nepal is high. It is due to
the lack of proper health care and health facilities provided to the many of rural
women in Nepal.
Some Efforts on the Part of Government and Non-Government Body
 Resolution of Property right and abortion bill by the parliament
 Ensuring the proportionate reprehensive of women in governmental body by
mentioning it in the interim constitution of Nepal
 Proportionate representative of women in constitution assembly.
 Various awareness and advocacy program launched by number of woman
related NGos/INGos like WOREC.
 Woman’s organization under different political parties for the cause of
woman’s right and gender equity (though very few political parties’ sister
organization are active and strong in this regard)
 Beijing conference (an International conference for right of woman) held in
Beijing in 1995.(See website for some detail).
  March 8, being celebrated world wide to commemorate for the liberation of
labor women and ensuring of their right (for the commemoration o woman’s
movement launched years back, please see website to know some detail)
 Received voting right in America and UK due to their movement years
back among others, are the manifestation of this disparity.

What is community?
The community is as old as humanity or even before the origin of human being; the
community existed among our sub-human ancestors too, argued anthropologist.
Wherever the members of any group, small or large, live together in such a way that they
share not only some aspects of particular group interest but the basic conditions of
common life, we call that group a community. In this regard, one can not live wholly
within a business organization or church; one can live wholly within tribe or city. It may
be argued here that the basic criterion of community is that all of one’s social relationship
may be found within it.

A community is a local grouping within which people carry out a full round of life
activities. Horton and Hunt, American sociologists and author of the book, ‘Sociology’,
give the consistent points as prerequisites for the formation of community:

1. a grouping of people,
2. within a geographic area,
3. with a division of labor into specialized and interdependent functions,
4. with a common culture and a social system which organizes their activities,
5. whose members are conscious of their unity and of belonging to the community
6. whose members can act collectively in an organized manner.
For a true community to be formed and qualified, its members should experience all or
nearly all of the culture within the community’s boundaries. Regarding the
interdependency of the different communities, some are inclusive and independent of
others. Among primitive people communities of no more than hundred persons are
almost altogether isolated. Raute, for example, are isolated communities and can be
regarded as self sufficient even in the social situation of 21st century. But modern
communities, even very large ones, are less sufficient. Economic and increasingly
political interdependence is a major characteristic of the modern communities. To sum up
the matter, Horton and Hunt, again defines community as, “a community is a local
grouping within which people carry out a full round of life activities.” Ferdinand
Tonnies, one of the founding fathers of sociology of community, has translated the
term gemeinschaft, a term that signifies the very memory of a bygone age of harmony
and stability, as community.
The Bases of community: The above discussion concludes here that the community is an
area of social living marked by some degree of social coherence.The bases of community
are locality and community sentiment.
1. Locality: This fact makes a view that a community is always possible within a
territorial area. Even a nomad community, a band of gypsies, for example, has a locality,
although it has changing habitation. Most communities are settled and featured with
conditions of locality which is a strong bond of solidarity. This local bond has been
weakened in the modern world by the extending facilities of communication and
transportation. This undermining of community is very much apparent among many
communities, Thakali, Gurung, for example, in Nepal which have migrated from their
native place to many modern urban areas where they have no any formal bond in their
life. More significantly, the community underscores the relation between social
coherence and the geographical area.
2. Community sentiment: Locality, though a necessary condition, is not enough to
create a community. There must be the common living with its awareness of sharing a
way of life along with common sentiment. However, this common sentiment is being
undermined due to the extensive division of labor and professionalization of work.

Society Community

1. For community,
1. Society is a web of social particular area and some
relationship. degree of ‘we feeling’
2. Society is more abstract are the prerequisites.
term. 2. Community is concrete.
3. Society is wider. There 3. Community is smaller
can be more than one than society.
community in a society. 4. Likeness is more
4. Society involves both important than difference
likeness and differences. in community.
5. The interests of society 5. The interests of society
are more varied and are relatively less
extensive. extensive and varied.

What is Culture?
Newborn human baby is helpless and it is physically dependent on older members of the
species. Instinctively, it also lacks the behavior patterns necessary for living in human
society. It depends primarily on certain biological drives such as hunger and its help on
elders to satisfy those drives. In this regard, an infant must learn the skills, knowledge
and accepted ways of behaving of society into which it is born. It must learn a way of life
which is necessary for him to survive in the society. In Sociological terminology, it must
learn the culture of its society. Due to the higher period of dependency over the senior
ones, the human baby has the greater chances to learn the ways of life, so learns the
culture. Like most sociological concepts, culture is a word with both a popular and a
sociological meaning.
Ralf Linton, explaining the content of culture, contends, “The culture of a society is the
way of life of its members; the collection of ideas and habits which
they learn, share and transmit from generation to
generation”. As Horton and Huntstates so clearly, “culture is everything which is
socially learned and shared by the members of society.” Similarly, B.Malinowski, an
English Anthropologist, defines culture as, “cumulative creation of man”. Clyde
Kluckhohn has used an exclusive phrase for culture as “design for living”.
The classic definition of culture framed by E.B. Tylor, an English Anthropologist, in his
work Ancient culture, states, “culture in its wider ethnographic sense is that complex
whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other
capabilities”.
To sum up the matter, culture determines how members of a society think and feel it
directs their actions and defines their outlook on life. Members of society usually take
their culture for granted. Starting differently, culture defines accepted waysof behaving
for members of particular society. Such definitions vary from society to society.
Cultural traits and Complexes:
The smallest unit of culture is called a trait. It is irreducible to further smallest part. For
example, dance is a collection of traits, including dance steps, some formula for selecting
the performers and musical accompaniment. More significantly, the dance has a
meaning- religious ceremonial, a magical rite, a courtship activity, etc. All these elements
combine to form a culture complex, a cluster of related traits. The culture complex is
intermediate between the trait and institution.
Subcultures and countercultures:
Every modern society includes some groups of people who share some complexes which
are not shared by the rest of that society is called subculture.
For example, ‘youth subculture’ has special styles of behavior, thought, dress and
vocabulary. Subcultures which are in active opposition to the dominant culture
called counterculture. The delinquent gang, for example, with no standards or moral
values. Youths trained in this culture are influenced against the dominant cultural norms.
Material Culture and Non-culture:
Nonmaterial culture consists of the words people use, the ideas, customs, and beliefs they
hold, and habit they follow. Material culture consists of manufactured objects such as
tools, furniture, automobiles, buildings, roads, and any physical objects which has been
changed and used by man.
Language and Culture:
Language is exclusively a human achievement. It enables man to share the experiences
and thoughts of his fellows and to re-create his personal experiences for their benefit. A
society that lacks language can not make the continuity of the behavior and learning and
learning necessary for the creation of the culture. Language is not something that is
genetically inherited; rather it is an art that has to be learnt. All living animals including
living primates use more or less three means to communicate with each other. These are-
sound, body movement, and odor. They make various types of call for various purposes,
but possess no linguistic capacity. In fact, animal sounds are fixed and instinctive that
varies within a limited range. Therefore, language is the characteristic feature of human
being which distinguishes him from other animal being.
Men possess language as long as he possesses culture. The tool making property of man
has been correlated with language. A language comes into existence when two or more
individuals agree to attach same meaning to the same sound. The meanings denote the
symbols, which may have certain kinds of physical form. A symbol may be a material
object or a color or a typical sound or an odor or a motion code. There is a simple
difference between speech and language. Language is the conceptual code, the system of
knowledge that enables a person to produce and understand speech. Speech is the actual
behavior, the utterance of words or sounds by a person. The language is, in this sense,
more than the speech and it is a particular means of expression that can not stand alone. It
depends on culture and explains a culture. The symbolic values of a language help in
understanding of the tangible elements of culture.

Group

Group is one of the important concepts in Sociology. There are several meanings of
‘Group’ in Sociological literature. One definition denotes group as any physical
collection of people. Another definition of ‘Group’ is expressed as, a number of people
who share some common characteristic. For example, college graduates, physicians, etc.
Still another usage defines group as, any number of people who share consciousness of
membership together and of interaction. For example, two persons waiting for a bus
would not be a group until they started a conversation, a fight, or any other interaction.
From above explanation, we can draw a conclusion that men everywhere live in groups
and a completely separated or isolated individual life is hypothetical and such that man
can not live in ivory tower.

Some Definitions:
Maciver and Page defines Group as, “any collection of human beings who are brought
into human relationships with one another”.

Harry M. Johnson Defines Group as, “A System of social interaction”

Characteristics:
1. Collection of individuals: As described in definition the basic criterion of group is
the collection of people.

2. Interaction among members: Mere the collection of people does not form the group.
Unless the interaction occurs the formation of group is impossible.

3. We feeling: The group is attributed with having ‘we feeling’ on the part of group
members.

4. Group unity: Group members are bound by unity, though temporary in nature.

5. Common Interest: The interest of the group remains intact unless the Group’s
common goal is completed.

6. Group norms: Each and every member is subject to follow the group norms.

7. Size of the group: Social groups vary in size. A group may be as small as that of
dyad- husband and wife or as big as that of a political party.

8. Stability: Groups are stable or unstable; permanent or temporary in character.

The Types of Groups

Groups have been classified on the basis of factors such as- degree of organization,
nature of social interaction, range of group interests, permanent or temporary nature.

1. In Groups and Out groups: Simply the In-Group, the ‘We group’, an ‘out- group’,
the ‘they group’
2. Horizontal and Vertical Groups: P.A. Sorokin has divided the groups into two
major types- the horizontal and the vertical. The former are large, inclusive groups, such
as nations, religious organizations and political parties. The latter are smaller divisions,
such as economic classes which give the individual his status in society.
3. Primary Groups and Secondary Groups: On the basis of nature and quality of social
interaction groups have classified into primary and secondary. The name of C.H. Cooley
is very much associated with the use of ‘primary group’.
4. Territorial and Non Territorial Group: On the basis of territory occupied or not, the
group is divided into two types. For example, communities and states lie in the former
group whereas crowds lie in the latter group.
Status and Role
Status:
All members of society occupy a number of social positions known as social statuses. In
any society, an individual may have occupational statuses like driver, teacher, doctor, etc;
family statuses like son, daughter, father, etc. Generally, statuses are culturally and
socially defined, but they are sometimes defined biologically, like sex and race. Some
statuses are relatively fixed and there is little an individual can change his assignments to
particular positions. For examples: gender and aristocrat title.

Definitions:
Ralf Linton Defines status as, “the place is the place in a particular system, which a
certain individual occupies at a particular time.”

Morris Ginsberg says, “A status is a position in asocial group or grouping, a relation to

other positions held by other other individuals in the group or grouping.”

Nature of status:

1. Each status in society is accompanied by a number of norms which define how an

individual occupying a particular status is expected to act. This group of norms is known
as role.
2. One individual may have several statuses.

3. Statuses of persons leave the impression on the career of individuals.

4. Statuses differ with their degree of importance- It can be illustrated with the
importance of occupational status in industrial countries and relative importance of caste
based occupational status in Nepal.

5. Social status has a hierarchical distribution too- It can be explained that a few
persons in society occupy highest positions while the majority assume the ordinary
statuses in society.

Types of statuses:
There are two ways in which an individual can get his status in society. Some statuses
are acquired by birth whereas some others are achieved later in one’s life. The concept of
this distinction of statuses was given by Ralf Linton as ‘ascribed’ and ‘achieved’.

a. Ascribed status: These are the statuses which the individual has no choice.
Example of ascribed statuses is sex group, age group, racial group, caste group, etc.
b. Achieved status: Statuses about which a person has choices are achieved status. For
example, a son of a farmer when completes a degree of engineering has acquired the
achieved status.

Social Roles
Each status has a set of expected behaviors called roles. In another way
it can be explained that each status in society is accompanied by a number of norms
which define how an individual occupying a particular status is expected to act. This
group of norms is called role. Thus a status of husband is accompanied by role of
husband, status of a doctor by the role of doctor, etc. Social roles regulate and organize
behavior. More importantly, they provide means for accomplishing certain task. For an
argument, it can be explained that teaching can be accomplished more effectively if
teacher and student adopt their appropriate roles. Roles provide social life
with order and predictability. As an aspect of culture, roles provide an important part of
guidelines and directives necessary for an ordered society.
Definition:
Young and Mack defines role as “A role is a function of a status”

Kingsley Davis, “the manner in which a person actually carries out the requirements of
his position”.

Nature of role:
1. Role playing is obligatory for all members.

2. Some social roles are shared by many people. For example, voters, authors,
ministers, teachers, etc.

3. Some social roles are voluntary and some roles are involuntary.

4. In some circumstances, role is preceded by status whereas in many cases the role is
followed by status.

Interrelationship between role and status: The interrelationship between role and
status can be explained with the help of above description of status and roles. (You have
to take it as an assignment)
Unit III
Social Institution
The sociological concept of institution is different from the common usage. An institution
is not building; it is not a group of people; it is not an organization. Horton and Hunt
defines institution as, “an institution is a system of norms to achieve some goal or activity
that people feel is important, or , more formally, an organized cluster of folkways and
mores centered around a major human activity”.More specifically speaking, institutions
are structured processes through which people carry out their activities.
Institutions do not have members, they have followers. For example, a religion is not a
group of people; it is a system of ideas, beliefs, practices and relationships. In this
context, a church is an association of people who accept the beliefs and follow the
practices of particular religion. In a very much broader way, Horton and Hunt explain
institution as, “an organized system of social relation relationship which embodies certain
common values and procedure and meets certain basic needs of the society.” Here,
‘common values’ refers to shared ideas and goals, the ‘common procedures’ are the
standardized behavior patterns followed, and the ‘system of relationships’ is the network
of roles and statuses through which people carry out this behavior.

Five important basic institutions in complex societies are: familial, religious,

governmental, economic, and educational. In modern societies, the values and procedures
are so highly standardized behavior which is called ‘scientific institutions’.

Important of Institutions:
Social institutions are such that they help create and develop common values
which the people must conform to. This conformity avoids the possible conflict among
the group of the people living at the particular society and such that the
institutionalization process in the modern society with modern organization system is
very much obvious with division of labor more specific. Bureaucratic system, business
organizations, and commercial banks are attributed with institutionalization process.
Define family. Discuss its types and function.
The family is the most important primary group in society. It is the simplest and
the most elementary form of society. The family, as an institution is universal. It is the
most pervasive and the most permanent of all social institutions. The family, in general,
is a small group consisting ordinarily of father, mother, one or more children and
sometimes near or distant relatives.
Many sociologists have regarded the family as the cornerstone of society and it forms the
basic unit of social organization. In the most primitive societies the family is the only
social institution. Among the Polar Eskimos, there were no other institutions – no chiefs
or formal laws, no priests or medicine men, no specialized occupations. More clearly,
most primitive societies experienced no physical or social needs of any other social
institution beyond the family. That is, in those societies, order is maintained with no
formal laws, police, or courts. The only authority known in many simple societies is
family authority. With increasing tribal size and growing cultural complexity, more
formal political organization is needed. Family heads are joined intro tribal councils,
tribes combine into confederation and bureaucracies begin to develop. The family,
therefore, is the basic social institution from which other institutions have grown as
increasing cultural complexity made them necessary.
Definition and Meaning:
M Haralambos in his book, ‘sociology’ describes the finding of George Peter Murdock
on the universality of family: In a study entitled Social Structure, George Peter
Murdock examined the institution of the family in a wide range of societies. He took a
sample of 250 societies ranging from small hunting and gathering bands to large scale
industrial societies. He claimed that some form of family existed in every society and
concluded, on the evidence of his sample, that the family is universal. With this study, he
defines family as follows, “the family is a social group characterized by common
residence, economic cooperation and reproduction. It includes adults of both sexes, at
least two of whom maintain a socially approved sexual relationship, and one or more
children, own or adopted, of the co-habiting adults.”
Maciver and Page defines family as, “a group defined by sex relationship sufficiently
precise and enduring to provide for procreation and upbringing of children.”

Functions of family
C.N. Shankar Rao in his book ‘Sociology’ has described the various functions argued by
various sociologists:

Ogburn and Nimkoff has described six functions of family:

1. Affectional
2. Economic
3. Recreational
4. Protective
5. Religious
6. Educational
Similarly Maciver and Page have classified family into two types: Essential and Non-
essential or Primary and Secondary.
Primary functions:
1. Stable satisfaction of sex need

2. Reproduction or procreation

3. Production and Rearing of child

4. Provision of home

5. Family functions as an instrument of Cultural Transmission and an Agent of

Socialization.
6. Status ascribing function: status ascription for individual

7. Affectional Function.

Secondary Functions:
1. Economic Functions

2. Educational functions

3. Religious Functions

4. The recreational functions

Types of Family:
Sociologists have discussed about the various types of family, important of which have
described or mentioned as below:

A. On the basis of marriage family can be divided into: Polygynous,Polyandrous, and

Monogamous.
B. On the basis of nature of residence marriage can be divided into three
types: Matrilocal, Patrilocal and Changing residence
C. On the basis of ancestry or descent family can be divided into two main
types: Matrilineal, Patrilineal
D. On the basis of size or structure: The Nuclear family, The Joint family.

We, mainly, focus on the type of family based on the size or structure.

a. The joint or extended family: This form of family is

institutionalized in many small scales, non- literate, pre-industrial, and traditional peasant
societies. In this form of family, kinship ties dominate life. But in this case, the basic unit
is extended family rather than the wider kinship grouping. The joint family, on the other
hand, consists of members who at least belong to three generations: husband and wife,
their married and unmarried children; and their married as well as unmarried grand
children. Joint family when extended beyond this composition becomes extended family.
For example, the traditional Irish farming family is a patriarchal extended family and in
Nepal, the extended Tharu farming family can resemble the Irish family.
b. Nuclear Family: The individual nuclear family is the typical family in modern
industrial society. According to Talcott Parsons, it is ‘structurally isolated’ family
because it does not form an integral part of a wider system of kinship relationships. It can
be defined as “a small group composed of husband and wife and immature children who
constitute a unit from the rest of the community.”

Changing Pattern of Family

The changing pattern of family in Nepalese society is pointed as follows:

a. The sexual regulation function: In most of the urban societies of Nepal the pre-
marital and extra marital sex relations are on increase.

b. The formation of nuclear family is on rise. Because of the increasing urbanization

process and rise on foreign employment, a part of the rural population is deviating from
their old traditional agriculture occupation resulting in holding a non agriculture
profession.

Education
The very existence of society depends upon the transmission of culture to young
generation. Human society’s needs and essentiality is that every new generation must be
given training in the way of the group of the particular society so that the same tradition
will continue. The ways the society gives training to its members is different from society
to society. Thus, education has been developed as one of the ways to fulfill the need to
train the members of society.

How education emerged:

Primitive and very ancient societies had no educational institutions. Children of that
period learned what they needed to know by observing or watching going on. It took no
school to teach a tribal boy how to hunt. A boy’s father would give him instruction in
hunting and these lessons were the nearest thing to “educational institutions” that could
be found in a simple society. Such institution was not an educational institution; it was
simply a part of a man’s family duties.

Schools appeared when cultures became too complex for all needed learning to be
handled easily within the family. Furthermore, developing religions often required that
legends, rituals, and chants be learned and memorized. Family members and their
neighbors are needed to learn these instructions. At this point of human history, full-
time specialists as teachers and formal classes of students were prerequisite for the
development of educational institutions to teach the boys of the families of a particular
society In this way education arrived, argues the historians and social scientists.
Meaning and Definition:
The term education is derived from the Latin educare which literally means to ‘bring
up’. The idea of education is not merely to impart knowledge to the students in some
areas of study but to develop in him those habits and attitudes with which he may
successfully face the future. According to Aristotle, the aim of education is ‘to develop
man’s faculties, especially, his mind, so that he may be able to enjoy the contemplation of
the supreme truth, goodness and beauty in which perfect happiness essentially consists.’

E.Durkheim, ‘education can be conceived as the socialization of the younger generation.

It is a continuous effort to impose on the child ways of seeing, feeling and acting which
he could not arrived at spontaneously.’
Functions of Education
1. Education helps complete socialization process: Although the family gets child,
modern family has the access to schools and other institutions which have come
into the place of family to complete the socialization process.
2. It helps transmit culture of the society: With the publication of books and by
teaching-learning process, it is possible to transmit the culture.
3. Social personality is possible: An individual’s social personality is possible
with the providing of education.
4. It helps reform the attitudes: The old and outdated attitudes can be reformed and
replaced by new ones with education.
5. It ensures or creates an environment to get job: Education is the most
fundamental social institution which helps get job.
6. It confers the status: Education in the modern world confers the status to the
individuals.
7. It fosters the democracy: With the proper education provided to the people
democracy can be understood and brought into action for welfare the people and
society.
8. Education imparts values: Education provides values to the life of the people
and such that values are the moral.
9. It ensures the social changes: Innovation of various ideas and beliefs education
ensures social changes.

Education in Nepal:
Means to impart the education in Nepal was Sanskrit in the past. Saint and sages,
religious teachers, used to impart education as a moral lesson. These days education is
featured with the ways to receive degree in order to get earning for survival. The Rana
period provided the education with the opening of some schools to the limitation of its
family members only and very few colleges were opened as a part of socio-political
reform to avoid the possible revolt against Rana regime. Panchayat era was rather based
on the modern education system with relatively mass enrollment in school and college.
The post Jana Andolan I has been characterized by the mushrooming of colleges and
schools in private sectors with a remarkable decline in illiteracy rate. Education in post
2046 period is being nurtured with advanced and modern education system providing
large number of the younger population the modern education with the introduction of
western values and needs to greater extension.