X-Rays 3

FEW WORDS FOR STUDENTS

We have already discussed about the energy levels in atoms. In

this chapter we will study about the utilization of the energy
released from atomic transitions in heavy atoms in the form of
X-rays. Now we will study from the discovery of X-rays to the
fundamental utility along with the different production
mechanism of X-rays.

CHAPTER CONTENTS

3.1 Introduction to X-Rays

3.2 Production Mechanism of X-rays

3.3 Moseley’s Law

3.4 Applications of X-rays

COVER APPLICATION

Fig ure-(a) Figure-(b)

Figure-(a) shows a commercial X-Ray machine used in various diagnostic labs in which X-rays are used to take photographs of various
organs of human body. Figure-(b) is a typical X-Ray image of human hands taken on a commercial X-Ray machine.

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100 X-Rays

3.1 Introduction to X-Rays (d) The wave nature of X-rays makes them useful tool for the
study of the structure of crystals & molecules. This was later
The discovery of X-rays was accidental by Wilhelm K. discovered.
Roentgen in Germany. X-rays were discovered while
investigating the discharge of electricity through rarefied gases, 3.1.1 Types of X-rays
the same phenomenon and equipment through which cathode
rays were first noticed. At the time of researches going on According to the quality of X-rays, these can be divided in two
cathode rays, X-rays were also being produced but Roentgen groups, these are
was the first person to notice them when he was investigating
(i) Soft X-rays : These are X-rays with low penetrating power.
the characteristics of cathode rays.
The wavelength range of these X-rays are from 10 Å and above
hence their frequency is small and they have smaller energy.
As has been found when cathode rays (fast moving electrons)
These are produced at comparatively low potential difference
are braked by a material, their kinetic energy is converted into and high pressure.
electromagnetic radiations. These are known as X-rays. These
are electromagnetic radiation with very short wavelengths (ii) Hard X-rays : These are X-rays having high penetrating
extending from 0.01 Å to 100 Å. Since in the visible region, the power. The wavelength range of these X-rays are of the order
shortest wavelength are of violet rays which are visible to the of 1 Å so they have high frequencies and hence high energies.
eye have wavelength of about 4000 Å, X-rays are invisible to These are produced at comparatively low pressure and high
eye. potential difference.

X-rays are produced in X-ray tube consist of a glass or metal 3.2 Production Mechanism of X-rays
envelope enclosing the assembly of a cathode, an anode
(generally referred as target) spaced a certain distance apart On the basis of production mechanism, X-rays are classified in
and connected to a source of extremely high tension (EHT) two broad categories
supply. The cathode acts as a source of electrons and the anode 1. Continuous X-Rays
as a source of X-rays. The field set-up between the cathode
2. Characteristic X-Rays
and the anode accelerates the electrons to energies of order 104
to 105 eV. Now we’ll discuss about the production mechanism of X-rays
in detail.
The invisible X-rays are detected by observing their effects.
Among other things X-rays produce a strong photochemical 3.2.1 Continuous X-rays
action which blackens photographic plates. They are also
capable of ionizing gases and causing fluorescence in Continuous X-rays, as their name implies, have a continuous
phosphors. For measurement purposes, these are used in mainly spectral distribution. They are produced when electrons
for their applications of their photochemical and ionizing effects. accelerated in a vacuum strike a target and lose kinetic energy
In ionization chambers, the intensity of X-rays is determined by in passing through the strong electric field of the target nuclei,
measuring the saturation current due to the ionization of the and resulting in a continuous X-ray spectrum. As according to
gas enclosed in the chamber, because the saturation current is the classical physics any accelerated charged particle emits
proportional to the intensity of X-rays. electromagnetic radiation of continuous spectral distribution.

Roentgen discovered that the X-rays has following 3.2.2 Production of Continuous X-rays
characteristics.
In the general X-ray production mechanism there is a discharge
tube (generally called Coolidge tube) operated on high potential
(a) X-rays are generated whenever high energy cathode rays
difference. The cathode used in the tube is the source of cathode
strike solid materials. Generally the greater the density of
rays i.e. fast moving electrons, and the anode used in the tube
impacted material the more X-rays are produced.
is the target material which is the source of X-rays. The X-rays
are produced by the bombardment of anode material by cathode
(b) Matter is more or less transparent to X-rays. Wood and rays, so there will be a lot of heat generation in the anode
flesh are very transparent bone and metals less so, which makes material. The anode material should have high melting point as
the use of X-rays in medicine so useful. due to high energetic electrons, a high temperature is generated.
For this purpose target is selected of high atomic mass. The
(c) X-rays are unaffected (undeviated) by electric and magnetic coolidge tube assembly for the production of X-rays is shown
fields, hence these are uncharged. in figure-3.1.

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X-Rays 101

1
eV = m2 … (3.1)
–
2
e
e–
e– 2eV
 v= … (3.2)
m

When this electron comes out from the atom of anode material
A the speed of this electron will be very less as compared to its
X-rays initial speed. Thus the difference of kinetic energy of this
electron is emitted in the form of an X-rays photon from the
anode atom.

Figure 3.1
Those electrons which pass through the atom very close to the
The mechanism for the production of continuous X-rays can nucleus, will be more accelerated and the photon energy
be explained on the basis of figure-3.2. Figure shows an atom of corresponding to these electrons will be more as compared to
the anode material of high atomic weight with its electron those electrons which pass through the atom at relatively large
configuration. In the Coolidge tube an electron is projected distance from nucleus. The maximum energy of X-photon will
towards the anode with an accelerating voltage V. So the kinetic be corresponding to that electron which looses almost all of its
energy of the projectile electron will be eV. As shown in the energy during passing through the atom. The photon
figure when the projectile electrons enters into the extremely corresponding to this electron will have the shortest wavelength
among all the photons radiated by other electrons. If this shortest
high electric field of the nucleus of the atom of the anode material,
wavelength is c then we have
it experiences a strong electric force towards the nucleus of the
atom of the anode material, it experiences a strong electric force 1 hc
towards the nucleus of the atom and due to this strong attraction E = mv2 = eV = 
2 c
the velocity of this electron when it emerges from the atom will hc 12431
be highly reduced and negligibly compared with the initial  c = = Å … (3.3)
eV V
velocity of the projectile electron. This electron in the influence
This is the minimum wavelength of X-rays emitted from an X-ray
of the highly positive nuclei experiences a very high acceleration
tube which we call short wave cut off. Thus from equation-(3.3)
and according to the classical theory every accelerated charged
we can see that the maximum energy or minimum wavelength of
particle emits the electromagnetic radiations, so this electron X-rays emitted depends only on the potential difference applied
will also emit electromagnetic radiations, these electromagnetic across the discharge tube.
radiations are called X-rays. According to the law of
conservation of energy, the energy of these electromagnetic Thus we can obtain X-rays in any range c to  by applying an
radiation will be equal to the decrease in the kinetic energy of appropriate voltage across discharge tube which will fix c and
the projectile electron. This amount can be calculated. other photons emitted from tube will have wavelength more
than c and ranging up to . Thats why these X-rays are called
continuous X-rays. The basic intensity per unit wavelength
versus wavelength plot (wavelength spectrum) of continuous
X-rays is shown in figure-3.3.

If the initial velocity of the projectile electron is v, then as the

velocity is gained due to the accelerating voltage V, we have

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102 X-Rays

As we can see in the graph that the intensity of emitted X-rays If cavity is created in K-shell then it may be filled by the electron
will be maximum (maximum number of photons) for a particular of either of L, M, N … shells. If cavity is filled by an electron of
value of wavelength at a particular accelerating voltage across L-shell then the energy released will be equal to the difference
the discharge tube. At a particular voltage the intensity of X-rays in energies of the K-shell and L-shell. This is called K-line and
can be varied by changing the current in the circuit because the if the cavity is filled by an electron of M-shell then the line is
intensity of X-rays (number of photons) is proportional to the called K-line. Similarly K, K, … lines may also exist. This
number of electrons attacking the anode. The broad continuous series of lines is called K-series of characteristic X-rays.
spectrum beyond the peak intensity is referred as
“Bremsstrahlung”. If cavity is created in L-shell then according to the transition of
electrons from higher orbits there will be L, L, … lines, and
3.2.3 Characteristic X-rays this is called L-series. There may also be M-series as shown in
figure-3.5(a). Figure-3.5(b) shows the wavelength spectrum for
These X-rays are called characteristic X-rays because they are the characteristic X-rays when cavity is created in K-shell.
characteristic of the element used as target anode. Characteristic
X-rays has a line spectral distribution unlike to continuous
X-rays. The wavelength spectrum of these X-rays is also a
continuous spectrum but this spectrum is crossed over by
distinct spectral lines. The frequencies corresponding to these
lines are the characteristic of the material of the target i.e. anode
material.

3.2.4 Production of Characteristic X-rays

Production of these X-rays can be explained with help of the

figure-3.4. These X-rays are produced when the projectile
electron towards the anode collides with an internal electron of
the atom of the target material, and then secondary emission
will happen. Now this will create a cavity in the inner shell of the
target material, and then secondary emission will happen. Now
this will create a cavity. There are so many ways in which the
cavity may be filled. The cavity can be filled by an electron of
higher orbit which make the transition from its orbit to the lower
orbit in which cavity is created. When an electron make such a
form of electromagnetic radiation, this energy is the
characteristic line for the X-ray spectrum.

Thus the characteristic lines of the characteristic X-rays

depends only on the target material and not on the accelerating
voltage. One more thing we can see here that the characteristic
X-rays are emitted only when the projectile electron make a
collision with another bound electron of the atom of the target
material. When cathode rays pass through the target then the

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X-Rays 103

probability of collision of a projectile electron to collide with person is allowed to stand between a fluorescent screen and
the bound electron is very less. Majority of the projectile the X-ray unit. The deep shadow of bones is formed on the
electron to collide with the bound electron is very less. Majority fluorescent screen and the fracture of the bone can be detected.
of the projectile electrons will pass through the anode without Instead of the fluorescent screen, a photograph known as
making the collision and they produce continuous X-rays. So radiograph can also be taken. X-rays are also used to diagnose
always both type of X-rays, continuous and characteristic will diseases in the lungs, kidneys, intestines and other parts of the
be emitted. Only a single type can not be emitted. body.

3.3 Moseley’s Law (2) Radio-therapy : X-rays are used to destroy malignant
tumors and to cure skin diseased. Long exposure of X-rays kills
Moseley found that the wavelengths of characteristic X-rays the germs in the body and hard X-rays are used to destroy
depend in a well defined manner on the atomic numbers of the tumors very deep inside the body.
element that emit X-rays (the target element). This dependence,
is known as Moseley law, may be written as (3) Industry : X-rays are used to detect defect in radiovalves,
tennis balls, rubber tyres and the presence of pearls in oysters.
 = a (Z – ) … (3.4) They are also used to test the uniformity of the insulating
materials and the quality of oil paintings.
Where  is known as screening constant so the term (Z – )
here is effective atomic number for the electron which takes
(4) Engineering : X-rays are used to detect cracks in
part in the transition which results in characteristic X-rays and
structures and blow holes in metals. They are used to test the
a is Moseley constant.
quality of weldings, moulds and metal coatings. They also help
in detecting any crack in the body of the aeroplane and motor
It can be seen that for K line the electron make a transition
cars.
from L-shell to K-shell, and during this transition this electron
move in the electric field of the nucleus and the one electron of
(5) Detection departments : X-rays are commonly used to
the K-shell, so the screening on the transition electron is only
detect the smuggling of precious metals at the custom posts
due to the remaining one electron of the K-shell so we can take
and to detect the explosives and other contraband goods like
the effective atomic number for this transition as (Z – 1) so the
opium in sealed parcels and in leather cases. They are also used
frequency emitted for the K line can be given as
in mints, where coins are made and every person has to pass
before an X-ray unit after the day’s work is over.
 = a (Z – 1)

The wavelength of the characteristic X-rays can be calculated (6) Research : X-rays are used in research to study the
by the relation structure of crystals, arrangements of atoms and molecules in
matter and their behaviour on different materials.
1 1 1
= R (Z – )2  2  2  … (3.5)
 # Illustrative Example 3.1
 n1 n2 

For K-line we use  = 1 and n2 = 2 and n1 = 1, thus the An X-rays tube operates at 20 kV. Find the maximum speed of
wavelength of the K-line can be given as the electrons striking the anticathode, given the charge of
electron = 1.6 × 10–19 coulomb and mass of electron = 9 × 10–31 kg.
1 3
= R (Z – 1)2
 4 Solution
3
 = Rc (Z – 1)2
4 When an electron of charge e is accelerated through a potential
3 difference V, it acquires energy eV. If m be the mass of the
Thus for K-line a = Rc , where R is the Rydberg constant.
4 electron and vmax the maximum speed of electron, then

3.4 Applications of X-rays 1 2

mv = eV
2 max
(1) Surgery : X-rays can pass through blood and not through
bones. They are used to detect the fracture of bones, diseased  2eV 
 vmax =  m 
organs and foreign bodies and growth in the human body. A  

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104 X-Rays

Substituting the given vales, we get Dividing (3.6) and (3.7) we get
2
 2  (1.6 10 19 )  20,000   Z 1 
 =  Z   1  
vmax =    
 9  10 31 
 
vmax = 8.4 × 107 m/sec.  30  1 
2
  =   × 1.415 Å = 0.708 Å.
 42  1 
# Illustrative Example 3.2
# Illustrative Example 3.4
(a) An X-ray tube produces a continuous spectrum of radiation
with its short-wavelength end at 0.45 Å. What is the maximum
If the short series limit of the Balmer series for hydrogen is
energy of a photon in the radiation ? (b) From your answer to
3644 Å, find the atomic number of the element which give X-ray
(a), guess what order of accelerating voltage (for electrons) is
wavelengths down to 1Å. Identify the element.
required in such a tube ?
Solution
Solution
If the short series limit of the Balmer series is corresponding to
(a) Short wavelength is given as
transition n =  to n = 2 which is given by
min = 0.45 Å
1  1 1  R
= R 2  2  =
Maximum photo energy is given as  2   4
hc
Emax = hmax = 4 4
 min  R= = (Å)–1.
 3644
12431
 Emax = = 27624.44 eV The shortest wavelength corresponds to n =  to n = 1.
0.45
Therefore c is given as
 Emax = 27.624 keV
1 1 1 
(b) The minimum accelerating voltage for electrons is = R (Z – 1)2  2  2 
c 1  
27.6 keV
= 27.6 kV. 1 1
e  (Z – 1)2 = =
i.e. of the order of 30 kV. cR 4
1Å  ( Å) 1
3644
# Illustrative Example 3.3 3644
= = 911
4
The wavelength of the characteristics X-ray K line emitted  Z – 1 = 30.2
from zinc (Z = 30) is 1.415 Å. Find the wavelength of the K line
emitted from molybdenum (Z = 42).  Z = 31.2 ~ 31.

Solution Thus the atomic number of the element is 31 which is gallium.

According to Moseley’s law, the frequency for K series is given # Illustrative Example 3.5
by
  (Z – 1)2 A material whose K absorption edge is 0.2 Å is irradiated by
c X-rays of wavelength 0.15 Å. Find the maximum energy of the
  (Z – 1)2 photoelectrons that are emitted from the K shell.

1
 = k (Z – 1)2 … (3.6) Solution

Where k is a constant. Let  be the wavelength of K line
The binding energy for K shell in eV is
emitted from molybdenum, then
1 hc 12431
= k (Z – 1)2 … (3.7) Ek = = eV = 62.155 KeV
 k 0. 2

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X-Rays 105

The energy of the incident photon in eV is # Illustrative Example 3.8

hc 12431
E= = = 82.873 KeV The wavelength of K X-rays produced by a X-ray tube is
 0.15
Therefore, the maximum energy of the photoelectrons emitted 0.76 Å. What is the atomic number of the anode material of the
from the K shell is tube ?
Emax = E – Ek = 82.873 – 62.155 KeV
Solution
 Emax = 20.718 KeV
K X-rays are produced when an electron makes a transition
# Illustrative Example 3.6 from n = 2 to n = 1 to fill a vacancy in K-shell. The wavelength
of X-ray lines is given by
Calculate the wavelength of the emitted characteristic X-ray 1 1 1 
= (Z – 1)2  2  2 
from a tungsten (Z = 74) target when an electron drops from a M  K 1 2 
shell to a vacancy in the K shell. 1 3 2
 = R ( Z  1)
 K 4
Solution
4
 (Z – 1)2 =
3R K
Tungsten is a multielectron atom. Due to the shielding of the
nuclear charge by the negative charge of the inner core electrons, 4
 (Z – 1)2 =
each electron is subject to an effective nuclear charge Zeff, which 3  (1.097 10 )  (0.76 10 10 )
7

is different for different shells. = 1599.25

2
For an electron in the K shell ( = 1) thus effective nuclear  (Z – 1) ~ 1600
charge is given as  Z – 1 = 40
Zeff = (Z – );  Z = 41.
 Zeff = Z – 1
# Illustrative Example 3.9
Here as electron drops from M shell (n = 3) to K shell (n = 1), the
radiated emission we call K X-ray and from Mosley's law the The K-absorption edge of an unknown element is 0.171 Å :
wavelength emitted of K X-ray is given as (a) Identify the element.
1 1 1
= R (Z – 1)2  2  2  (b) Find the average wavelengths of the K, K and K lines.
 K 1 3 
(c) If a 100 eV electron strike the target of this element, what is
1 8 the minimum wavelength of the X-ray emitted ?
 = 10967800 × (74 – 1)2  
 K 9
 K = 0.192 Å Solution

# Illustrative Example 3.7 From Moseley's law, the wavelength of K series of X-rays is
given by taking  = 1 in modified in rydberg’s formula given as
A potential difference of 20 kV is applied a X-ray tube. Find the 1  1 
minimum wavelength of X-rays generated. = R (Z – 1)2 1  2  for K lineswhere, n = 2, 3, 4, …
  n 
Solution
(a) For K-absorption edge, we put n = , in above expression
gives
The X-rays produced under an accelerating potential V will
have varying wavelengths with the minimum due to the entire 1
(Z – 1) =
energy of the accelerated electron being lost in a single collision R
with the target atoms. Here the shortest wavelength generated 1
of X-rays can be given by  Z= +1
(0.171 10 10 )(1.097  10 7 )
12431
c = Å  Z = 74.
V
= 0.6215 Å The element is Tungsten.

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106 X-Rays

(b) For K line : Practice Exercise 3.1

1  1
= R (74 – 1)2 1  2  (i) Find the energy, the frequency and the momentum of an
 K  2 
X-ray photon of wavelength 0.10 nm.
 K = 0.228 Å [12.431 keV, 3 × 10 18 Hz, 6.63 × 10 –24 kg-m/s]

For K line :
(ii) What potential difference should be applied across an
1  1 X-ray tube to get X-ray of wavelength not less than 0.10 nm ?
= R (74 – 1)2 1  2 
 K  3  What is the maximum energy of a photon of this X-ray in joule?

 K = 0.192 Å [12.431 kV, 1.99 × 10 –15 J]

For K line : (iii) Find the maximum potential difference which may be
 1 
applied across an X-ray tube with tungsten target without
1 R (74 – 1) 2 1  2  emitting any characteristic K or L X-ray. The energy levels of
 K =  4 
the tungsten atom with an electron knocked out are as follows.
 K = 0.182 Å Cell containing vacancy K L M
Energy in keV 69.5 11.3 2.3
(c) The shortest wavelength corresponding to an electron with
[Less than 11.3 kV]
kinetic energy 100 eV is given by
(iv) A free atom of iron emits K X-rays of energy 6.4 keV.
hc 12431
c = = Å Calculate the recoil kinetic energy of the atom. Mass of an iron
E 100
atom = 9.3 × 10–20 kg.
 c = 124.31 Å
[3.9 × 10–10 eV]

# Illustrative Example 3.10

(v) Iron emits K X-ray of energy 3.69 keV. Calculate the
times taken by an iron K photon and a calcium K photon to
The K X-ray emission line of tungsten occurs at  = 0.21 Å. cross through a distance of 3 km.
What is the energy difference between K and L levels in this
atom ? [10 µs by both]

Solution (vi) The wavelength of K X-ray of tungsten is 21.3 pm. It

takes 11.3 keV to knock out an electron from the L shell of a
We know that  line is the radiation emitted when an electron tungsten atom. What should be the minimum accelerating
voltage across an X-ray tube having tungsten target which
from L-shell (n = 2) makes a transition to K-shell (n = 1) to fill a
allows production of K X-ray ?
vacancy in it. Thus the released photon will have an energy
equal to the energy difference of L-shell and K-shell, which is [69.5 kV]
given by
hc 12431 (vii) The energy of a silver atom with a vacancy in K shell is
E = = eV 25.31 keV, in L shell is 3.56 keV and in M shell is 0.530 keV higher
 K 0.21
than the energy of the atom with no vacancy. Find the frequency
v E = 59.195 KeV of K, K and L X-rays of silver.
[5.25 × 10 18 Hz, 5.98 × 10 18 Hz, 7.32 × 10 17 Hz]

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