Kirkuk University

College of education for pure -Department of Physics

M.Sc. physics Student
Sub: Radiation interactions with matter

Chapter two: x- ray physics

By
Prof. Dr. Sabah Mahmoud Aman Allah
2022-2023

1-What is the X-Rays?

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 X-rays, or Roentgen rays, are electromagnetic waves; they are the same as visible light,
except that they have shorter wavelengths (higher photon energies). Thus x-rays, visible light,
ultraviolet, infrared, microwaves, and radio waves are all electromagnetic radiation in different
wavelength (energy) spectral regions. X-rays are generated when fast-moving electrons slow
down and stop in matter, when an inner shell vacancy in an atom is filled by another electron,
and when electrons moving at relativistic speeds (speeds near the speed of light) change their
direction of motion in space defined as Electromagnetic waves with wavelength between 10 -10
to 10-8 m .

Roentgen discovered X-rays When high-speed (about 10% of the velocity of light) electrons
from the cathode of an X-ray tube strike the target, the electrons penetrate the atoms of the
target and remove an electron from the inner shells by collision. He found that the operation
of cathode -ray tube produced fluorescence in a screen covered with barium - platinocyanide
and placed at some distance from the tube. These new type of radiations have some peculiar
properties. These are produced when a high voltage is applied across the cathode and anti-
cathode. When applied voltage is not too high X-rays produced are known as soft X-rays and
when applied voltage is very high produced X-rays are called hard X -rays.

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 2-Properties of X-rays
Following are some of the important properties of X-rays:
1) X-rays are electromagnetic waves(they do not have any charge) of very short-wavelength.
They travel in straight lines with the speed of light.

2) They are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields indicating that the rays are uncharged.

3) X-rays are highly penetrating. Soft X-rays have small penetrating power and are easily
absorbed and hard X-rays have relatively high penetrating power. X-rays can penetrate through
substances that are opaque to ordinary light, for example, wood, flesh, thick paper, thin sheets
of metals. Lead offers maximum resistance to X-rays. The penetrating power of X-rays depends
upon
(a) The applied potential difference.
(b) The nature of the anti - cathode material. Greater the potential difference and higher the
atomic weight of the anti - cathode, the more penetrating X-rays produced.
4) They cause fluorescence in many sub stances like substances like barium, cadmium, tungstate,
zinc sulphide, and so on.
5) X-rays have a destructive effect on living tissue. When they are exposed to the human body,
they cause reddening of the skin, sores and serious injuries to the tissues and glands. They can
destroy white corpuscles of the blood.
6) They are capable of causing ionization in a gas through which they pass.
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7) Under suitable conditions ,these rays show reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction and
Polarization. interference like ordinary light.

8) They are capable of ejecting electrons from surfaces of metals, that is, they causes photoelectric
effect. They can affect a photographic plate
9) They produce secondary X-rays on striking certain heavy metals.

3-X-ray spectra
a)Continuous Spectrum
1. It is produced due to de acceleration of high velocity electrons when they are deflected while
passing near the positively charged nucleus of an atom of the target material.

2. It has a sharply defined short wavelength limit given by

c
eV  hf max  h
min

hc 1 1.242
min    nm
e V V (kV )

Hence, a 1 Å x-ray photon has an energy of 12 398.4 eV (or about 2 femto J).

3. It cut off wavelength 𝜆min is independent of the nature of the target material but is inversely
proportional to the potential difference between the cathode and anode of an X-ray tube. The
value of 𝜆min decreases as this potential difference is increased.

4. The intensity of the continuous spectrum is found very nearly proportional to the square of
the applied voltage for a given target and to the atomic number of the target material when a
constant potential difference is applied.

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5. There is a shift of the maximum intensity position towards the short wavelength side as
voltage is increased.

b)Line spectrum
1. It is produced when electrons are dislodged from the innermost orbits of the atoms of the
target material followed by electron jumps from outer orbit.
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2. It consists of discrete spectral lines which constitute K-series, L-series and M-series etc. K-
series consists of those lines for which electron jumps terminate at K-shell.
3. K-series being most energetic constitute the hard X-rays whereas L- and M-series form the
soft X-rays.
4. Line spectrum is characteristic of the target material used. In fact, X-rays constituting the
line spectrum are known as characteristic X-rays. The number of lines present in the
spectrum depends both on the nature of
target material and the excitation voltage.
5. There is a regular shift towards shorter wave length in the K- spectrum as the atomic
number of the target is increased. The exact relationship, as by Mosley is given as
𝜆2 𝑓1 (𝑍1 − 1)2
= =
𝜆1 𝑓2 (𝑍2 − 1)2
Where 𝑓1 is the frequency of the 𝐾𝛼 line for a target material having an atomic number of
𝑍1 and 𝑓2 and 𝑍2 are similar quantities for some different target material.

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4-Comparison of gamma with x-rays
x-ray Property Gamma ray
discovered by Whelm Roentgen 1895 Discovered by Becquerel in 1896
zero Mass rest Zero
Zero Charge Zero
By excited nucleus when Z>82 and Production By Bremsstrahlung and
can not be Switched off method Electron transitions
In target of Coolidge
Tubes and can not be
Switched off

Ionization ray Classification Ionization ray

Have a dual nature and not Nature Have a dual nature and
effected by E and B fields Not effected by E and B
fields
Atomic electrons Interactions Compton scattering ,
With matter Photo electric effect,
Pair production
In medical radiotherapy –medical Applications In medical radiotherapy -
diagnosis Materials science – scientific
Materials science – scientific Research-nuclear
research…etc radioscopes production
Colorless Color Colorless
0 spin 0
Stable in vacuum only Lifetime Stable in vacuum only
Schrodinger Wave equation Schrodinger
equation equation
𝑝 = mv = ℏk , p = λ
h Momentum 𝐡
𝐩 = 𝐦𝐯 = ℏ𝐤 , 𝐩 =
𝛌
hc Energy 𝐡𝐜
E=hf= λ E=hf= 𝛌
Causes damages for the human being Drawbacks Causes damages for the
tissues and may causes the cancer and human being tissues
genetic And may causes the cancer
Mutation and the x-ray tubes may crash and genetic
down , not required remote handling Mutation and the gamma ray
sources may be depleted and
required activation over
time. required remote
handling

5- Efficiency of x-ray machine

The efficiency of x-ray machine is defined by the following equation

𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 9 × 10−10 𝑍𝑉 … … … … … … . . (4 − 7)

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This equation refers to that the efficiency of x-ray machine is dependent on the following
parameters :

1)Atomic number (Z) of target materials.

2)The applied potential difference between cathode and Anode .

6-FACTORS AFFECTING THE X-RAY BEAM

SPECTRUM
1)Target Material: Standard diagnostic x-ray tubes use an alloy of tungsten and rhenium
for the target material, embedded in the circular focal track area of the anode disc. With
atomic numbers, respectively, of 74 and 75, these elements consist of very “dense” atoms
with lots of orbital electrons that the projectile electron from the cathode can strike to create
x-rays. The higher the atomic number of the target material, the more efficient it is and more
x-rays are produced. Atoms with higher atomic numbers also improve the quality of the x-
ray beam. They emit x-rays with higher energies, both bremsstrahlung and characteristic.
The bremsstrahlung x-rays tend to have higher energies because the atomic nuclei in the
anode are larger and have more positive charge, so they pull any projectile electrons in the
vicinity with greater force, slowing them down more. The amount of kinetic energy lost is
greater, and so is the energy of the x-ray emitted. Characteristic x-rays from “larger” atoms
also have higher energies because all of the binding energies of the orbital shells are
increased, and there is a greater difference between the binding energies of the shells. Some
specialty x-ray tubes use gold (atomic number 79) to achieve this increase in x-ray
production and quality. For mammography, an x-ray beam lower penetration characteristics
is needed. By using molybdenum (Z = 42) and rhodium (Z = 45), x-rays with lower
kilovoltages are produced, but a reduced quantity also results. The quantity and quality of
characteristic x-rays are affected more than the bremsstrahlung x-rays by changes in target
material. Figure 10-13 graphs the x-ray beam spectrum for different target materials, using
the same filtration and set kVp. The bell curve for gold, with its higher atomic number, is
slightly higher, indicating more x-rays produced, and also shifted slightly to the right,
indicating a somewhat higher average kV for the x-ray beam.

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2)Milliampere-Seconds (mAs):The set milliamperage, the exposure time, and the product
of their total mAs, are all directly proportional to x-ray output from the tube. Doubling the
mAs results in twice as many x-rays being produced. This is graphed in Figure 10-14, where
each point along the curve for 200 mA is precisely twice as high as the point below it for the
100 mA station. Therefore, the total area under the 200-mA curve is also doubled from that
for 100 mA, representing twice the overall intensity of the exposure .

Fig(10-14)The effect of doubling the mAs on the x-ray beam spectrum, curve B. The number of x-rays
at every kV level is doubled (dotted lines). Minimum, average, and peak energies remain the same.

It is important to note, however, that x-ray beam quality is not at all affected by
changes in mA, time or total mAs. This is notable in Figure 10-14 since both curves begin
at the same point on the left, vertically peak at the same kV (about 30), and end at the
same kV point to the right. Therefore, the average kV for these two beams, represented by
the dotted line, is unchanged. When setting radiographic technique, while adjusting the
mAs changes the amount of radiation used, it does not alter the percentage of penetration
for the x-ray beam.

3) Added Filtration: Figure 10-15 illustrates the effect of added filtration upon the x-
ray beam spectrum. Note that when more filters are added (usually between the x-ray
tube housing and the collimator), only the left portion of the curve is shifted. For curve
A, representing 2.0 mm of aluminum filtration, the curve starts at 5 kV; this indicates
that no x-rays having less than 5 kV of energy have been emitted from the x-ray tube.
Curve B represents the addition of an 0.5 mm filter; the starting point of the curve shifts
to the right, indicating that there are now no x-rays in the beam having less than 10 kV.
The ending point of the curve to the far right is only affected by the kVp and has not
moved. However, since the starting point shifts to the right, this pushes the average kV
for this x-ray beam (dotted line) also to the right. If the shortest students are removed
from a class, the average height of the remaining students must go up. Likewise, when
low energies are removed from the x-ray beam, the average energy must increase.
Adding filtration improves the overall penetration characteristics of the x-ray beam,
thus enhancing beam quality. Finally, note that with the loss of those low energy x-rays
represented by the dashed line on the graph, the total area under curve B has decreased
and the peak is slightly lower. This indicates a reduction in the overall quantity of x-
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rays in the beam, since the added filtration has removed some of them. If one continues
to add filters, a point will be reached where the general loss of radiation results in
insufficient exposure to the image receptor. This limits us to only moderate amounts of
filtration to enhance beam quality without an exaggerated loss in quantity.

4) Higher kVp :settings are used by the radiographer to increase the penetration quality
of the x-ray beam so that dense or high-atomic number tissues may be fully
demonstrated in the final image. In the beam spectrum (Fig. 10-16), increasing kVp is
seen as a shift of the ending point of the curve to the right. This adds high-energy x-rays
to the beam, represented by the shaded portion under curve B. If a few tall students are
added to a class, the average height of the class must go up. Likewise, the addition of
high-energy x-rays to the beam brings up the average kV. This average kV (dotted line)
is an appropriate indicator of overall x-ray beam quality. Higher levels of kVp also
affect the efficiency of x-ray production. Within the anode material, a high speed
projectile electron can actually undergo a series of interactions.

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7-Control on the Intensity and Penetrating Power of X-rays
In the production of X-rays, their intensity and penetrating power can be controlled by
varying current or applied potential difference across cathode and anti-cathode. The
intensity of X-rays is proportional to the number of electrons emitted per second from the
filament. If the number of electrons striking the target is increased, the quantity of X-rays
produced will also be increased, that is high intensity X-rays will be produced. Therefore,
in order to increase the intensity of the X-rays produced in a Coolidge tube, the current
through its filament is increased. This increases the number of electrons emitted by the
filament and hence the intensity of X-rays produced is increased. The penetrating power of
X-rays depend upon their wavelength. Energy of wavelength (𝜆 = 4 A) is lower hence their
penetrating power is weaker and these X-rays are called 'soft' X-rays. They can pass
through only thin sheets of metals. The penetrating power of shorter wavelength (1 A) X-
rays is higher and they are called 'hard' X-rays. The wavelength of X-rays depends upon
the kinetic energy of the electrons producing them and their kinetic energy depends upon
the potential difference between the filament and the target. As the potential difference is
increased, the wavelength of the X-rays produced decreases, i.e. their penetrating power
increased. Hence, the penetrating power of X-rays can be increased or decreased by
increasing or decreasing the potential difference applied between the ends of the tube.

8-The Hardness of x-rays

The hardness of x-ray is defined as its penetrating ability. It depends on the wavelength of
the x-rays not on the number of x-ray photons. The hardness of x-rays is proportional to
the energy of x-ray photons. It is known that the energy of x-ray photons is proportional to
the voltage applied to the x-ray tube. Therefore, the hardness of x-rays is usually
expressed by tube voltage in kV.
9-Conditions of x-ray target
The target should have the following characteristics:
1- high atomic weight target (to reduce hard X-rays).
2- high melting point (so that it is not melted due to the bombardment of fast moving electrons
that generates a lot of heat).
3- high thermal conductivity (to carry away the generated heat).Copper (Cu) X-ray tubes are
most commonly used for X-ray diffraction of inorganic materials. The wavelength of the
strongest CuK𝛼 radiation is approximately 1.54 Å. Other targets commonly used in X-ray
generating tubes include Cr (K𝛼 = 2.29 Å), Fe (Ka 𝛼= 1.94 Å), Co (K𝛼= 1.79 Å), and Mo (K𝛼
= 0.71 Å).

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10-Sources of Unwanted X Rays
Equipment which produces unwanted X rays is also subject to the X-ray regulations. This
means that if enough unwanted X rays are produced, a license is required: this is the case,
for example, for electron microscopes, high-energy microwave generators and potentially
for airport security systems. In 2001, there were reports of high exposures for soldiers
operating radar equipment in Germany. Radar stations operate by creating and receiving
radar radiation this is a subtype of microwave radiation (with frequencies in the gigahertz
range), and as such is non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation. It is of course possible for
this microwave radiation to create a biological risk for humans if it is at high enough
intensity. This potential danger is not discussed here , however, it has to be mentioned that
the generation of radar rays is unavoidably accompanied by the creation of some quantity
of X rays. Radar equipment, therefore, produces X rays even though it is not its purpose to
do so. In this sense radar equipment is a typical generator of unwanted X rays. X rays in
radar equipment are produced by the use of certain electronic components. In the
equipment, devices (of a type called klystrons or another, called magnetrons) are used to
accelerate electrons using voltages of 20 to 100 kV. Magnetic fields are then used to make
the electrons oscillate back and forth inside a cavity, and in the process produce the radar
waves. It is not the intention that these electrons will strike the walls of the cavities, but if
they do, their deceleration creates X rays by bremsstrahlung. In various newspapers,
conflicting information was given about the doses received .If the radar equipment is
properly shielded, typical dose rates of about 0.06mSv/h are expected. However,
occasionally the radar equipment was not shielded properly or was even unshielded. In
such a situation, maximum values of 10mSv/h have been measured. It should be illegal to
enter an area with dose rates this high, except during an emergency: it would count as an
“exclusion area” (see Appendix B.1). Other calculations estimate the exposures to have
been up to 120mSv per year from normal operation, i.e. excluding the additional exposures
from unshielded equipment during maintenance or calibration work. An additional risk
originates from the use of radium-containing material for displays on the radar equipment
.During maintenance and repairs, the radium-containing consoles were cleaned and
partially machined. In this way, highly toxic, α-emitting radium dust was very probably
released into the air which the operators were breathing. It is estimated that 20 000 people
operated these radar devices over a period of 25 years. Out of these, 2000 cases of cancer
have been reported, of which 200 were fatal, as reported by Medicine Worldwide. Using
the standard risk factor for cancer incidence of 0.5% for the given age group and period,
one would have expected about 100 fatal cases in a non-exposed population (i.e. in a

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population exposed only to background radiation and normal background levels of
carcinogens). It appears that the exposures during the running of radar equipment
significantly increased the cancer-incidence rate.

11-X-RAY TUBE FAILURE

As an x-ray tube ages, tungsten from both the filaments and the anode is vaporized. It
accumulates along the bottom of the tube and begins to coat the window area, acting as
filtration and further reducing x-ray output from the tube. When enough of this metal is
deposited on the glass, electricity can arc down to it which cracks the glass and causes tube
failure. Electrical arcing is the most common cause of tube failure. High-capacity x-ray
tubes are often made using a metal enclosure rather than glass. By
Maintaining a constant negative charge on this metal, electrical arcing is less likely to occur
and tube life is extended. Heat from the anode is conducted down the rotor shaft and to the
ball bearings. Prolonged periods of excessive heating can cause these bearings to warp “out
of round.” As increased friction is generated, rotation becomes even rougher and a spiral
effect occurs resulting in rapid deterioration of the bearings and imbalance of the entire
rotor. Wobbling of the anode disc causes the projected focal spot to constantly move,
destroying the sharpness of images produced. This is another type of tube failure. Over
time, the cumulative effects of heat cause the focal track of the anode to develop a rough
surface, as shown in Figure below . Fine cracks and pits form in the anode surface along
the focal track. When bearings begin to fail, or if the induction motor fails, so that rotation
of the anode is not constant, “pitting” of the anode, shown in Figure below , can result.
These are spots where the anode surface has actually melted from the impinging electron
beam while the anode was paused in its motion. Any uneven surface destroys the effective
focal spot and results in extreme loss of image sharpness. A third type of tube failure is
simply burning out of the filament. Tungsten vaporizes off the filament over time, and it
becomes thinner and thinner. Just as with a light bulb, eventually it will fall apart from the
heat load, thus breaking the circuit so no further exposures can be made. (As an x-ray tube
ages, the thinning of the filament causes it to reach even higher temperatures than intended
when a particular mA is applied. This generates more thermionic emission, more electrons
cross to the anode, and ultimately more x-rays are produced. We would say that the effective
mA is increasing over time. This effect is partially cancelled out by the increased filtration
effect of tungsten accumulating on the glass window However, the overall result is that the
net output of the x-ray tube increases over time. We say that the tube gets “hotter” over
time.)

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 12-Extending X-Ray Tube Life
Thermal shock is caused whenever an object is subjected to a sudden and extreme change
in temperature When a glass is plunged from very hot water into very cold water, or vice
versa, the thermal shock can be great enough to cause it to crack. The same phenomenon
holds true for x-ray tube anodes and filaments when they are subjected to sudden
temperature changes (below). To extend the life of the filament, it is kept at a “stand-by”
temperature at all times that the x-ray machine power is on. When exposures are made, the
filament is boosted from a “warm” temperature to an extreme temperature, rather than from
cold (room) temperature to an extreme. In order to extend the life of the anode,
radiographers should use a tube warm-up procedure whenever a machine has not been used
overnight or when the first exposure to be made after a period of non-use will employ high
radiographic techniques. A typical warm-up technique is to make three exposures about 5
seconds apart, using 200 mA, per second, and 70 kVp. As previously discussed, excessive
rotoring must be avoided as much as possible to minimize vaporization of the filament and
wear of the anode bearings. Radiographic techniques combining lower mA stations with
higher kVp levels not only preserve the x-ray tube by generating less heat, but they also
spare radiation exposure to the patient. These are strongly recommended, especially in this
age of digital image processing which allows higher kVp levels to be used without
compromising the final image. Consult rating charts when very high techniques, especially
in a sequence of multiple exposures, are being considered. The sound of rough rotation of
the anode or other unusual noises from the x-ray tube should be reported to managers.

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 Fig(---)Cracked anode due to sudden high exposure made on a cold anode.

13-The interaction of X-ray photons with the sample

The X-ray photon interacts with the sample in many different ways and the form of
interaction depends on the photon energy and the nature of the sample. X-ray photons are
electromagnetic and it is the electric field vector that interacts most strongly with the sample.
The magnetic interaction is small and is only observable under special conditions with very
intense X-ray sources. There are several forms of interaction depending on the photon
energy and the nature of the electron state. Electrons loosely bound to atoms, for example
the valence electrons, may absorb part of the energy of a photon and the emitted photon will
have a lower energy and longer wavelength. If it is assumed that the electron is stationary
and totally unbound then this wavelength change is given by
ℎ
∆𝜆 = 𝜆𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 − 𝜆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 = (1 − 𝛾 cos 𝜙) … … … … … … . (1)
𝑚𝑐

This basically reflects the kinetic energy taken up by the electron. This interaction is
termed Compton scattering. The wavelength change is therefore independent of the
wavelength of the incident photon but varies with scattering angle, 2ω', and is small
(~0.024Å at most). An electron is not stationary or totally unbound in a solid and this will
influence the energy (and wavelength) spread of the scattered photon. This makes the
Compton scattering process a very useful tool for studying electron momenta in solids, etc.
Because the wavelength change is so small, typical X-ray detectors used in diffraction
experiments cannot discriminate this contribution from elastic scattering processes,
therefore Compton scattering appears as a background signal. Each photon involved in this
process will scatter independently. The scattering probability of coherent and Compton
scattered photons for any given atom are of the same magnitude. However waves scattered
in phase redistribute this intensity into sharp maxima that give intensities approximately
related to N2 (where N is the number of contributing atoms) compared to N for Compton
scattering. Since N is generally very large the Compton scattering contribution is negligible,
unless we are dealing with samples of very poor crystallinity. Equation(1 )indicates that the
scattering along the incident beam direction is zero. Compton scattering therefore increases
with increasing scattering angle.

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 The tightly bound electrons will appear as a large immovable mass to a photon and
therefore the energy transfer on interaction is very small (Rayleigh scattering), that is, the
quantized energy state of the electrons is unchanged. If the wavelength of the photon is
greater than that of the energy levels in the atoms of the sample then photoelectron absorption
can occur and this is particularly strong when the energy exactly matches one of these energy
transitions. For photon energies greater than a transition the electron takes up the remaining
energy. This is the true absorption process when the photon is lost, although depending on the
existence of free energy levels, the recovery of the electrons to lower energy levels can result
in X-ray emission (fluorescence) or by involving an extra transition and electron emission
(Auger process). Figure 2.1 shows the dominant absorption processes for different energy
photons. Clearly at high energies the generation of electron-hole pairs increases and
incoherent scattering rises to a maximum at 100keV in Si, whereas photoelectric absorption
dominates at low energies. These low energy photons are primarily scattered by the localized
electrons and each interaction will represent an instantaneous snapshot of the atomic
positions. The temperature-dependent vibrational frequency of the atoms about their average
site is many orders of magnitude lower than the sampling time of the X-ray photon: this has
important consequences on how the intensity is averaged. An incoherent scattering process is
one in which the emitted photon has a significantly different energy from the incident photon
and the coherent process corresponds to the case where the energy of the emitted and the
incident photons are the same. One very useful incoherent process is the generation of
fluorescent radiation whose energy is element specific and therefore a very useful chemical
analysis tool. However the coherent scatter or elastic scattering is the main emphasis of this
chapter since this gives us access to the structural information of materials and their
molecular configuration. At the low energies given in Figure 2.1, the wavelengths are
comparable to the interatomic distances and provide a very useful probe of these lengths.
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Figure 1Predicted X-ray mass absorption coefficient for Pb, as a function of X-ray energy.

14-crystallography
The crystallography is an experimental technique of determining the arrangement of atoms
in the crystalline solids. X-ray crystallography methods are used to determine the structure
of inorganic crystals and large bio-molecules such as proteins. Before the development of
X-ray diffraction based crystallography, the study of crystals was based on physical
measurements of their geometry. This involved measuring the angles of crystal faces
relative to each other and to theoretical reference axes and establishing the symmetry of the
crystal in question. The modern methods depend on the analysis of the diffraction patterns
of a sample targeted by a beam of X-rays. However, some other particle beams such as
electrons or neutrons are also used. This is facilitated by the wave properties of these
particles. The X-rays and particle beams interact differently with the specimen. Because of
these different forms of interaction, radiation type is selected for different crystallographic
studies. In this chapter, we shall confine only to the X-ray crystallography that is based
upon X-rays as radiation.
15-MOSELEY’S LAW
Moseley carried out study of characteristic X-rays spectra of various metallic elements and
observed that if the square root of the frequency f of the most intense spectral line, i.e., K
series line is plotted against the atomic number Z, then a straight line graph is obtained (Fig.
10.17) for each and every element. The graph is known as Moseley diagram. The
relationship between frequency and atomic number Z as
𝑓 ∝ (𝑍 − 𝑏)2

Or
√𝒇 = 𝒂(𝒁 − 𝒃)

where a and b are constant for a particular series but varies from one series to another. An
exact form of Moseley’s law is

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 where n1 and n2 are principal quantum numbers and R is the Rydberg constant.

16-Importance of Moseley’s Law

Moseley’s law gives the guideline that the elements in periodic table must be arranged
according to their atomic number. The physical and chemical properties of an element is
decided by the atomic number and not the atomic weight. Moseley’s law predicted the
existence of new elements like hafnium (72), technetium (43), promethium (61), etc. by the
indication of gaps in Moseley diagram. This law also help to determine the atomic number of
rare earth elements and predicted proper position of these elements.

17-Application of X-rays
Due to the property of X-rays that they are highly penetrating and have small wavelength, the
rays have been enormously useful in various fields such as industry, engineering, medicine and
scientific research work.

1. Industrial applications
1) X-rays are used to locate objects in internal structure of a body. It is also used to locate the
imperfection in mould forgings and castings which could not otherwise be examined internally.
(2) To study the structure of rubber and plastic in industries the diffraction of
X-rays by these substance leads to valuable information about their molecular grouping.

(3) In metallurgy X-rays are used to analyses the structure of various alloys by determining the
structure of in- gots with the help of X-rays diffraction.
(4) In heavy industries X-rays are used to test the gross structure of the material and
welding etc. For this purpose the X-rays photographs are taken which reveal defects in the
manufacture of heavy steel plates and also locate the cracks and blow holes in metal plates.
X-rays are also used to detect flaws in the wings of aero plane and parts of other fast
moving Machines.
5)It is a versatile tool in NDT methods of materials. X-rays are used to detect any defect in
radio valves, tennis balls, rubber tires and the presence of pearls in oysters. X-rays are used

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to detect cracks in structures. They are very helpful in detecting any cracks in the body of
the aero plane and motor cars.

6)X-rays can be used to test the homogeneity of welded joints, insulating materials, and so
on.
7) X-rays can be used to analyze the structure of alloys and other composite bodies by
determining the crystal form in an ingot with the help of diffraction of X-rays. In this way,
alloys like cobalt–nickel steels, bronzes, duraluminium, porcelain insulators, and the like
have been analyzed.
8) Diffraction of X-rays, both wide angle and small angle, provide information regarding
the molecular structure of crystalline, nano-structured materials, polymers and proteins in
solid as well as in liquid state.
9) X-rays are also employed by custom/intelligence officials to screen the bags and luggage
of persons crossing the border, so that they may not be carrying any objectionable materials
with them.
2. Scientific Applications
(1) X-rays are used to study the crystal structure in crystallography.
(2) X-rays are used in atomic physics to study the atomic structure, used in determining the
atomic number and identification of various chemical elements.

(3) X-rays are used to study the structure of complex organic compounds.
(4) X-rays are also used to find the atomic number of the elements and also for the
identification of the elements.
3.Medical Applications
(1) X-rays are used to detect fractures, tumors, the presence of foreign matter like bullet etc in
human body by inter positioning it, in between the X-rays tube and photo film. This process is
known as radiography.
(2) X-rays are also used in many types of skin diseases, malignant sores, cancers, tumors by
controlled exposure to X-rays of suitable quality.
(3) X-rays are also used for the identification of different types of cells and tissues and for
bringing about genetic mutations.
4) The most common use of X-rays is to get a photograph of the interior of the human body.
The photograph is known as a radiograph. Radiographs can be used to detect fractures,
diseased organs, foreign matter like bullets and formation of stones in human body.
18-Bragg law
X-ray diffraction (XRD) is based on the dual nature of X-rays to obtain information about
the structure of crystalline materials. This technique is used for the identification and
characterization of compounds based on their diffraction pattern.
19-Derivation of Bragg’s equation
Let us consider a crystal having parallel lattice planes separated by a distance d apart and
a beam of X-rays having a wavelength λ is incident on the planes at an angle θ (Fig. 21.3). As
shown in Fig. 21.3, ray 1 is reflected from the upper atomic plane while ray 2 is reflected
from the lower atomic plane at the same angle θ as that of ray 1 but ray 2 travels a distance

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of 2a larger than ray 1. If this distance 2a is equal to an integral number of wavelengths (nλ),
then rays 1 and 2 will be in phase on their exit from the crystal and constructive interference
will occur. If the distance 2a is not an integral number of wavelengths, then destructive
interference will occur. Thus, for constructive interference

nλ = 2a
Also,
a = d sin θ
So,

2a = 2d sin θ
Thus
nλ = 2d sin θ

where n = l, 2, 3, … for the first order, second order, third order, etc., for maxima. This
relation is known as Bragg’s law .If we know the wavelength, λ, of the X-rays incident on the
crystal, and we can measure the angle θ of the X rays diffracted from the crystal, then we can
measure the spacing (d-spacing) between the atomic planes as given below:

We then re-orient the crystal to expose another atomic plane and measure the d-spacing
between all atomic planes in the crystal, which helps us to determine the crystal structure of
the given material and the size of the unit cell of the crystal.

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20-Theory of Bragg’s diffraction
When a beam of monochromatic X-ray is incident on the crystal, each atom of the crystal
becomes a source of scattering radiations and scattering of X-ray from these planes can be
regarded as reflections known as Bragg’s reflections or Bragg’s planes. At some particular
angles, reflections from parallel planes reinforce each other and produce maximum intensity.
For some other angles, these reflections from the parallel planes are out of phase with each
other and produce zero intensity. Some typical XRD patterns of KCL, NaCl and ZnO are
shown in Figs. 21.4 and 21.5.

21-Bragg’s X-ray spectrometer

Bragg’s spectrometer is an instrument which is used to determine the wavelength of

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X-ray as shown in Fig. 21.6. A beam of monochromatic X-ray from an X-ray tube is allowed
to pass through two fine narrow slits S1 and S2 to collimate it into a fine pencil. The pencil is
then made to fall upon the crystal ‘c’ (usually NaCl with 100 face) mounted on the
spectrometer crystal table T which is capable of rotating about a vertical axis and its position
can be read on a circular graduated scale S with vernier. The reflected pencil beam after
passing through the slits S3 and S4 enters the ionization chamber I. The X-rays entering the
ionization chamber ionize the gas, which causes a current to flow between the electrodes; a
galvanometer is used to measure this current.

The ionization current gives the intensity of X-rays reflected by the crystal. The ionization
current is measured for different values of glancing angle θ for the incident beam. The
glancing angle is increased in small steps from θ = 0. For each rotation of the crystal, the
ionization chamber is rotated twice to get the reflected beam. A graph is drawn between the
glancing angle θ and the ionization current (Fig. 21.7). In Fig 21.7, the first, second and third
peak correspond to the first, second and third order, respectively. Now, knowing the glancing
angle θ and the spacing d for the crystal, wavelength of X-rays can be determined by the
formula

2d sin θ = nλ
For example, for NaCl crystal, the spacing for 100 face is 2.82 Å. We get first-order
reflection at a glancing angle 6°. Thus, for the first-order reflection from Bragg’s equation,
we have

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 22-Refraction and reflection
The interaction of X-ray photons with matter has so far been discussed mostly at the atomic
level. However, since X-rays are electromagnetic waves, one should also expect some kind
of refraction phenomena at interfaces between different media. To describe such refractive
phenomena, the media of interest are taken to be homogeneous with sharp boundaries
between them, each having its own refractive index n. By definition the refractive index of
vacuum is one. It is well known that for visible light in glass n is large and can vary
considerably, ranging from 1.5 to 1.8 depending on the type of glass. This of course enables
lenses to be designed for focusing light and thereby obtaining magnified images. In general
for X-rays, the refractive index can be expressed as

where δ is of order 10−5 in solids and only around 10−8 in air. The imaginary part β is usually
much smaller than δ. That the real part of n is less than unity is due to the fact that the X-ray
spectrum generally lies to the high-frequency side of various resonances associated with the
binding of electrons. as illustrated in Fig. 1.8. One consequence of the real part of n being less
than unity is that it implies that the phase velocity inside the material, c/n, is larger than the
velocity of light, c. This does not, however, violate the law of relativity, which requires that
only signals carrying ‘information’ do not travel faster than c. Such signals move with the
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group velocity, not the phase velocity, and it can be shown that the group velocity is in fact
less than c. Snell’s law relates the incident grazing angle α to the refracted grazing angle α
Snell’s law relates the incident grazing angle α to the refracted grazing angle 𝛼́ (see Fig.
1.15(a))

cos α= n cos 𝛼́ ……………………(1-22)

An index of refraction less than unity, implies that below a certain incident grazing angle
called the critical angle, 𝛼𝑐 x-rays undergo total external reflection. Expansion of the cosine
in Eq. (1.22) with and using Eq. (1.21) allows us to relate δ to the critical angle αc:

𝛼𝑐 = √2𝛿

where for simplicity we have taken β = 0. With δ being typically around 10−5 , 𝛼𝑐 is of the
order of a milli-radian. We shall see in Chapter 3, that the refractive constants δ and β can be
derived from the scattering and absorption properties of the medium, respectively. Total
external reflection has several important implications for X-ray physics. First, total reflection
from a curved surface enables focusing optics to be constructed as shown in the Fig. 1.15(b).
A small source size is thus desirable, since from geometrical optics, a small source will be
focused to a small image. A second consequence of total external reflection is that for α < 𝛼𝑐
there is a so-called evanescent wave within the refracting medium, see Fig. 1.15(c). It
propagates parallel to the flat interface, and its amplitude decays rapidly in the material:
typically with a penetration depth of only a few nanometers. This should be compared with a
penetration depth of several micrometers at a glancing angle of several times αc. The much-
reduced penetration of X-rays for angles less than 𝛼𝑐 increases their surface sensitivity. This
allows the scattering from the surface and near surface region to be studied, often in great
detail, and indeed X-rays have become a valuable tool for the investigation of surfaces and
interfaces.

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23-Fit Parameters for the Calculation of Mass
Attenuation Coefficients
In the following fit parameters for the approximation of mass attenuation coefficients𝜇 for
the elements up to plutonium(Z=94) are given for the energy region: [1 ≤ E ≤ 150 ]keV. As
basis mass attenuation coefficients derived from a wide variety of literature values are used in
the approximation. In the tables RFQ represent the relative error quotient .

𝑙𝑛𝜇 = 𝑥0 + 𝑥1 𝑙𝑛𝐸 + 𝑥2 (𝑙𝑛𝐸 2 ) + 𝑥3 (𝑙𝑛𝐸)3

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 24-X-Ray Fluorescence Yields( K-Shell X-ray fluorescence
Yields)
Precise available values of fluorescence yields are important for various investigations in
areas such as atomic physics, nuclear physics and materials science, as well as for applied
physics. Because of the insufficient correspondence between fluorescence yield
measurements published in the literature often semiempirical relations were used to describe
the fluorescence yields ! as a function of the atomic number Z. The first relation for the
approximation of K shell fluorescence yields as a function of Z was given by Wentzel

For the derivation of equation (4.1) Wentzel considers only L electrons under neglect of
screening and relativistic effects. After further studies Burhop] deduced that a more exact
description needs a modification of equation (4.1) in the formthat some constants must be
entered. An overview of possible approximation formulas for semiempirical fits of the K shell
fluorescence yield can be found in Bambynek et al. [38]. The same authors published a three-
parameter approximation with the form

Nevertheless a detailed analysis shows that these recommended empirical values have
somewhat systematic deviations from experiment. The deviations have a characteristic Z-
dependence since they are dependent on the electronic configuration of the actual outer
electron shells. Thus an improved approximation was published by Hanke et al:

The range of validity for equation (4.3) was given as 12 ≤ Z ≤ 42

25-Analytical approximation of Atomic Scattering Factors
The coherent X-ray scattering of atoms with energy high in comparison to the binding energy
of all electrons of the considered atom is described by the atomic scattering factor.
According to the classical theory the atomic scattering factor characterizes the ratio between
the amplitude of the radiation scattered by the atom to the amplitude of the radiation scattered
on a single electron under identical conditions. In this caption an analytical approximation

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after Weber-Cromer of the atomic scattering factors .The approximation uses the following
expression

With𝜃 as the Bragg angle and 𝜆 as the wavelength of the incident wave. This expression
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
allows a precise approximation of atomic scattering factors in the region ≤ 2 .For the
𝜆
determination of the coefficients ai , bi and c (i = 1, ..., 4) wave functions from Hartree-Fock,
Dirac-Fock- or Dirac-Fock-Slater calculations are used.

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26-X-Ray Absorption
When a beam of X-rays traverses matter the individual X-ray quanta are absorbed in a single
interaction or lost from the beam by scattering processes in a single interaction. Among
others Heitler and Agarwal describe the attenuation process in detail and we follow these
descriptions here in essential parts.
a) Linear attenuation coefficient: The intensity of an X-ray beam is reduced along a
certain direction dx by an intensity dI in comparison to the initial intensity. With 𝜇𝑙 as
linear attenuation coefficient this can be described as

The negative sign in (2.124) means that I decreases with increasing x. After integration of
(2.124) it follows that

with C as integration constant .With the initial conditions I = I0 at x = 0 and C = lnI0 this
yields

The dimension of 𝜇𝑙 is cm-1

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27-Safety precautions for x-ray :
The operator of x-ray apparatus is exposed to two obvious dangers, electric shock and
radiation injury, but both these hazards can be reduced to negligible proportions by
proper design of equipment and reasonable care on the part of the user. Nevertheless, it
is only prudent for the x-ray worker to be continually aware of these hazards. The
danger of electric shock is always present around high-voltage apparatus. The anode
end of most x-ray tubes is usually grounded and therefore safe, but the cathode end is a
source of danger. must be so mounted that their cathode end is absolutely inaccessible
to the user during operation; this may be accomplished by placing the cathode end
below a table top, in a box, behind a screen, etc. The installation should be so contrived
that it is impossible for the operator to touch the high-voltage parts without
automatically disconnecting the high voltage. Shockproof sealed-off tubes are also
available: these are encased in a grounded metal covering, and an insulated, shockproof
cable connects the cathode end to the transformer. Being shockproof, such a tube has
the advantage that it need not be permanently fixed in position but may be set up in
various positions as required for particular experiments. The radiation hazard is due to
the fact that x-rays can kill human tissue; in fact, it is precisely this property which is
utilized in x-ray therapy for the killing of cancer cells. The biological effects of x-rays
include burns (due to localized high-intensity beams), radiation sickness (due to
radiation received generally by the whole body), and, at a lower level of radiation
intensity, genetic mutations. The burns are painful and may be difficult, if not
impossible, to heal. Slight exposures to x-rays are not cumulative, but above a certain
level called the "tolerance dose," they do have a cumulative effect and can produce
permanent injury. The x-rays used in diffraction are particularly harmful because they
have relatively long wavelengths and are therefore easily absorbed by the body. There
is no excuse today for receiving serious injuries as early x-ray workers did through
ignorance. There would probably be no accidents if x-rays were visible and produced an
immediate burning sensation, but they are invisible and burns may not be immediately
felt. If the body has received general radiation above the tolerance dose, the first
noticeable effect will be a lowering of the white-blood-cell count, so periodic blood
counts are advisable if there is any doubt about the general level of intensity in the
laboratory. The safest procedure for the experimenter to follow is: first, to locate the
primary beam from the tube with a small fluorescent screen fixed to the end of a rod
and thereafter avoid it; and second, to make sure that he is well shielded by lead or lead-
glass screens from the radiation scattered by the camera or other apparatus which may
be in the path of the primary beam. Strict and constant attention to these precautions
will ensure safety.
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