CHAPTER 1

X-RAYS

1.1 Introduction

X-rays were first discovered in 1895 when, during experiments with electric
currents passed through a vacuum tube, Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen noted that a nearby
fluorescent screen glowed when the current was being passed. When the current was
switched off the screen stopped glowing. It was attributed this effect to previously
unknown rays which, X being the symbol for an unknown quantity, it is called X-rays.
These rays are, like light and radio waves, a form of electromagnetic radiation.
Most X-rays have a wavelength ranging from 0.01 to 10 nanometers. The process is
illustrated in Figure 1.1. X-rays have high energy and short wavelength and are able to
pass through tissue. On their passage through the body, the denser tissues, such as the
bones, will block more of the rays than will the less dense tissues, such as lung. A
special type of photographic film is used to record X-rays pictures. The X-rays are
converted into light and the more energy that has reached the recording system, the
darker that region of the film will be. This is why the bones on an X-rays image appear
whiter (less energy passes through) than the lungs (more energy passes through). In the
early days of X-rays, images, such as that of Mrs Rontgen`s hand, were produced
differently: the bones appeared dark rather than white. Within two months of their
discovery, X-rays were being used both in Europe and North America, not just to take
pictures of the internal organs of the living people but also to treat a wide variety of
diseases. The energy that does not pass through the body is deposited within it and it is
this energy that causes the biological effects of radiation. The machines used to take X-
rays pictures produce X-rays with energies of around 120,000 electron volts.
The X-rays used for cancer treatment are much more powerful, with energies of
between 2 million and 20 million electron volts. [06Bec]
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Figure1.1 The Wavelength of X-ray and Other Electromagnetic Radiation

1.2 Production of X-rays

X-rays are produced due to sudden deceleration of fast-moving electrons when
they collide and interact with the target anode. In this process of deceleration, more
than 99% of the electron energy is converted into heat and less than 1% of energy is
converted into x-rays.[12NASA]

Figure 1.2 A Simplified Picture of an X-rays Tube Illustrating Process of

Generating X-rays.

1.2.1 Generator

An x-ray generator gives power to the x-ray tube. It contains high voltage
transformers, filament transformers and rectifier circuits. It is shown in Figure 1.2.
1.2.2 Cathode

The cathode is the negative terminal of an x-ray tube. It is a tungsten filament

and when current flows through it, the filament is heated and emits its surface electrons
by a process called thermionic emission.
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1.2.3 Kilo voltage

High voltage, in the kilovolt range (1000 volts), is applied between the cathode
and anode. This causes electrons to move towards the positive terminal of the tube at a
velocity of half the velocity of light.
1.2.4 Anode

The positive terminal of the tube. It is made of a tungsten disc in ordinary

diagnostic x-ray tubes, and molybdenum in mammography x-ray tubes.

1.3 Sources of X-Rays

1. Natural
2. Man made
1.3.1 Natural

X ray and gamma rays can come from natural sources, such as radon gas,
radioactive elements in the earth, and cosmic rays that hit the earth from outer space.

1.3.2 Man Made

1. Diagnostic x-rays
2. Nuclear medicine procedures (Iodine-131, Cesium-137 and others
3. X- ray tube, a vacuum tube that produces x-rays when current flows through it
4. X-ray laser
5. X-ray generator, any of various devices using x-ray tubes, lasers or
radioisotopes
6. Synchrotron, which produces x-rays as synchrotron radiation
7. Cyclotron, which produces x-rays as cyclotron radiation
1.4 Classification of X-Rays

1. Hard X-rays
2. Soft X-rays
1.4.1 Hard X- ray

X rays are having low wavelength of the order of 10-9 have high frequency and
hence high energy. Their penetrating power is high, therefore they are called hard X-
rays. They are produced at comparatively high potential difference. The wavelength of
X-rays depends upon the kinetic energy of the electrons producing them and this kinetic
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energy depends upon the potential difference between the filament and the
target.[15Asm]

1.4.2 Soft X- ray

Soft X rays are electromagnetic radiation will wavelength in the range of 0.12
nm to 5nm. This range of light lies between UV and Hard X rays. Photons in this range
of the electromagnetic spectrum have energies of 250eV to 10,000eV. Due to the
inherently short wavelength of the soft X ray, one is able to use this light to see
extremely small features and to make minute features. Within the soft X ray regime,
there is a region called the water window in which the light passes through water, but
is absorbed by carbon, oxygen, nitrogen and sulfur. In this region brilliant images of
biological materials can be capture that are unavailable with other techniques.[15Asm]

1.5 Types of X-rays

1. Characteristic X-rays
2. Bremsstrahlung radiation

1.5.1 Characteristic X-rays

X-rays fluorescence is the emission of characteristic or secondary X-rays from
a material that has been excited by bombarding with high energy electrons, or other X-
ray or γ-ray photons. If the incident particle has enough energy, it can knock out an
orbital electron out of the inner shell of the target atom. To fill the vacancy, one of the
electrons from the higher shells then jumps to the inner shell, emitting in the process, a
photon with energy equal to the difference in binding energy of the two shells. The
process is illustrated in Figure 1.3. [15Asm]
The X-rays fluorescence produces an emission spectrum of X-rays at discrete
energies. These emission spectral lines depend on the target element and hence are
called characteristic or fluorescent X-rays. These spectra can be used to identify the
elements by comparing the peak’s energy with the element’s binding energy. [15Asm]
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Figure 1.3 Characteristic X- rays

1.5.2 Bremsstrahlung Radiation

Bremsstrahlung is a German word for braking radiation. Accelerating charges
give of electromagnetic radiation. In an X-rays tube, depicted in Figure 1.4, electrons
travel from cathode with high speed towards the anode and penetrate the anode
material. When these electrons pass in close proximity to the strong electric field of the
nucleus, they get deflected and are decelerated by the attractive force from the nucleus,
hence radiating X-rays, which are called braking or bremsstrahlung radiation. [15Asm]

Figure 1.4 Bremsstrahlung Radiation

1.6 Properties of X-rays
The properties of X-ray are divided into 4 heading:
1. Physical
2. Chemical
3. Biological
4. Physiochemical
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1.6.1 Physical Properties

1. X-rays are electromagnetic radiations having a wavelength between 10A to
0.01A.
2. In free space, they travel in straight line.
3. Speed 186,000 miles/sec (same as that of visible light).
4. They are invisible to eye.
5. Cannot be heard.
6. Cannot be smelt.
7. They cannot be reflected, refracted or deflected by magnetic or electric field.
8. They show properties of interference, diffraction and refraction similar to
visible light.
9. They produce an electric field at right angles to their path of propagation.
10. They produce a magnetic field and path of propagation.
11. They do not require any medium for propagation.
12. Penetration: X-rays can penetrate liquids, solids and gases. The degree of
penetration depends on quality, intensity and wavelength of XY-ray beam.
13. Absorption: X-rays are absorbed by matter; the absorption depends on the
atomic structure of the matter and the wavelength of the X-ray beam.
14. Ionizing capability: X-rays interact with materials they penetrate and cause
ionization
15. Fluorescence: When X-rays fall upon certain materials visible light will be
emitted called fluorescence.
16. X-rays have the property of attenuation, absorption and scattering
17. They also show heating effect.[12NASA]

1.6.2 Chemical Properties

X-rays includes colour changes of several substances or their solution Ex: Ethylene
Blue gets bleached.
1. X-rays bring about chemical changes in solution because X-rays produce highly
active radical OH ions in water, which react with the solutes.
2. X-rays caused the destruction of the fermenting powers of Enzymes.[12NASA]
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1.6.3 Biological Properties

1. The excitation property of X-rays is used in the treatment lesions.
2. X-rays also have a germicidal or bactericidal effect.
3. Somatic Effect: This ranges from simple sun burn to severe dermatitis or to
change in blood supply to malignancy.
4. Genetic Effect [12NASA]
1.6.4 Physiochemical Property
1. X-rays are capable of producing an image on a photographic film.
2. The surface of the photographic paper which is exposed to X-rays will be
developed and found blackened. The blackening is known as film density.
3. The amount of blackening of the film depends on various factors like amount
of radiation, quality of radiation, characteristic of a film, length of developing
time, use of intensifying screens or concentration and age of developing
solution.[12NASA]

1.7 Applications of X-rays

The main use of X-rays is in medicine. A common application is in the form of
X-ray machines, which take photos of a patient’s body. If an arm or leg were broken
for example, then this limb would be put in front of the X-ray with a piece of
photographic film behind. The X –ray is turned on briefly and goes through to the film.
The rays go through the skin and flesh easily, showing up as dark areas on the film, but
with more difficulty through bone. They are slowed down and so these areas are much
lighter. X-rays can also be used to kill cancer cells, but also kill healthy cells, so must
be used with much care.[12NASA]
Other uses are in industry, at airports to check customers and baggage and by
art historians to see if a picture has been painted on top of an older one. X-rays
diffraction is also very important in spectroscopy and as a basis for X-ray
crystallography. The diffraction of X-rays by a crystal where the wavelength of X-rays
is comparable in size to the distances between atoms in most crystals is used to disperse
X-rays in a spectrometer and to determine the structure of crystals or molecules. The
X-rays also used in dentistry. The first dentist to practice radiography in dentistry was
by Dr. C. Edmund Kells, who used it in a Root Canal procedure on May 10, 1899.
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Today X-rays film or radiography studies are the most common diagnostic
radiology procedures. X ray studies are often performed as the initial examination to
diagnose a wide variety of diseases and injuries. Chest X-ray of the lung can show a
variety of respiratory diseases including cancer and tuberculosis. X-ray studies show
the size and location of a structure using front, side, and back views of the organ.
Diagnostic X-ray is used to examine bones and internal organs and tissue structures,
shown in Figure 1.5.
X rays are of diagnostic value by virtue of the following properties:
 Its ability to penetrate the tissues.
 Its ability to cause certain substances to fluoresce (glow when exposed to
radiation).
 Its ability to produce photographic effect.
X-ray films are particularly useful for:
 Chest
 Abdomen
 Skeletal system: trauma, spine, joints, degenerative, metabolic and metastatic
diseases.[12NASA}

Figure1.5 Medical use in X-rays

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1.8 Aim and objectives

There are many different brands of Pone Yay Gyi at markets of Bagan and
Nyaung Oo in Myanmar. Two brands, Myin Pyan and Zee Kyaut are famous brands in
Myanmar and another one, Nan Taw is little consumed in Myanmar. However, there
are not much data about the concentrations of elements in Pone Yay Gyi. The
concentrations of elements in different brands of Pone Yay Gyi were investigated by
EDX 7000. The aim of the present study is to investigate the concentration of elements
in three different brands of Pone Yay Gyi from Bagan and Nyaung Oo. The primary
objective of this project is to study the functions and effectiveness of XRF method.
Secondary objective is to estimate the elemental concentrations and identify factors
related to metal compound to element. Finally, to assess the safety of dietary intake by
body weight was calculated based on the intake of the typical Myanmar people and
compare with Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) for substances in mg/kg body weight as
recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO).

1.9 Scope
The scope of this project includes;
1. Preparing a brief outline on the theory and typical use of a field EDXRF-7000.
2. Brief outline on the soil preparation techniques for XRF analysis.
3. Data quality and quantity measures that should be undertaken for field
screening of soil sample with XRF.
4. Reporting requirements associated with undertaking XRF measurements.