INDIAN AGRICULTURE

Also known as Monsoon / Summer Crops

 Requires plenty of water
 Require long hot weather for growth
 Sown → May – July , Harvest → Sep – Oct
 Major Crops → Paddy, Sugarcane, Maize, Jowar, Bajra, Cotton,
Kharif
Pulses, Groundnut, Soybean, Sunflower, Tea, Coffee, Rubber,
Crops
Sesame, Guar etc.
 Also known as Winter Season Crops

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 Requires less water

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 Require cold weather for growth

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 Sown → Oct – Nov, Harvest → Feb – April @
Rabi
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 Major Crops → Wheat, Gram, Potato, Peas, Oil seeds
Crops
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(Rapeseed, linseed), Mustard etc.

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 Sown between Rabi & Kharif crops i.e. from March to June
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Requires warm dry weather for growth & longer day length for
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flowering
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 Major Crops → Seasonal fruits & vegetables (Musk melon,

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Water melon, Cucumber, China Paddy, Gourds, Fodder crops)

Crops


Causes for backwardness of Indian Agriculture:

 Old methods of cultivation due to illiteracy & unawareness

 Over-dependence on monsoons
 Floods and droughts; Soil erosion
 Small and fragmented land holding
 Practice of dividing and subdividing land for inheritance
 Poor quality of seeds – poor productivity
 Faulty & unreliable irrigation facilities
 Lack of proper use of manure and Fertilizer
 Reluctant to use modern scientific methods of cultivation
 Excessive pressure on land → High crop intensity
 Unsound credit system and poverty of the farmers
 Defective marketing and low prices of produces
 Poor electricity, storage, water, credit & marketing
 Less Mechanization ; Inadequate Agricultural research

Solutions for Indian Agriculture :

 Better irrigation facilities viz. Drip & sprinkler irrigation

 Consolidation of Land Holdings & land reforms
 Deploy Soil Conservation techniques
 Mechanization, hybrid seeds, fertilizer, pesticides

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 Scientific farming & educating the farmers about the same

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 Spread Green revolution to all states
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 Financial inclusion in rural areas to provide sound credit system
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 Providing proper electricity & storage system for agricultural produces

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 Storage house near farms for better food processing

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 Skilling farmers to prevent wastage of labour use

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 Improving rural infrastructure

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Home Garden:

The home garden is traditionally a very important piece of land for rural
households of Southeast Asia. Covering an area of about 500 to 1 500 m2, the
structure and function of home gardens are similar throughout the region. The
home garden can be defined as a farming system which combines different
physical, social and economic functions on the area of land around the family
home. Within the typical home garden are social areas for meetings, children's
play and gardens for display; economic areas for growing food, medicinal plants
and trees and for raising animals and fish; physical areas for storage, living,
washing and waste disposal. It is a place for people to live in but it also produces a
variety of foods and other things for both home use and income.

The major part of a home garden survey covers three important aspects - the
home garden as:

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- the most direct way of providing daily food;

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- a source of income for the purchase of other foods;
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- a means to produce non-food items such as medicinal herbs, spices,
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fuelwood and building materials.

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PERMACULTURE
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"Permaculture, originally 'Permanent Agriculture', is often viewed as a

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set of gardening techniques, but it has in fact developed into a whole

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design philosophy, and for some people a philosophy for life.

Its central theme is the creation of human systems which provide for
human needs, but using many natural elements and drawing inspiration
from natural ecosystems. Its goals and priorities coincide with what
many people see as the core requirements for sustainability."

Permaculture studies and applies holistic solutions that are applicable in

rural and urban contexts at any scale.

It is a multidisciplinary toolbox including agriculture, water harvesting

and hydrology, energy, natural building, forestry, waste management,
animal systems, aquaculture, appropriate technology, economics and
community development.
 Permaculture encourages us to be resourceful and self-reliant. It is not a
religion but an ecological design system which helps us find solutions to
the many problems facing us - both locally and globally.

The word, coined by Bill Mollison, is a portmanteau of permanent

agriculture and permanent culture

It is the conscious design and maintenance of agriculturally productive

ecosystems which have the diversity, stability, and resilience of natural
ecosystems.

It is the harmonious integration of landscape and people — providing

their food, energy, shelter, and other material and non-material needs in
a sustainable way. Without permanent agriculture there is no possibility
of a stable social order.

HYDROPONICS

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Hydroponics is a method of growing plants, without soil, that has been utilized for

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thousands of years. At first, it may seem contradictory to grow plants without any
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soil, but hydroponics is an intricate system that works better than the traditional
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method of growing plants in soil.

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For plants to flourish it need two things:

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a set of plant essential nutrients and water.

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Due to this, if the nutrients are provided within the water and delivered to
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the roots, there isn’t any need to have soil present in the growing system. In a
hydroponic growing system, a nutrient-charged, aquatic solution is flushed
through the root zone to provide the plants with the resources needed for
optimal growth.

There are many benefits to using hydroponic grow systems: fewer resources are
consumed, arable land isn’t needed, and the harvestable plants are of higher
quality than when grown using traditional methods. In the last 60 or 70 years,
these benefits have increased the popularity of hydroponics, and have expanded
the limited possibilities of indoor and urban gardening.

AQUAPONICS

Aquaponics is another innovative system of growing plants without any soil to

support their root systems but is slightly different than hydroponics.
Aquaponics is the combination of growing plants hydroponically and the
practice of aquaculture (raising fish).

Just as in hydroponics, plants in an aquaponics system are grown in a soilless

environment. Instead of plants getting their nutrients from sources in the soil,
an aquatic solution provides the essential nutrients needed for plant growth
directly to the roots, where efficient nutrient uptake can occur.

However, instead of adding fertilizers to the water to provide nutrients, like

what is done in hydroponics, fish are grown simultaneously in the aquatic
environment to create a symbiotic relationship that results in an incredibly
efficient system. In aquaponics, the fish provide a natural source of organic
nutrients through their excreted waste; beneficial microbes convert the waste
into usable nutrient sources for plants; the plants in turn naturally filter the
water, providing a clean living environment for the fish and microbes.

In aquaponics, the microbes convert the ammonia from the fish waste into

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nitrites and then into nitrates. Plants then take in the nitrates through their

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roots using them as a source for plant essential nitrogen.

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This combination of hydroponics and aquaculture allows aquaponics to draw
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upon the benefits of both systems while minimizing the individual drawbacks
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of each.
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AEROPONICS
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The invention of aeroponics was motivated by the initiative of NASA (the

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National Aeronautical and Space Administration, USA) to find an efficient way

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to grow plants in space in the 1990s.

In aeroponics, there is no growing medium and hence, no containers for

growing crops. In aeroponics, mist or nutrient solutions are used instead of
water. As the plants are tied to a support and roots are sprayed with nutrient
solution, it requires very less space, very less water and no soil

VERTICAL FARMING

The modern concept of vertical farming was proposed in 1999 by Professor

Dickson Despommier. His concept was to grow the food in urban areas itself
utilizing less distance and saving the time in bringing the food produced in
rural areas to the cities.

He intended in growing food within urban environments and thus have

fresher foods available faster and at lower costs. Consequently, Vertical
farming is conceptualised as cultivating and producing crops/ plants in
vertically stacked layers and vertically inclined surfaces.

In the physical layout, the plants are vertically stacked in a tower-like

structure. This way, the area required to grow plants in minimised. Next, a
combination of natural lights and artificial lights is used to maintain a perfect
environment for an efficient growth of the plants. The third parameter is the
growing medium for the plants. Instead of soil, aeroponic, hydroponic or
aquaponic growing mediums are used as the growing medium.

As the technique becomes scientific, efficiency of the process increases and

as a result, vertical farming becomes sustainable requiring 95% less water as
compared to other farming methods.

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Precision farming
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Precision agriculture (PA) is an approach to farm management that uses

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information technology (IT) to ensure that crops and soil receive exactly what
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they need for optimum health and productivity. The goal of PA is to ensure
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profitability, sustainability and protection of the environment. PA is also known

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as satellite agriculture, as-needed farming and site-specific crop management

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(SSCM).
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Precision agriculture relies upon specialized equipment, software and IT

services. The approach includes accessing real-time data about the conditions
of the crops, soil and ambient air, along with other relevant information such
as hyper-local weather predictions, labor costs and equipment
availability. Predictive analytics software uses the data to provide farmers with
guidance about crop rotation, optimal planting times, harvesting times and soil
management.

Sensors in fields measure the moisture content and temperature of the soil
and surrounding air. Satellites and robotic drones provide farmers with real-
time images of individual plants. Information from those images can be
processed and integrated with sensor and other data to yield guidance for
immediate and future decisions, such as precisely what fields to water and
when or where to plant a particular crop.

Agricultural control centers integrate sensor data and imaging input with other
data, providing farmers with the ability to identify fields that require treatment
and determine the optimum amount of water, fertilizers and pesticides to
apply. This helps the farmer avoid wasting resources and prevent run-off,
ensuring that the soil has just the right amount of additives for optimum
health, while also reducing costs and controlling the farm's environmental
impact.

In the past, precision agriculture was limited to larger operations which could

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support the IT infrastructure and other technology resources required to fully

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implement and benefit from the benefits of precision agriculture. Today,

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however, Mobile apps, smart sensors, drones and cloud computing makes
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precision agriculture possible for farming cooperatives and even small family
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farms.
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ZERO BUDGET NATURAL FARMING ZBNF

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Introduction
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Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZNBF) means raising crops without using any
fertilizers and pesticides or any other external materials. The word Zero Budget
refers to the zero cost of production of all crops. ZBNF guides the farmers
towards sustainable farming practices thus helps in retaining soil fertility, to
ensure a chemical free agriculture and ensure low cost of production (zero
cost) and thereby enhancing the farmers income.
In short, ZBNF, is a farming method that believes in growing crops in tune with
nature.
The concept was promoted by agriculturist & Padma Shri awardee Subhash
Palekar, in the mid-1990s as an alternative to the Green Revolution’s methods
driven by chemical fertilizers and pesticides and intensive irrigation.
 Government has been promoting organic farming under the dedicated scheme
of Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY) which encourages all kinds of
chemical-free farming systems including Zero Budget Natural Farming.
During his address to the farmers at the National Conclave on Natural Farming
on December 16, 2021, Prime Minister Shri Narendra Modi remarked that “we
need not only to re-learn this ancient knowledge of agriculture but also to
sharpen it for modern times. In this direction, we have to do research afresh,
mould ancient knowledge into the modern scientific frame” The Prime
Minister said that those who will benefit the most from natural farming,
constitute about 80% of the farmers of the country. He urged every state,
every state government, to come forward to make natural farming a Jan
Andolan. In this AmritMahotsav, efforts should be made to associate at least
one village of every panchayat with natural farming, he insisted.
Principles of Zero Budget Natural Farming

 No external inputs

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 Soil to be covered with crops 365 days (Living Root)

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 Minimal disturbance of Soil

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 Use indigenous seed
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 Mixed cropping
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 Integration of trees into the farm

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 Water and moisture conservation

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 Integrate animals in to farming

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 Increase organic residues on the soil

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 Pest-management through botanical extracts

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 No synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides

Benefits
A study – “Life Cycle Assessment of ZBNF and Non-ZBNF in Andhra Pradesh” -
reports the following benefits:

 ZBNF processes require 50–60 per cent less water and less electricity (than
non-ZBNF) for all the selected crops.
 ZBNF reduces methane emissions significantly through multiple aeration. It
also has the potential to avoid residue burning by practicing mulching.
 The cost of cultivation is lower in ZBNF.

Four main elements and models of ZNBF:

1. Bijamrita:

The seeds are treated with formulations prepared using cow dung and
cow urine from native cow species.
Benefits: The seeds sown in the field may be affected by fungus and
other seed born/soil borne diseases. The seed treatment using
“Bijamrita” protects the seeds from diseases.

2. Jiwamrita/Jeevamrutha:

Jiwamrita is prepared using cow dung and cow urine. It is used as an

input for the plants. It is a fermented microbial culture obtained from
cow dung, urine, jaggery, pulse flour and uncontaminated soil. This
fermented microbial culture when applied to soil, adds nutrients to the
soil besides acting as a catalytic agent to promote the activity of
microorganisms and earthworms in the soil.

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Benefits: This culture stimulates microbial activity in the soil and

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enhances nutrient availability for the plants, protects the crops against

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soil pathogens and increases carbon content of the soil.
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3. Acchadana/Mulching:
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Mulching is the process of covering the top soil with crop wastes/organic
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waste or with cover crops.

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Benefits: Mulching materials decomposes and produces humus which

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conserves top soil, increases water retention capacity of the soil,

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decreases evaporation loss, encourages soil fauna besides enriching soil

nutrient status and controlling weed growth.

4. Waaphasa/Moisture (Soil Aeration):

Good aeration is required in the soil for plant growth and development.
Benefits: Due to the application of Jiwamrita and mulching, the aeration
of the soil increases, thus improves humus content, water availability,
water holding capacity and soil structure which is most suitable for crop
growth especially during drought periods.
Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY):

PKVY provides financial assistance to farmers who want to adopt organic

farming practices and encourages them to use eco-friendly techniques for
pest management and soil fertility management.

Climate Smart Agriculture:

It is an integrated approach to managing landscapes and cropland, livestock,
forests, and fisheries-that address the interlinked challenges of food security
and climate change.
It aims to tackle three main objectives:
 Sustainably increasing agricultural productivity and incomes,
 Adapting and building resilience to climate change, and
 Reducing greenhouse gas emissions wherever possible.

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Zero Tillage Farming
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Zero tillage farming, which is also known as no till farming, is becoming more
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and more popular with farmers throughout the world because of its many
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benefits.
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What Is Zero Tillage Farming

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After World War II, zero tillage farming started taking hold in the U.S. With
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conventional tillage planting, you dig, stir up the soil, and turn it over to
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prepare the ground for seeds. This often takes two or more passes over the
field. With zero tillage farming, you don’t till the soil. Instead, you use a no till
drill or no till planter to cut a seed furrow (which is a V-slot), place the seeds,
and close the furrow – all in one pass across the field. You do all of this by
cutting through the remains of previous crops.
Advantages of Zero Tillage Farming
There are many zero tillage advantages, including:

 less soil erosion from wind and water (because the mulch cover of
previous crops covers the soil)
 less soil compaction
 more fertile and resilient soils
 less moisture evaporation
  lower fuel and labor costs (because there are less passes across the field)

Disadvantages of Zero Tillage Farming

There are some zero tillage disadvantages, including:

 initial cost of zero tillage equipment (the upfront costs can be high, but
they should be recouped through higher crop yields and fuel and labour
savings)
 gullies can form in the fields (low-pressure tires and changing traffic
patterns across the field can help prevent these)
 increased use of herbicides
 learning curve for zero tillage farming

National Mission on Natural Farming

The NMNF is an upscaling of the Bhartiya Prakritik Krishi paddati which

is a sub-scheme under Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana.

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Objective: To promote natural farming across the country.

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The NMNF will cover a 7.5 lakh hectare area by developing 15,000
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The farmers willing to implement natural farming on their field will

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be registered as cluster members, each cluster shall comprise 50

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farmers or more with 50-hectare land also, each cluster can fall into
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one village or spread across 2-3 nearby villages under the same gram
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panchayat.
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The Mission will provide Rs. 15,000 per hectare per year for three
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years for the creation of on-farm input production infrastructure.

However, the incentives would be provided to farmers only when they
commit to natural farming. If a farmer defaults or does not continue with
natural farming, subsequent instalments shall not be disbursed.
A portal has also been launched for the promotion of natural farming with
information on the implementation framework, resources, implementation
progress, farmer’s registration.
REGENERATIVE FARMING

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INFRASTRUCTURE FACTORS RELATED TO AGRICULTURE

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A. Seed:
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• Seed is a fertilized matured ovule together covered with seed coat.

• Importance of seed
a) Seed bridge between the two generations of plant life.
b) Seed is the medium which transferring character from one generation
to next generation.
c) Seed is the vital and most important input for crop production.
d) Seed as food, feed, medicinal, industries or ornamental value.
• Hybrid seeds are obtained by cross pollination of different varieties of
related plants.
• Genetically Modified seeds, are the ones in which the genetic material
(DNA) has been altered in such a way as to get the required quality.

B. Fertilizers:
 • Fertilizers are chemical compounds applied to promote plant and fruit
growth.
• Organic fertilizers are fertilizers derived from animal matter, human
excreta or vegetable matter. (e.g. compost, manure). Naturally occurring
organic fertilizers include animal wastes from meat processing, peat,
manure, slurry, and guano.
• Inorganic fertilizers contain simple inorganic chemicals. Some of the
common nutrients present in fertilizers are nitrogen, phosphorus and
potassium (NKP). They also contain secondary plant nutrients such as
calcium, sulphur and magnesium.

Bio-fertilizers Pros:

• Increases crop yield by 20-30%

• Provide protection against drought and some soil-borne diseases
• Replaces chemical nitrogen & phosphorus by 25%
• Stimulates plant growth

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• Cost-effective

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• Environment friendly

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• To some extent, helps to cleanse the plant from precipitated chemical
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fertilizers
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Bio-fertilizers Cons:
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• Effects are slower compared to chemical fertilizer

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• Difficulty to store as sensitive to temp. and humidity changes

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• Much lower nutrient density – requires large amounts to get enough for
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most crops
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• Sometimes, are hard to locate/purchase in faraway rural areas.

Irrigation

• Irrigation is an artificial application of water to the soil. It is usually

used to assist in growing crops in dry areas and during periods of
inadequate rainfall.
• Additionally, irrigation also has a few other uses in crop production,
which include protecting plants against frost, suppressing weed
growing in rice fields and helping in preventing soil consolidation.
• There are large reserves of underground water in the alluvial plains
of north India. Digging and constructing wells and tube-wells is easy
 and cost of their construction is also comparatively less. Therefore
irrigation by wells and tube-wells here is popular
• An irrigation canal is a waterway, often man-made or enhanced,
built for the purpose of carrying water from a source such as a lake,
river, or stream, to soil used for farming or landscaping.
• A tank consists of water storage which has been developed by
constructing a small bund of earth or stones built across a stream.
The water impounded by the bund is used for irrigation or other
purposes.
• Localized irrigation is a system where water is distributed under
low pressure through a piped network, in a pre-determined pattern,
and applied as a small discharge to each plant or adjacent to it. Drip
irrigation, spray or micro-sprinkler irrigation and bubbler irrigation
belong to this category of irrigation methods.

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Drip Irrigation

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 Also Known as low- flow, micro, and Trickle Irrigation

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 Frequent, slow application of water, drop by drop, at the plant

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base through a network of pipelines.

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 Most suitable for arid, semi – arid & rainfed regions where dry
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farming is practiced
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
NABARD provides subsidized loans to farmers to buy sprinkler &
drip irrigation system

Current Irrigation Resources approx

 Wells & Tube wells = 60 %
 Canal Irrigation = 30 %
 Tanks = 6 %
 Multipurpose Projects = 2 % 
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Shifting Cultivaton
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Shifting Cultivaton: Called as Slash and Burn cultivation, normally performed

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by the Tribal people.

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Area Name of the Shifiting Cultivation

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India Jhuming AP Podu

Malaysia Ladang MP Bhera
Indonesia Huma KL Ponam
Philippinnes Caingin JH Dahiya
Thailand Taureg A&N Dip
Myanmar Taungya

FOOD CROPS DISTRIBUTION

RICE (KHARIF CROP)

Conditions Required
 Temperature: not below 21o C
 Rainfall: More than 125cm
 Soil: Clayey loam best suited
Distribution (in order of Production)
1. West Bengal
2. U P
3. Andhra Pradesh

WHEAT (RABI CROP)

Conditions Required
 Temperature: 10 – 15o C (winter) 21o - 26o C (Summer)
 Rainfall: 75cm -100cm (moderate)
 Soil: Well drained fertile, friable loams, and clay loams

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Distribution (In order of Production)

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Millets
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BAJRA
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Condition Required
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 Temperature: 25o - 30o C

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 Rainfall: 40 – 50cm
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 Soil: Poor light sandy soils, black and red soils

Distribution (in order of Production)
1. Rajasthan
2. Maharashtra
3. Gujarat

BARLEY

Condition Required
 Temperature: 10 - 15o C
 Rain fall: 75 cm to 100cm
 Soil: Light clay and alluvial soil
Distribution(In order of production)
 1. Uttar Pradesh
2. Rajasthan
3. Madhya Pradesh

CASH CROPS
COTTON

Conditions Required
 Kharif crop of tropical and subtropical areas.
 Temperature : 21o - 30o C but not below 21o C.
 210 frost free days.
 Rainfall: 50 – 100cm or irrigation facility.
 Soil: Deep black soil (regur), even grows in alluvial soils and laterite soils.
Distribution ( In order of Production)
1. Punjab

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2. Maharashtra

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3. Gujarat

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JUTE
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Condition Required
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Second important fibre crop of India, crop of hot and humid climate.
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 Temperature: 24o - 35o C

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 Rainfall: heavy rainfall of 120 – 150 cm with 80 – 90 percent of relative

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humidity.
 Soil: light sandy or clayey loams.
Distribution ( In order of Production)
1. West Bengal (70 percent of the production, over 60 percent of the
area)
2. Bihar
3. Assam
4. Orissa

SUGAR CANE

 Temperature: 21o - 27o C

 Rainfall: 70 – 150 cm or irrigation facilities with high humidity.
  Soil: tolerate any type of soil that can retain moisture.
Distribution (In order of Production)
1. Uttar Pradesh
2. Maharashtra

TOBACCO

Condition Required
 Plant of tropical and subtropical climates and frost is harmful
 Temperature: 16o - 35o C
 Rainfall: 50 – 100 cm or irrigation facilities
 Soil: Well- drained friable loam
Distribution (In order of Production)
1. Gujarat (90 percent of Tobacco from Vadodara and Kheda districts).
2. Andhra Pradesh (West and East Godavari, Prakasham, Kurnool and
Nellore are the main producing districts) Other areas of minor

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production (a) Uttar Pradesh (b) Karnataka (c) West Bengal.

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PLANTATION CROPS
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TEA
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Condition Required:
 Tropical and subtropical plant, which thrives well in hot and humid
climate.
 Temperature: 20o - 30o C
 Rainfall: 150 – 300cm (well distributed)
 Soil: forest soil rich in humus and iron content is the best suited.
Distribution ( In order of Production)
1. Assam (the Brahmaputra valley, Surma valley)
2. West Bengal (the Duars, Darjeeling)
3. Tamil Nadu (highest yield per hectare)
4. Kerala (Kottayam, Kollam and Tiruvananthapuram district).
Other areas of minor production
(a) Tripura
(b) Karnataka
(c) Uttar Pradesh
(d) Himachal Pradesh (Kangra valley)

COFFEE

Condition Required
 Crops of hot and humid climate
 Temperature: 15o - 28o C but does not tolerate frost.
 Rainfall: 150 – 250cm
 Soil: well drained rich friable loams with rich in humus, iron and calcium.
Distribution (In order of Production)
1. Karnataka (80 percent of total coffee production)
2. Kerala (13 percent of total production)
3. Tamil Nadu

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RUBBER

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Condition Required

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 Temperature: 25o - 35o C
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 Rainfall: about 300 cm (well distributed throughout the year)
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 Soil: well drained loamy soil of hilly region.

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Distribution ( In order of Production)

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1. Kerala(above 90 percent of total production, Kottayam, Ernakulum,

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Kozhikode and Kollam are the main producing districts)

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2. Tamil Nadu and 3. Karnataka

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OTHER CROPS
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MAIZE

Condition Required
 Rainfall Kharif Crops
 Temperature: 21o - 27o C
 Rain fall: 50 – 100 cm
 Soil: well drained alluvial, or red loams
Distribution (In order of production)
1. Bihar
2. Uttar Pradesh
3. Karnataka
4. Andhra Pradesh
JOWAR

Conditions Required
 Both Kharif and Robi crops
 Temperature: 26o - 33o C for kharif crops and not below 16oC for rabi
crops
 Rainfall: >30 cm but <100 cm; rainfed crop in dry farming areas
 Soil: Variety of soil including clayey, sandy
Distribution ( In order of Production)
1. Maharashtra
2. Karnataka
3. Madhya Pradesh
4. Andhra pradesh

RAGI

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Conditions Required

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 Temperature: 20o - 30o C

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 Soil: red, light black and sandy loams
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Distribution (In order of Production) @
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1. Karnataka
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2. Tamil Nadu
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3. Maharashtra
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4. Uttar Pradesh
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5. Andhra Pradesh
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GRAM

Conditions Required
Most important of all pulses
 Temperature: 20o - 25o C
 Rainfall: 40 – 45cm
 Soil: Grows well in loamy soil
Distribution: Madhya Pradesh