Cohesive

 Writing  Module:  Unit  1.  Independent  Learning  Resources    

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Cohesive  Writing  Module:  Introduction  

Introduction  
 
In  this  module,  we  will  examine  elements  of  academic  writing  that  contribute  to  making  
a  piece  of  writing  cohesive.    When  you  are  writing  assignments  at  university  the  way  
that  you  link  your  ideas  logically  through  your  text  is  by  a  combination  of  grammatical  
and  vocabulary  systems.    Each  unit  of  this  module  will  investigate  aspects  of  a  system  
and  explain  how  to  develop  skills  in  applying  these  to  your  own  writing.  
 

Who  is  this  module  for?  

 
All  students  at  university  who  need  to  improve  their  knowledge  of  clearer  paragraph  
writing.  
 

What  does  this  module  cover?  

 
Unit  1   Paragraph  Structure  
Unit  2   Linking  Themes  within  Paragraphs  
Unit  3   Cohesion  in  Word  Choice  
Unit  4   Cohesion  through  Reference  
 

Exercises  
 
These  are  marked  with  the  icon  ✪  and  you  should  try  to  complete  them  before  
checking  your  work  in  the  Answer  Key,  marked  ✪✪.    
 

Answer  Key  to  all  Exercises  

 
This  can  be  found  at  the  end  of  the  Unit.  
 
   

  1  
Cohesive  Writing  Module:  Unit  1.  Independent  Learning  Resources    
©  Learning  Centre  University  of  Sydney.  This  Unit  may  be  copied  for  individual  student  use.    

Cohesive  Writing  Module  

Unit  1:  Paragraph  Structure  
1.0   Introduction  
 
Paragraphs  are  important  elements  in  the  scaffolding  of  the  longer  texts  that  you  have  
to  write  at  university.      In  the  first  two  units  of  this  module,  we  will  be  looking  at  the  way  
that  writers  of  academic  texts  focus  on  Themes  in  their  writing,  which  help  to  show  
what  meanings  they  consider  to  be  most  important.    By  signalling  the  focus  of  a  text  in  
this  way,  the  writer  lets  the  reader  know  what  direction  the  piece  of  writing  is  going  in,  
so  that  the  reader  should  be  able  to  predict  what  is  going  to  come  next.    If  the  pattern  is  
broken,  the  reader  will  become  confused,  and  the  text  will  lack  coherence.  For  further  
information  on  paragraphs  see  Unit  3  of  the  Writing  in  an  Academic  Style  module.  
 

Objectives  of  Unit  1  

 
After  you  have  completed  this  unit  you  should  be  able  to:  
 
• recognise  how  the  paragraphs  in  a  whole  text  are  written  to  show  the  writer's  
focus  and  the  way  that  the  whole  text  is  structured    
• develop  a  logical  structure  of  ideas  and  information  in  your  own  writing  
 

1.1   The  hierarchy  of  Themes  

 
The  themes  in  a  text  are  the  beginning  points.    For  example,  the  introduction  is  the  
beginning  point  for  the  whole  text,  and  so  we  refer  to  it  as  the  macro-­‐Theme.      Then,  
each  paragraph  in  the  whole  text  has  its  own  beginning,  which  we  will  refer  to  as  the  
hyper-­‐Themes.    

Macro-­‐Theme  to  whole  text  

 
INTRODUCTION  
 
 
 

hyper-­‐Theme  1  

FIRST  PARAGRAPH  

 
 

hyper-­‐Theme  2  

SECOND  PARAGRAPH                                            etc  

 

  2  
Cohesive  Writing  Module:  Unit  1.  Independent  Learning  Resources    
©  Learning  Centre  University  of  Sydney.  This  Unit  may  be  copied  for  individual  student  use.    

Example  1  
 
The  following  example  comes  from  an  essay  in  Nursing.    The  essay  introduction  acts  as  
the  macro-­‐Theme  for  the  whole  essay  by  stating  what  the  essay  is  going  to  be  about.    
The  essay  topic  was  ‘Future  Directions  in  Nursing  Care  of  Intellectually  Handicapped  
People’.  Notice  the  way  that  the  three  areas  introduced  in  the  macro-­‐Theme  are  picked  
up  at  the  beginning  of  the  later  paragraphs  (as  the  hyper-­‐Themes).      

....I  will  look  at  a  series  of  possibilities  that  may  occur     from  the  Introduction  to  the  
with  greater  or  less  probability  in  mental  health  services,   essay  
particularly  the  nursing  care  of  intellectually  disabled    
people.    I  will  discuss  three  overlapping  areas:    general    
directions  of  nursing;    directions  for  psychiatric  nurses;     THREE  AREAS  introduced        
and  those  directions  involving  intellectually  disabled  
people.  
     
One  of  the  areas  of  general  nursing  that  is  growing  and     FIRST  AREA    
needs  to  grow  is  in  the  cure  of  people  who  are  unable  to        
manage  for  themselves,  whether  by  reason  of  illness  or   developed  in  Paragraph  3  
social  factors.  This  has  probably  come  about  through  the    
increasing  numbers  of  conditions  that  can  now  be    
treated,  the  increasing  technology  available  to  those  
disorders,  and  the  population  changes...  
   
     
 
     
If  nursing  of  mentally  ill  people  is  to  remain  an  integral     SECOND  AREA    
part  of  the  nursing  profession,  it  will  need  to  follow  the        
developments  apparent  in  general  nursing.    First  and   developed  in  Paragraph  8  
foremost,  education  will  need  to  be  of  a  tertiary  nature.      
I  regret  that  in  Western  Australia  education  of  psychiatric    
nurses  has  been  in-­‐service  hospital  training...  
     
     
I  will  now  turn  to  the  area  of  greatest  importance  -­‐  the     THIRD  AREA    
provision  of  services  for  intellectually  disabled  people.          
Since  1977  there  have  been  ten  major  government   developed  in  Paragraph  12  
reports  in  Australia  on  services  for  people  who  are    
intellectually  disabled.    All  states  have  produced  at  least    
one,  no  State  has  fully  implemented  the  
recommendations,  some  have  made  no  changes  at  all  to  
date...    
 
     

  3  
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Example  2  
 
The  following  example  comes  from  an  essay  in  Sociology.    Once  again  you  can  see  the  
pattern  in  the  way  that  the  Introduction  warns  you  about  what  is  coming  up.    The  essay  
was  written  in  response  to  this  essay  question:  ‘What  can  the  concept  of  culture  
contribute  to  our  understanding  of  society?’      As  you  read  the  section  from  the  
Introduction,  you  can  easily  predict  what  the  rest  of  the  essay  is  going  to  be  about.    
Notice  also  the  way  that  the  conclusion  paragraph  brings  all  these  ideas  together.  

The  concept  of  culture  can  contribute  to  our     Introduction  to  the  essay  
understanding  of  how  social  order  is  maintained  in  a    
society.    With  the  concept  of  culture,  one  can  better    
understand  that  the  behaviour  of  a  society  is  learned.    It   several  ways  that  culture  helps  
can  give  insight  into  why  there  are  so  many  different   us  to  understand  society  
societies  operating  in  different  ways,  or  the  other  hand,          
why  societies  are  so  similar.  
 
     
The  concept  of  culture  further  brings  an  understanding       FIRST  WAY    
of  why  the  learned  behaviours  are  reproduced  as  they   developed  in  Paragraph  6:  
are.    ....    
 
     
     
Culture  can  give  insight  into  why  there  are  so  many       SECOND  WAY    
different  societies  operating  in  different  ways    ......   developed  in  Paragraph  7:  
 
 
     
     
Cultural  universals,  practices  found  in  every  culture,  are       THIRD  WAY    
numerous,  and  although  they  vary  throughout  different   developed  in  Paragraph  9:  
societies  they  help  to  explain  that  there  are  similar    
behaviour  requirements  if  a  society  is  to  exist.  ....      
     

By  looking  at  a  society's  culture,  one  can  gain  an  insight        

into  how  social  order  is  maintained,  why  people  behave    
the  way  they  do,  and  how  a  society  seeks  to  control  and   Conclusion  
understand,  bring  meaning  to  and  organise  the  world  
around  them....  

   

  4  
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Example  3:    A  poor  essay  without  a  good  thematic  structure    

 
This  essay  was  in  answer  to  the  same  Sociology  question  as  the  one  in  Example  2  above.    
When  you  read  its  introduction  and  its  paragraph  beginnings,  you  can  see  that  at  least  
some  of  the  beginning  of  this  essay  is  spent  on  just  trying  to  define  culture.    Even  more  
importantly,  there  do  not  seem  to  be  any  answers  to  the  essay  question  about  how  we  
can  understand  society  better  through  an  understanding  of  culture.    In  fact,  almost  the  
entire  essay  is  spent  in  trying  to  define  culture,  so  that  it  simply  doesn't  answer  the  
question.  

Culture   is   a   term   used   by   social   scientists   for   a   people's     Introduction  to  the  essay  
whole   way   of   life.     In   everyday   conversation   the   word    
culture   may   refer   to   activities   in   such   areas   as   art,    
literature,   and   music.     But   to   a   social   scientist,   a   people's    
culture   consists   of   all   the   ideas,   objects   and   ways   of   definitions  of  culture  
doing   things   created   by   the   group.     Culture   includes   arts,   (does  not  address  question)  
beliefs,   customs,   inventions,   language,   technology   and  
traditions.     A   culture   is   any   way   of   life,   simple   or  
complex.  
     
The  Oxford  Dictionary  1893  defined  culture  as  "the       from  Paragraph  4:  
civilization  of  a  people  (especially  at  a  certain  stage  of  its    
development  in  history)."   dictionary  definition  of  culture  
     
     
By  1936  Webster  had  devised  a  more  scientific  meaning       from  Paragraph  5:  
for  culture  "the  complex  of  distinctive  attainments,    
beliefs,  traditions,  etc.  constituting  the  background  of  a   another  definition  
racial,  religious  or  social  group,  as  a  nation  with  many  
cultures".  
     
     
Hollsteiner  relates  culture  to  a  biological  organism,  in       from  Paragraph  7:  
that  each  of  its  parts  is  related  in  some  way  to  all  other    
parts.   definition  through  analogy  
 
     

It  is  clear  that  this  essay  is  not  answering  the  question  ‘What  can  the  concept  culture  
contribute  to  our  understanding  of  society?’    Instead,  each  paragraph  begins  a  new  point  
about  what  culture  is,  without  showing  how  it  might  help  us  understand  society.    The  
"Theme"  patterns  in  this  essay  (its  introduction,  and  its  paragraph  beginnings)  make  it  
clear  that  the  essay  does  not  answer  the  question.      
 
 If  you  think  this  may  be  one  of  the  problem  areas  in  your  writing,  then  you  should  refer  
to  the  Essay  Module,  in  particular  Unit  2.  

  5  
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2.0   Theme  patterns  within  Paragraphs  

 
Just  as  the  whole  text  or  essay  has  a  structure  which  you  can  see  in  the  introduction,  the  
paragraph  beginnings,  and  the  conclusion,  there  is  a  similar  structural  pattern  within  
each  paragraph  of  beginning,  middle,  and  end.      

Example  4:    An  example  of  a  well-­‐structured  paragraph  

The  table  on  the  next  page  sets  out  the  logical  structure  of  an  example  paragraph.    This  
is  from  the  sociology  essay  that  we  looked  at  in  Example  2  earlier  in  this  unit.    
Remember  the  way  that  the  introduction  paragraph  introduced  us  to  the  way  that  the  
essay  was  going  to  be  structured:    
 
Essay  Introduction:  
 
The  concept  of  culture  can  contribute  to  our  understanding  of  
how  social  order  is  maintained  in  a  society.    With  the  concept  
of  culture,  one  can  better  understand  that  the  behaviour  of  a  
society  is  learned.    It  can  give  insight  into  why  there  are  so  
many  different  societies  operating  in  different  ways,  or,  on  the  
other  hand,  why  societies  are  so  similar.  

The  last  part  of  this  introduction  (presented  in  bold)  prepares  us  to  find  out,  at  some  
time  in  the  essay,  about  why  societies  are  similar.    As  we  saw  on  page  4,  this  point  is  
taken  up  in  the  ninth  paragraph  in  the  essay,  which  begins  with  a  sentence  that  focuses  
our  attention  on  the  point:  

Paragraph  9  beginning:  
 
Cultural  universals,  practices  found  in  every  culture,  are  
numerous,  and  although  they  vary  throughout  different  
societies  they  help  to  explain  that  there  are  similar  behaviour  
requirements  if  a  society  is  to  exist.  
 
 
The  rest  of  paragraph  9  deals  with  this  point  by  using  different  ways  of  elaborating  on  it:  

  6  
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Paragraph  9   Function     The  Paragraph  itself  

structure  

Beginning   Developing  notion  of  why   Cultural  universals,  practices  found  in  every  
(hyper-­‐Theme)   societies  are  similar   culture,  are  numerous,  and  although  they  vary  
throughout  different  societies  they  help  to  
explain  that  there  are  similar  behaviour  
requirements  if  a  society  is  to  exist.  

Middle   Developing  the  beginning   For  example,  every  society  has  such  things  as  
by  giving  an  example   bodily  adornment,  education,  family  incest  
  taboos,  music,  religious  ritual,  trade,  language  
  and  many  more  (Robertson,  1987:72).    
   
  Hallinan  claims  that  with  a  proper  
Developing  the  beginning   understanding  of  culture,  one  can  see  that  the  
by  explaining  the  relevance   basic  behavioural  requirements  of  all  societies  
of  culture  to  understanding   are  essentially  the  same  -­‐  using  technology,  
society,  using  source   forming  co-­‐operative  relations  and  
material  to        substantiate   communicating  symbolically  through  language  
claims   (1984:77).  

End     Providing  a  rationale  for   If  culture  is  suddenly  taken  away  from  a  society  
  why  behaviour  patterns  in   then  that  society  will  undoubtedly  fall  apart.  
  societies  are  the  same,  
  using  a  speculative  
  approach  

 
The  end  of  the  paragraph  has  two  main  functions:    to  conclude  the  paragraph,  and  to  
point  forward  to  what  the  next  paragraph  might  be  about.    Paragraph  10  is  about  "why  a  
society  may  disintegrate  or  change",  and  so  it  comes  as  no  great  surprise  now  because  it  
has  already  been  suggested  at  the  end  of  paragraph  9.  
 

✪  Exercise  1  
 
Read  the  following  paragraph  and  decide  whether  it  is  well  structured  by  analysing  
whether  its  beginning  sets  out  the  structure  for  the  rest  of  the  paragraph.    Put  marks  in  
the  paragraph  to  show:    
i)     the  beginning  
ii)   the  sections  of  the  middle  
iii)   the  end  

  7  
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Over   the   past   30   years,   research   in   the   health   arena   has   attracted   psychologists,  
anthropologists   and   sociologists.     The   focus   of   psychological   research   in   this   area   is  
concerned  with  individual  motives,  attitudes  and  beliefs  in  relation  to  both  health  and  illness.    
Anthropological  studies,  however,  are  concerned  with  culture  and  health  care.    Such  studies  
concentrate   on   a   conception   of   disease   as   a   cultural   product   and   on   the   way   social   and  
cultural   life   in   the   past   affects   beliefs   about   health   and   illness.     In   sociological   studies   the  
emphasis  is  similar,  but  focussed  more  on  social  relations  within  a  particular  social  structure  
with  respect  to  medical  care.  
 

✪ ✪ You  can  now  check  the  answers  in  the  Answer  Key  at  the  back  of  the  unit.  
 

✪  Exercise  2  
Fill  in  the  gaps  in  the  following  paragraph  to  highlight  how  the  paragraph  is  structured:  

Poverty   occurs   when   requirements   for   basic   living   are   not   met.     Two   types   of   poverty   can   be  
seen  in  the  world  today,  absolute  and  relative.      _________________  is  generally  restricted  
to   the   Third   World   where   basic   life   essentials   are   lacking.     These   life   essentials   are   food,   fuel  
and   shelter.     The   existence   of     _________________is   determined   by   comparison   with   the  
normal   standard   of   living   of   a   society.     In   Australian   society,   for   example,   relative   poverty  
exists   as   shown   in   the   statistics   for   child   poverty.     Both   types   of   _____________   are  
problems  for  the  government  and  people  of  the  country.  
 
✪ ✪ You  can  now  check  the  answers  in  the  Answer  Key  at  the  back  of  the  unit.  
 

✪  Exercise  3  
 
Here  is  a  paragraph  from  a  student's  essay  in  economics.    However,  the  paragraph  
beginning  has  been  omitted.    Read  the  paragraph  carefully,  and  then  write  a  suitable  
beginning  to  the  paragraph.  

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
The  first  GDP  measurement  is  the  'income  received  method',  whereby  the  income  received  
by  the  owners  of  productive  resources  is  found  by  adding  the  wages,  rent,  interest  and  profit  
earned   at   each   stage   of   production.     The   second   means   of   measurement,   'the   production  
method'  can  be  found  using  either  the  'final  product'  or  the  'value  added',  thus  providing  a  
figure   for   'value   of   production'.     The   third   measurement,   the   'expenditure   method'   simply  
measures  the  amount  spent  buying  finished  goods.  
 
✪ ✪ You  can  now  check  the  answers  in  the  Answer  Key  at  the  back  of  the  unit.  
 

  8  
Cohesive  Writing  Module:  Unit  1.  Independent  Learning  Resources    
©  Learning  Centre  University  of  Sydney.  This  Unit  may  be  copied  for  individual  student  use.    

✪  Exercise  4  
 
The  following  text  is  a  piece  of  student  writing  commenting  on  the  political  system  of  
Pakistan.    It  is  divided  into  seven  sentences  but  they  are  in  the  wrong  order.    Read  the  
sentences  thoroughly  to  determine  which  one  is  the  hyper-­‐Theme  and  then  which  order  
the  remaining  sentences  should  be  in.    Then  rewrite  the  paragraph  below,  and  check  it  
carefully  to  make  sure  it  has  a  logical  structure  before  you  check  with  the  original  in  the  
answer  key.  

a)   Another  reason  has  been  the  lack  of  strong  political  parties.  
 
b)   While   it   is   necessary   to   recognise   that   these   are   not   the   only   factors   determining   the  
failure  of  a  democratic  system  they  stand  as  the  most  prominent  reasons.  
 
c)   The   first   is   that   none   of   the   leaders   of   the   government,   which   has   been   based   on   a  
Western   democratic   constitutional   system,   has   attempted   to   rule   the   country   in   a  
democratic  way.  
 
d)   It   can   be   argued   that   a   Western   political   system   has   failed   in   Pakistan   for   two   major  
reasons.  
 
 e)   Instead,  they  have  instituted  autocratic  rule.  
 
f)   General  Mirza  (1980:19)  claimed  that  "Pakistan's  illiterate  people  are  neither  interested  
nor  competent  in  politics".  
 
g)   As  a  result,  when  constitutional  crises  have  arisen  there  has  not  been  sufficient  popular  
support  behind  any  one  party  to  overcome  the  situation.    

✪ ✪ You  can  now  check  the  answers  in  the  Answer  Key  at  the  back  of  the  unit.  

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
   

  9  
Cohesive  Writing  Module:  Unit  1.  Independent  Learning  Resources    
©  Learning  Centre  University  of  Sydney.  This  Unit  may  be  copied  for  individual  student  use.    

Unit  1:  Answer  Key  to  Exercises  

✪ ✪ Exercise  1:  Answer  

Hyper-­‐Theme  (paragraph  Introduction)  

Over  the  past  30  years,  research  in  the  health  arena  has  attracted  psychologists,  anthropologists  and  
sociologists.  (three  groups)      
 
Paragraph  middle  (first  group)  
The  focus  of  psychological  research  in  this  area  is  concerned  with  individual  motives,  attitudes  and  
beliefs  in  relation  to  both  health  and  illness.      
 
Paragraph  middle  (second  group)    
Anthropological   studies,   however,   are   concerned   with   culture   and   health   care.   Such   studies  
concentrate  on  a  conception  of  disease  as  a  cultural  product  and  on  the  way  social  and  cultural  life  in  
the  past  affects  beliefs  about  health  and  illness.  
 
Paragraph  middle  (third  group)    
In   sociological   studies   the   emphasis   is   similar,   but   focussed   more   on   social   relations   within   a  
particular  social  structure  with  respect  to  medical  care.  
 
This  is  a  well-­‐structured  paragraph  with  very  clear  "theme"  patterns.    However,  this  
analysis  shows  that  this  particular  paragraph  doesn't  have  an  "end"  section,  perhaps  
because  the  next  paragraph  which  follows  may  pick  up  these  three  groups,  and  so  there  
is  nothing  to  say  to  end  it  yet.  
 

✪ ✪ Exercise  2:  Answer  

Poverty  occurs  when  requirements  for  basic  living  are  not  met.  Two  types  of  poverty  can  be  seen  in  
the  world  today,  absolute  and  relative.    Absolute   poverty  is  generally  restricted  to  the  Third  World  
where   basic   life   essentials   are   lacking.     These   life   essentials   are   food,   fuel   and   shelter.     The   existence  
of  relative  poverty  is  determined  by  comparison  with  the  normal  standard  of  living  of  a  society.    In  
Australian   society,   for   example,   relative   poverty   exists   as   shown   in   the   statistics   for   child   poverty.    
Both  types  of  poverty  are  problems  for  the  government  and  people  of  the  country.  
 

✪ ✪ Exercise  3:  Answer  

The  original  beginning  to  this  paragraph  is  shown  in  bold:  
 
Gross   Domestic   Product   (GDP)   is   measured   in   three   ways.     The   first   GDP   measurement   is   the  
'income   received   method',   whereby   the   income   received   by   the   owners   of   productive   resources   is  
found  by  adding  the  wages,  rent,  interest  and  profit  earned  at  each  stage  of  production.    The  second  
means   of   measurement,   'the   production   method'   can   be   found   using   either   the   'final   product'   or   the  
'value   added',   thus   providing   a   figure   for   'value   of   production'.     The   third   measurement,   the  
'expenditure  method'  simply  measures  the  amount  spent  buying  finished  goods.  

  10  
Cohesive  Writing  Module:  Unit  1.  Independent  Learning  Resources    
©  Learning  Centre  University  of  Sydney.  This  Unit  may  be  copied  for  individual  student  use.    

✪ ✪ Exercise  4:  Answer  

The  original  sequence  for  these  sentences  was:  

 
d)   It  can  be  argued  that  a  Westerm  political  system  has  failed  in  Pakistan  for  two  major  reasons.  
c)   The  first  is  that  none  of  the  leaders  of  the  government,  which  has  been  based  on  a  Western  
democratic  constitutional  system,  has  attempted  to  rule  the  country  in  a  democratic  way.  
e)   Instead,  they  have  instituted  autocratic  rule.  
a)   Another  reason  has  been  the  lack  of  strong  political  parties.  
g)   As   a   result,   when   constitutional   crises   have   arisen   there   has   not   been   sufficient   popular  
support  behind  any  one  party  to  overcome  the  situation.    
f)   General   Mirza   (1980:19)   claims   that   "Pakistan's   illiterate   people   are   neither   interested   nor  
competent  in  politics".  
b)   While   it   is   necessary   to   recognise   that   these   are   not   the   only   factors   determining   the   failure   of  
a  democratic  system  they  stand  as  the  most  prominent  reasons.  
 

  11  
Cohesive  Writing  Module:  Unit  2.  Independent  Learning  Resources    
©  Learning  Centre  University  of  Sydney.  This  Unit  may  be  copied  for  individual  student  use.    

Cohesive  Writing  Module:  Introduction  

Introduction  
 
In  this  module,  we  will  examine  elements  of  academic  writing  that  contribute  to  making  
a  piece  of  writing  cohesive.    When  you  are  writing  assignments  at  university  the  way  
that  you  link  your  ideas  logically  through  your  text  is  by  a  combination  of  grammatical  
and  vocabulary  systems.    Each  unit  of  this  module  will  investigate  aspects  of  a  system  
and  explain  how  to  develop  skills  in  applying  these  to  your  own  writing.  
 

Who  is  this  module  for?  

 
All  students  at  university  who  need  to  improve  their  knowledge  of  clearer  paragraph  
writing.  
 

What  does  this  module  cover?  

 
Unit  1   Paragraph  Structure  
Unit  2   Linking  Themes  within  Paragraphs  
Unit  3   Cohesion  in  Word  Choice  
Unit  4   Cohesion  through  Reference  
 

Exercises  
 
These  are  marked  with  the  icon  ✪  and  you  should  try  to  complete  them  before  
checking  your  work  in  the  Answer  Key,  marked  ✪✪.    
 

Answer  Key  to  all  Exercises  

 
This  can  be  found  at  the  end  of  the  Unit.  
 
   

  1  
Cohesive  Writing  Module:  Unit  2.  Independent  Learning  Resources    
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Cohesive  Writing  Module  

Unit  2:  Linking  Themes  within  a  
Paragraph  
1.0   Introduction  
 
In  the  first  unit  of  this  module,  Unit  1  ‘Paragraph  Structure’,  we  looked  at  the  way  longer  
texts  use  their  introduction  to  point  out  how  the  whole  text  will  be  structured;  and  how  
paragraphs  use  their  introductions  to  point  our  what  the  rest  of  the  paragraph  is  about.  
 
In  this  Unit  we  will  continue  to  look  at  ways  to  link  ideas  logically  in  your  writing,  but  
this  time  at  the  smaller-­‐scale  level  of  the  sentence.    We  will  begin  by  looking  at  
sentences  themselves,  and  then  go  on  to  identify  how  sentences  are  strung  together  to  
build  up  the  structure  of  the  paragraphs.  
 

Objectives  of  Unit  2  

 
After  you  have  completed  this  unit  you  should  be  able  to:  
 
• recognise  the  way  that  information  is  structured  in  sentences  
• develop  a  logical  structure  for  your  own  sentences  to  focus  on  your  ideas.  

 
1.1   Structuring  information  in  a  sentence  
 
Beginning  of  sentence   Middle  of  Sentence   End  of  Sentence  
This  part  of  the  sentence   The  main  verb.   This  part  of  the  sentence  
usually  tells  us  what  the  rest   tells  us  what  the  sentence  is  
of  the  sentence  is  going  to   about.  It  includes  all  the  
be  about.    It  usually  includes   words  after  the  main  verb  
all  the  words  up  to  the  main  
verb.  
THEME   NEW  INFORMATION  
 
Here  is  an  example  sentence  broken  down  into  its  parts:  
 
In  the  earliest  time,  people   carved  or  painted   messages  on  rocks.  
Beginning   Middle   End  
THEME   NEW  INFORMATION  
 
If  we  change  the  sentence  Theme,  we  can  see  that  the  focus  of  the  sentence  changes,  
even  though  it  contains  basically  the  same  information.  

  2  
Cohesive  Writing  Module:  Unit  2.  Independent  Learning  Resources    
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Messages   were  carved  or  painted   on  rocks  by  people  in  the  
earliest  times.  
Beginning   Middle   End  
THEME   NEW  INFORMATION  
 
Each  time  we  change  the  sentence  around,  we  are  actually  changing  the  information  
structure  and  therefore  the  focus  of  the  meaning.  
 
Rocks,  on  which  messages  were   were   the  earliest  medium  of  
carved  or  painted   written  communication  
Beginning   Middle   End  
THEME   NEW  INFORMATION  
 
 
If  the  sentence  has  more  than  one  clause,  then  each  clause  has  the  same  beginning,  
middle,  end  structure.  For  example,  here  is  the  second  clause  of  the  second  sentence  in  
the  original  paragraph  below.  
 
and  books   were   laboriously  copied  by  hand.  
Beginning   Middle   End  
THEME   NEW  INFORMATION  
 

1.2   Focussing  through  Theme  choices  

 
To  write  effectively  you  should  be  conscious  of  how  you  are  structuring  your  
information.    Through  an  awareness  of  Theme  and  New  information  it  is  possible  to  
deliberately  focus  on  what  you  want  to  impart  to  the  reader.    We  can  see  how  this  focus  
can  be  shifted  by  changing  the  information  structure  of  the  sentences  and  clauses  in  the  
following  example:  
 

Original  paragraph:  
In  the  earliest  times,  people  carved  or  painted  messages  on  rocks.    Later  on,  people  wrote  
on  pieces  of  leather,  rolled  into  scrolls.    During  the  Middle  Ages,  heavy  paper  called  
parchment  was  used  for  writing,  and  books  were  laboriously  copied  by  hand.    Then  in  the  
middle  of  the  fifteenth  century,  with  the  invention  of  the  printing  press,  the  birth  of  the  
modern  printing  industry  was  possible.    And  now  the  advent  of  computers  is  rapidly  
revolutionising  the  process  of  communication.  
 

Rewritten  paragraph:  
Rocks,  on  which  messages  were  carved  or  painted,  were  the  earliest  medium  of  written  
communication.    Pieces  of  leather,  however,  had  the  advantage  of  being  portable  when  
rolled  into  scrolls  and  they  replaced  rock  carvings.    These  leather  scrolls  were  in  turn  
replaced  in  the  Middle  Ages.    Parchment  books  took  over  and  were  laboriously  copied  by  
hand  until  the  invention  of  the  printing  press.    Printed  books  have  been  central  to  the  
communication  process  for  centuries  but  various  forms  of  electronic  media  will  
undoubtedly  replace  them  in  the  end.  

  3  
Cohesive  Writing  Module:  Unit  2.  Independent  Learning  Resources    
©  Learning  Centre  University  of  Sydney.  This  Unit  may  be  copied  for  individual  student  use.    

 
Themes  in  the  original  paragraph   Themes  in  the  rewritten  paragraph  
In  the  earliest  times  people,   Rocks,  on  which  messages  were  carved  or  
Later  on,  people   painted,  
During  the  Middle  Ages,  heavy  paper  called   Pieces  of  leather,  however,  
parchment   and  they  
and  books   These  leather  scrolls  
Then  in  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century,   parchment  books  
with  the  invention  of  the  printing  press,  the   Printed  books  
birth  of  the  modern  printing  industry   but  various  forms  of  electronic  media  
And  now  the  advent  of  computers  
 
Notice  how  the  original  paragraph  focussed  on  the  time  periods:    it  was  concerned  with  
explaining  how  things  changed  over  time.    The  rewritten  paragraph  focuses  on  the  kinds  
of  materials  that  were  used  for  communication.  
 

✪  Exercise  1  
 
Read  the  following  text  on  'Stress'.    Underline  the  sentence  Themes.    Then  decide  what  
you  think  the  author  wants  us  to  focus  on:  what  is  the  purpose  of  this  paragraph?  
 
Stress  is  a  term  adopted  from  engineering  science  by  psychology  and  medicine.    Simply  
defined,  stress  in  engineering  means  force  upon  an  area.    As  so  many  forces  are  working  
upon  us  in  the  modern  age,  and  we  find  it  extremely  difficult  to  cope  under  so  much  
pressure,  stress  is  called  the  ‘disease  of  civilisation’.    Phillip  Zimbardo,  traces  four  
interrelated  levels  at  which  we  react  tot  e  pressure  exerted  upon  us  from  our  environment.    
The  four  are:    the  emotional  level  the  behavioural  level,  the  physiological  level,  and  the  
cognitive  level.    The  emotional  responses  to  stress  are  sadness,  depression,  anger,  irritation  
and  frustration.    The  behavioural  responses  are  poor  concentration,  forgetfulness,  poor  
interpersonal  relations,  and  lowered  productivity.    The  physiological  responses  consist  of  
bodily  tensions,  which  may  lead  to  headaches,  backaches,  stomach  ulcers,  high  blood  
pressure,  and  even  killer  diseases.    At  the  cognitive  level  one  may  lose  self-­‐esteem  and  self-­‐
confidence  which  leads  to  feelings  of  helplessness  and  hopelessness.    At  worst,  such  a  
person  may  even  end  up  committing  suicide.  
(Lily  de  Silva,  One  Foot  in  the  World,  Wheel  Publication,  1986)  
 
✪✪ You  can  now  check  the  answers  in  the  Answer  Key  at  the  back  of  the  unit.  
 

✪  Exercise  2  
 
Read  the  following  paragraph  and,  after  identifying  the  Themes,  decide  what  is  the  
author's  focus.  
 
Soap  operas  and  special  sporting  events  such  as  the  Olympics  are  the  most  generally  popular  
TV  shows  in  Britain.    Quiz  shows  are  another  popular  program,  mainly  among  women  and  
younger  people  while  sport  dominates  the  viewing  habits  of  male  viewers.    Special  sports  
programs,  however,  such  as  the  Olympics,  are  enjoyed  by  all  groups  of  people,  as  are  soap  
operas  such  as  Dallas.    The  least  popular  shows,  on  the  other  hand,  are  arts  and  music  

  4  
Cohesive  Writing  Module:  Unit  2.  Independent  Learning  Resources    
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programs,  while  current  affairs  is  disliked  by  women  and  younger  viewers.    The  News  is  also  
disliked  by  this  last  group,  which  prefers  dramas  and  police  shows.  
 
In  the  next  part  of  this  exercise,  you  are  to  rewrite  this  paragraph  so  that  the  focus  is  
changed.    To  help  you  prepare  for  this  writing  exercise,  fill  out  the  following  table  based  
on  the  information  given  in  the  passage.    Then  rewrite  the  passage  focussing  on  the  
viewers.  
 
  Television  Viewers  
  Men   Women   Young  People   All  groups  
Popular  programs          
Unpopular  programs          
 
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________  
 

✪ ✪ You  can  now  check  the  answers  in  the  Answer  Key  at  the  back  of  the  unit.  
 

✪  Exercise  3  
 
The  following  extracts  were  from  an  undergraduate  essay  which  was  written  in  
response  to  this  question:  
"Why  did  anatomists  in  Europe  doubt  the  evidence  of  their  own  eyes?"  
Critically  evaluate  whether  this  piece  of  writing  is  answering  the  question  very  
effectively.    To  help  you  do  this,  notice  the  Theme  choices  and  determine  whether  they  
focus  on  giving  an  appropriate  answer.  
 
Galen,  a  Greek  physician  of  the  Roman  period,  studied  and  researched  into  anatomy.    He  
only  dissected  animals;  people  believed  at  that  time  that  it  was  sacrilegious  to  dissect  human  
beings.    His  views  were  commonly  accepted  and  men  did  no  further  research  for  over  a  
millennium.    No  one  was  allowed  to  challenge  Galen's  ideas.  
 
Early  writers  in  the  13th  century  followed  Galenic  dictates  preserved  in  the  Moorish  
literature.    They  actually  preferred  it  to  the  testimony  of  their  own  eyes.    When  they  found  
evidence  which  differed  from  the  old  theory,  they  assumed  that  they  must  be  dissecting  an  
abnormal  body.    They  could  not  preserve  the  bodies  and  no  one  checked  these  differences.  
 
✪ ✪ Before  doing  the  next  exercise  check  the  answers  in  the  Answer  Key  at  the  back  
of  the  unit.  

  5  
Cohesive  Writing  Module:  Unit  2.  Independent  Learning  Resources    
©  Learning  Centre  University  of  Sydney.  This  Unit  may  be  copied  for  individual  student  use.    

✪  Exercise  4  
 
The  next  piece  is  a  rewritten  version  of  the  answer  you  read  in  the  previous  exercise.    
When  you  read  this  answer,  underline  the  Themes  to  help  you  see  what  this  writer's  
focus  is.    Then  decide  whether  this  is  a  more  appropriate  answer  to  the  question.  
 
Galen's  anatomical  discussions  were  based  solely  on  dissections  of  animals  and  his  
descriptions  were  therefore  often  wrong.    However  acceptance  of  Galen's  views  on  human  
anatomy  were  so  complete  that  for  hundreds  of  years  no  further  research  into  human  
anatomy  was  undertaken.    The  overwhelming  respect  in  which  Galen  was  held  by  the  
medical  profession  was  the  most  important  factor  which  prevented  anatomists  from  
checking  his  descriptions  against  empirical  evidence  from  human  dissection.    This  reverence  
for  Galen's  work  led  anatomists  in  Medieval  Europe  to  see  contradictory  evidence  from  their  
dissections  as  coming  from  abnormal  bodies.    Unwillingness  to  challenge  Galen  was  the  key  
factor  which  caused  anatomists  to  doubt  the  evidence  of  their  eyes,  even  though  there  were  
practical  reasons  why  careful  cross  checking  of  evidence  was  difficult  at  that  time.  

✪ ✪ You  can  now  check  the  answers  in  the  Answer  Key  at  the  back  of  the  unit.  

2.0   Developing  Information  across  Sentences  

 
The  choices  that  you  make  of  what  information  to  put  into  Theme  position  are  very  
important  in  focussing  on  the  message  you  want  to  get  across.    But  this  is  not  the  whole  
story.    What  you  choose  to  put  in  the  Theme  position  will  influence  what  you  put  in  the  
rest  of  the  sentence,  that  is,  in  the  New  position.    The  combination  of  what  goes  into  
Theme  and  what  goes  into  New  is  very  important  in  developing  your  ideas  from  one  
sentence  to  the  next,  and  therefore  in  building  up  the  cohesion  of  your  writing.  
 
Each  piece  of  writing  will  have  its  own  pattern  of  Theme  and  New  choices,  but  there  are  
some  common  patterns  which  we  can  see  by  using  arrows  to  show  the  relationship  
between  Themes  and  News.    In  these  examples,  all  the  Themes  are  in  bold.  
 
Example  1  
Here  the  Theme  of  the  first  sentence  is  picked  up  again  in  the  Theme  of  the  second  
sentence,  and  so  on.  
   

  6  
Cohesive  Writing  Module:  Unit  2.  Independent  Learning  Resources    
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Paragraph  (with  Theme  in  bold)   Theme  -­‐  New  pattern  

   
First  year  students  appear  overall  to  be  quite  well-­‐informed   THEME      NEW  
about  AIDS.              
   
Their  awareness  is  significantly  higher  than  among  students   THEME      NEW  
even  2-­‐3  years  ago.              
   
Their  behaviour,  however,  is  quite  disconcerting.   THEME      NEW  
             
A  number  of  them,  while  aware  of  the  risk  of  AIDS,  still    
continue  to  engage  in  high-­‐risk  sexual  behaviour.   THEME      NEW  
             
 
Example  2  
Here  the  New  of  one  sentence  becomes  the  Theme  of  the  next  sentence,  and  so  on.  
 
Paragraph  (with  Theme  in  bold)   Theme  -­‐  New  pattern  
   
Since  1880  the  global  temperature  has  risen  by  0.4c.   THEME      NEW  
             
If  the  global  temperature  were  to  increase  by  5c  the  polar   THEME      NEW  
caps  would  start  to  melt.                            
   
The  melting  of  the  polar  ice  caps  would  lead  to  an  increase  in   THEME      NEW  
the  water  levels.                            
   
If  the  water  levels  were  to  increase  .....     THEME      NEW  
 
Example  3    
Here  the  New  of  one  sentence  is  picked  up  in  the  Themes  of  several  following  sentences.  
 
Paragraph  (with  Theme  in  bold)   Theme  -­‐  New  pattern  
The  four  responses  are:    the  emotional  level  the  behavioural    
level,  the  physiological  level,  and  the  cognitive  level.       THEME      NEW  
             
The  emotional  responses  to  stress  are  sadness,  depression,    
anger,  irritation  and  frustration.     THEME      NEW  
                           
The  behavioural  responses  are  poor  concentration,    
forgetfulness,  poor  interpersonal  relations,  and  lowered   THEME      NEW  
productivity.                                
   
The  physiological  responses  consist  of  bodily  tensions,  which    
may  lead  to  headaches,  backaches,  stomach  ulcers,  high   THEME      NEW  
blood  pressure,  and  even  killer  diseases.                                
   
At  the  cognitive  level  one  may  lose  self-­‐esteem  and  self-­‐ THEME      NEW  
confidence  which  leads  to  feelings  of  helplessness.                            

  7  
Cohesive  Writing  Module:  Unit  2.  Independent  Learning  Resources    
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If  we  change  the  pattern  of  the  information,  we  change  the  focus,  and  can  sometimes  
make  the  writing  very  difficult  to  understand.    Sometimes,  it  can  be  difficult  to  see  how  
each  new  point  being  made  relates  to  the  next  point,  because  the  New  piece  of  
information  is  not  picked  up  at  the  beginning  of  the  following  sentence.  
 

Example  4    
Here  is  an  example  of  ‘uncohesive’  writing,  in  which  each  sentence  begins  with  a  new  
piece  of  information,  rather  than  picking  up  the  piece  of  information  already  given  in  the  
sentence  before.  
 
Acquired  Immunodeficiency  Syndrome  (AIDS),  caused  by  the  Human  Immunodeficiency  Virus  
(HIV),  has  no  cure  and  can  have  a  fatal  prognosis.    Public  health  education  is  the  best  means  
of  combating  this  disease.    College  and  University  students  are  especially  likely  to  benefit  
from  AIDS  education  and  behavioural  change.    The  transition  from  high  school  to  university  
frequently  involves  movement  from  family  to  independent  living,  allowing  for  a  variety  of  
changes  in  social  and  sexual  behaviour  that  place  young  adults  at  risk  for  AIDS.  
 

Example  5    
Here  is  the  same  paragraph  rewritten  to  be  more  cohesive.  The  New  part  of  the  
sentences  is  picked  up  at  the  beginning  of  the  following  sentence,  i.e.  in  the  Theme.  
 
Acquired  Immunodeficiency  Syndrome  (AIDS),  caused  b  the  Human  Immunodeficiency  Virus  
(HIV),  has  no  cure  and  can  have  a  fatal  prognosis.    The  disease  is  best  combated  through  
public  health  education.    Such  education  is  especially  beneficial  for  college  and  university  
students  because  they  need  to  undergo  behavioural  change.    These  students,  in  making  the  
transition  from  high  school  to  university,  a  transition  frequently  involving  movement  from  
family  to  independent  living,  are  placed  at  risk  for  AIDS  because  of  the  variety  of  changes  in  
their  social  and  sexual  behaviour.    
 

✪  Exercise  5  
 
Read  the  following  text,  and  underline  the  sentence  Themes.  Then  draw  arrows  to  show  
where  each  Theme  comes  from,  i.e.  from  another  Theme  or  from  a  New.  
 
The  need  for  effective  planning  of  rural  lands  is  now  recognised  throughout  the  developed  
world.  
 
Examples  of  countries  introducing  programmes  in  recent  years  to  protect  agricultural  lands  
include  the  USA,  Japan,  the  UK,  Germany  and  Canada.  
 
The  world's  dominant  food  producer,  the  US  had  now  introduced  a  broad  range  of  measures  
to  curb  the  conversion  of  agricultural  lands  to  other  uses.  
 
These  measures  are  in  recognition  of  the  fact  that  agricultural  land  in  that  nation  is  being  lost  
at  the  rate  of  102  million  hectares  per  year  (U.S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  1981).  
 

  8  
Cohesive  Writing  Module:  Unit  2.  Independent  Learning  Resources    
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A  continuation  of  this  trend  would  mean  that  all  prime  farm  land  of  Florida,  presently  
producing  50%  of  the  world's  grapefruit  and  25%  of  the  world's  oranges,  would  be  lost  by  the  
year  2000.  
 
By  the  same  time,  the  states  of  Virginia  and  California  would  lose  about  one-­‐fifth  of  the  best  
of  their  agricultural  land  (Brown,  1978).  
 
✪ ✪ You  can  now  check  the  answers  in  the  Answer  Key  at  the  back  of  the  unit.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
   

  9  
Cohesive  Writing  Module:  Unit  2.  Independent  Learning  Resources    
©  Learning  Centre  University  of  Sydney.  This  Unit  may  be  copied  for  individual  student  use.    

Unit  2:  Answer  Key  to  Exercises  

✪ ✪ Exercise  1:  Answer  

Stress   is   a   term   adopted   from   engineering   evidence   by   psychology   and   medicine.     Simply  
defined,   stress   in   engineering   means   force   upon   an   area.     As   so   many   forces   are   working  
upon   us   in   the   modern   age,   and   we   find   it   extremely   difficult   to   cope   under   so   much  
pressure,   stress   is   called   the   "disease   of   civilisation".     Phillip   Zimbardo,   traces   four  
interrelated  levels  at  which  we  react  tot  e  pressure  exerted  upon  us  from  our  environment.    
The   four   are:     the   emotional   level,   the   behavioural   level,   the   physiological   level,   and   the  
cognitive  level.    The  emotional  responses  to   stress   are   sadness,   depression,   anger,   irritation  
and   frustration.     The   behavioural   responses   are   poor   concentration,   forgetfulness,   poor  
interpersonal   relations,   and   lowered   productivity.     The   physiological   responses   consist   of  
bodily   tensions,   which   may   lead   to   headaches,   backaches,   stomach   ulcers,   high   blood  
pressure,   and   even   killer   diseases.     At  the  cognitive  level  one   may   lose   self-­‐esteem   and   self-­‐
confidence   which   leads   to   feelings   of   helplessness   and   hopelessness.     At   worst,   such   a  
person  may  even  end  up  committing  suicide.  
(Lily  de  Silva,  One  Foot  in  the  World,  Wheel  Publication,  1986)  
 
This  paragraph  has  "stress"  or  something  related  to  stress  in  Theme  position  in  almost  
every  sentence.    The  paragraph  is  serving  the  purpose  of  defining  and  explaining  stress,  
through  setting  up  a  classification  system  for  understanding  stress.  
 

✪ ✪ Exercise  2:  Answer  

Soap  operas  and  special  sporting  events  such  as  the  Olympics  are  the  most  generally  popular  TV  
shows  in  Britain.    Quiz  shows  are  another  popular  program,  mainly  among  women  and  younger  
people  while  sport  dominates  the  viewing  habits  of  male  viewers.    Special  sports  programs,  
however,  such  as  the  Olympics,  are  enjoyed  by  all  groups  of  people,  as  are  soap  operas  such  as  
Dallas.    The  least  popular  shows,  on  the  other  hand,  are  arts  and  music  programmes,  while  current  
affairs  is  disliked  by  women  and  younger  viewers.    The  News  is  also  disliked  by  this  last  group,  which    
prefers  dramas  and  police  shows.  
 
  Television  Viewers  
  Men   Women   Young  People   All  groups  
Popular  programs   sport   quiz  shows   quiz  shows   soap  operas  
dramas   special  sporting  
police  shows   events  
Unpopular  programs     current  affairs   current  affairs   arts  and  music  
news  
 
In  this  paragraph,  the  author  is  focussing  on  the  different  categories  of  television  
programs.    Here  is  a  suggested  way  of  rewriting  the  paragraph  to  focus  on  the  television  
viewers  (Themes  in  bold).  
 
British  television  viewers  generally  enjoy  soap  operas  and  special  sporting  events.    Women  
and  younger  people  tend  to  watch  quiz  shows,  while  male  viewers  prefer  sport.    All  groups  
of  people  enjoy  special  sports  programmes  as  well  as  soap  operas  like  "Dallas".    Only  a  

  10  
Cohesive  Writing  Module:  Unit  2.  Independent  Learning  Resources    
©  Learning  Centre  University  of  Sydney.  This  Unit  may  be  copied  for  individual  student  use.    

minority  of  viewers  tend  to  watch  arts  and  music  programs  while  women  and  younger  
viewers  dislike  current  affairs  programs.    This  last  group  also  dislikes  the  news  and  prefers  
drama  and  police  shows.  
 

✪ ✪ Exercise  3:  Answer  

This  extract  focuses  on  Galen  and  what  he  did,  as  well  as  the  people  of  the  time  and  what  
they  believed.    Therefore,  it  does  not  provide  an  appropriate  answer  to  the  question,  
which  asks:    
 
Why  did  anatomists  in  Europe  doubt  the  evidence  of  their  own  eyes?  
 

✪ ✪ Exercise  4:  Answer  

 
Galen's  anatomical  discussions  were  based  solely  on  dissections  of  animals  and  his  
descriptions  were  therefore  often  wrong.    However,  acceptance  of  Galen's  views  on  human  
anatomy  were  so  complete  that  for  hundreds  of  years  no  further  research  into  human  
anatomy  was  undertaken.    The  overwhelming  respect  in  which  Galen  was  held  by  the  
medical  profession  was  the  most  important  factor  which  prevented  anatomists  from  
checking  his  descriptions  against  empirical  evidence  from  human  dissection.    This  reverence  
for  Galen's  work  led  anatomists  in  Medieval  Europe  to  see  contradictory  evidence  from  their  
dissections  as  coming  from  abnormal  bodies.    Unwillingness  to  challenge  Galen  was  the  key  
factor  which  caused  anatomists  to  doubt  the  evidence  of  their  eyes,  even  though  there  were  
practical  reasons  why  careful  cross  checking  of  evidence  was  difficult  at  that  time.  
 
Notice  that  in  each  Theme  there  is  a  word  which  sums  up  the  attitudes  that  people  had  
towards  Galen's  work  -­‐  acceptance,  respect,  reverence,  unwillingness  to  challenge.    
These  words  capture  the  reasons  why  people  doubted  the  evidence  of  their  own  eyes,  
and  therefore  the  extract  is  a  very  appropriate  answer  to  the  question.  
 

✪ ✪ Exercise  5:  Answer  

The  need  for  effective  planning  of  rural  lands  is  now  recognised  throughout  the  developed  world.  
 
Examples  of  countries  introducing  programs  in  recent  years  to  protect  agricultural  lands  include  
the  USA,  Japan,  the  UK,  Germany  and  Canada.  
 
The  world's  dominant  food  producer,  the  US  has  now  introduced  a  broad  range  of  measures  to  curb  
the  conversion  of  agricultural  lands  to  other  uses.  
 
These  measures  are  in  recognition  of  the  fact  that  agricultural  land  in  that  nation  is  being  lost  at  the  
rate  of  102  million  hectares  per  year  (U.S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  1981).  
 
A  continuation  of  this  trend  would  mean  that  all  prime  farm  land  of  Florida,  presently  producing  
50%  of  the  world's  grapefruit  and  25%  of  the  world's  oranges,  would  be  lost  by  the  year  2000.  
 
By  the  same  time,  the  states  of  Virginia  and  California  would  lose  about  one-­‐fifth  of  the  best  of  their  
agricultural  land  (Brown,  1978).  

  11  
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Cohesive  Writing  Module:  Introduction  

Introduction  
 
In  this  module,  we  will  examine  elements  of  academic  writing  that  contribute  to  making  
a  piece  of  writing  cohesive.    When  you  are  writing  assignments  at  university  the  way  
that  you  link  your  ideas  logically  through  your  text  is  by  a  combination  of  grammatical  
and  vocabulary  systems.    Each  unit  of  this  module  will  investigate  aspects  of  a  system  
and  explain  how  to  develop  skills  in  applying  these  to  your  own  writing.  
 

Who  is  this  module  for?  

 
All  students  at  university  who  need  to  improve  their  knowledge  of  clearer  paragraph  
writing.  
 

What  does  this  module  cover?  

 
Unit  1   Paragraph  Structure  
Unit  2   Linking  Themes  within  Paragraphs  
Unit  3   Cohesion  in  Word  Choice  
Unit  4   Cohesion  through  Reference  
 

Exercises  
 
These  are  marked  with  the  icon  ✪  and  you  should  try  to  complete  them  before  
checking  your  work  in  the  Answer  Key,  marked  ✪✪.    
 

Answer  Key  to  all  Exercises  

 
This  can  be  found  at  the  end  of  the  Unit.  
 
   

  1  
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Cohesive  Writing  Module  

Unit  3:  Cohesion  in  Word  Choice  
1.0   Introduction  
 
 
In  this  unit  we  will  look  at  how  vocabulary  choice  helps  us  to  develop  a  piece  of  writing.    
The   word   choices   a   writer   makes   help   to   develop   the   ideas   of   a   text   so   that   the  
relationships  between  ideas  are  clear  to  the  reader  and  the  text  as  a  whole  is  cohesive  
i.e.  all  parts  of  the  text  relate  together  and  work  together.      
 
As   we   have   seen   in   Units   1   and   2   of   this   Cohesive   Writing   module,   cohesion   is   an  
important   feature   of   academic   texts.   This   unit   aims   to   help   you   understand   how   the  
vocabulary  items  in  a  piece  of  writing  contribute  to  its  overall  cohesion.  
 

Objectives  of  Unit  3  

 
After  you  have  completed  this  unit  you  should  be  able  to:  
 
• recognise  the  types  of  connections  that  occur  between  vocabulary  items  and  how  
these  contribute  to  the  cohesion  of  a  piece  of  writing    
• identify   problems   in   writing   where   the   vocabulary   choices   interfere   with   the  
cohesion  of  the  writing  
• understand   the   need   to   select   appropriate   vocabulary   for   particular   contexts   and  
to   build   up   the   cohesiveness   of   your   own   writing   through   appropriate   word  
choices.  

2.0   Different  types  of  relationships  between  words  

 
There  are  four  different  types  of  relationships  between  words:  repetition,  
synonym/antonym,  general/specific  and  collocation.  
 

2.1   Repetition  
 
The  most  obvious  way  of  showing  that  an  idea  is  related  to  one  that  has  been  mentioned  
earlier  in  the  text  is  to  simply  repeat  a  word  or  a  form  of  the  word  that  was  used  before,  
for  example:  
 
Stress  is  often  called  a  disease  of  contemporary  life.    It  seems  that  our  modern  world  has  not  
only  created  an  advanced  technological  environment  but  also  a  stressful  environment.  
 

  2  
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One  common  problem  that  students  have  in  their  writing  is  to  use  too  much  repetition.    
Instead  of  developing  the  idea  by  using  other  related  words,  the  same  word  or  a  form  of  
the   same   word   is   used   repeatedly   throughout   the   writing.     Not   only   is   this   boring   to  
read,  but  it  can  be  an  indication  of  a  limited  understanding  of  the  topic.  
 

✪  Exercise  1  
 
Underline  the  examples  in  this  paragraph  of  repetition  of  the  word  ‘stress’.    Notice  that  
this  word  is  used  too  much  and  so  the  writing  becomes  boring.    
 
Stress   is   a   term   adopted   from   engineering   science   by   psychology   and   medicine.     Simply  
defined,   stress   in   engineering   means   force   upon   an   area.     As   so   many   forces   are   working  
upon  us  in  the  modern  age,  and  we  find  it  extremely  difficult  to  cope  under  so  much  stress,  
stress  is  called  the  "disease  of  civilization".    Phillip  Zimbardo  traces  four  interrelated  levels  at  
which   we   react   to   the   stresses   exerted   upon   us   from   our   environment.     The   four   are:   the  
emotional   level,   the   behavioural   level,   the   physiological   level,   and   the   cognitive   level.     The  
emotional  responses  to  stress  are  sadness,  depression,  anger,  irritation  and  frustration.    The  
behavioural   responses   to   stress   are   poor   concentration,   forgetfulness,   poor   interpersonal  
relations,   and   lowered   productivity.     The   physiological   responses   to   stress   consist   of   bodily  
tensions,  which  may  lead  to  headaches,  backaches,  stomach  ulcers,  high  blood  pressure,  and  
even  killer  diseases.    At  the  cognitive  level  one  may  respond  to  stress  by  losing  self-­‐esteem  
and  self-­‐confidence  which  leads  to  feelings  of  helplessness  and  hopelessness.    At  worst,  such  
a  stressed  person  may  even  end  up  committing  suicide.      
(adapted  from  Lily  de  Silva,  One  Foot  in  the  World,  Wheel  Publication,  1986)  
 
 
✪✪ You  can  now  check  the  answers  in  the  Answer  Key  at  the  back  of  the  unit.  
 

2.2   Synonyms  and  antonyms  

 
By   choosing   a   vocabulary   item   with   a   similar   meaning   (synonym)   to   one   mentioned  
before,   a   writer   can   show   the   relationship   between   ideas.   Relationships   can   also   be  
shown  by  using  a  word  with  the  opposite  meaning  (antonym).    By  using  synonyms  and  
antonyms,  it  is  possible  to  avoid  using  too  much  repetition  of  the  same  word.  
 

✪  Exercise  2  
 
Read  the  text  and  underline  examples  of  synonyms  and  antonyms,  noting  with  an  S  or  an  
A  which  type  of  relationship  it  is.  
 
Energy   is   the   most   important   resource   of   modern   society:   without   power   to   work   our  
machines   and   give   us   heat   and   light   our   society   could   not   exist.     Until   half   way   through  
this  century  mankind  was  confident  that  the  world's  supply  of  fossilised  energy  would  last  
forever.    But  now  that  proposition  has  been  questioned  and  it  seems  that  our  supplies  of  
coal,   gas   and   oil   are   destined   to   run   out.     The   production   of   nuclear   energy   leaves   the  
producer   with   dangerous   waste   materials   to   dispose   of.     For   these   reasons   mankind   is  
investigating   alternative   sources   of   energy   and,   of   these,   solar   energy,   energy   collected  

  3  
Cohesive  Writing  Module:  Unit  3.  Independent  Learning  Resources    
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from  the  sun  seems  the  most  promising.    This  assignment  will  explain  in  detail  how  solar  
energy  is  collected  for  the  generation  of  heat.    It  will  examine  the  design  and  use  of  low  
temperature,  medium  temperature  and  high  temperature  collectors.  
 
✪ ✪ You  can  now  check  the  answers  in  the  Answer  Key  at  the  back  of  the  unit.  
 

2.3   General  and  specific  words  

 
Vocabulary   items   which   are   more   general   or   specific   examples   of   the   item   mentioned  
earlier  in  the  text,  also  create  textual  cohesion.  For  example  'fruit'  is  a   general  term,  
which  includes  the  specific  examples  of  'apple,  passion-­‐fruit,  lemon'.  In  the  example  
for   Exercise   2,   'fossilised  energy'   is   a   general   term   covering   the   more   specific   words  
'coal,  gas  and  oil'.  
 

✪  Exercise  3  
 
Find  the  specific  items  relating  to  more  general  terms  in  the  ‘energy’  paragraph?  
 
   
General  term   Specific  terms  
   
energy    
   
   
   
   
   
collectors    
   
   
   
   
 
 
✪ ✪ You  can  now  check  the  answers  in  the  Answer  Key  at  the  back  of  the  unit.  
 

2.4   Collocation  
 
There  is  a  tendency  for  particular  vocabulary  items  to  occur  together  often.  This  is  
called  collocation.    In  scientific  writing,  for  example,  collocations  occur  between  
certain  nouns  and  verbs.    For  example,  data  are  collected  and  analysed  but  never  
observed.    Other  examples  include:  
• to  conduct  a  survey  (not  to  give  a  survey)  
• to  perform  analyses  (not  to  handle  analyses)  
• to  obtain  data  (not  to  carry  out  data)    
 

  4  
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✪  Exercise  4  
 
Read  the  following  sentence  from  a  student's  essay.    
 
Despite   lack   of   efficiency,   the   registered   medicine   practitioners   received  
advantages  over  their  alternative  competitors  ...  
 
Here   the   word   received   does   not   collocate   well   with   advantages.  The   tutor   marking  
the   paper   has   put   a   mark   through   it   indicating   that   it   is   not   a   good   choice.   Can   you  
think  of  a  more  appropriate  word?  
 
Despite   lack   of   efficiency,   the   registered   medicine   practitioners   received  
advantages  over  their  alternative  competitors  ...  
 

✪ ✪ You  can  now  check  the  answers  in  the  Answer  Key  at  the  back  of  the  unit.  

3.0   Word  relationships  across  the  text  

 

3.1   A  mixture  of  relationships  

 
In   any   one   piece   of   writing,   all   these   different   relationships   can,   and   normally   do,  
occur  between  the  vocabulary  items  chosen.      
 

✪  Exercise  5  
 
Identify   the   connections   in   the   first   part   of   the   'energy'   text   between   each   of   the  
words   listed   in   the   left-­‐hand   column.     Put   a   tick   in   the   appropriate   column   to   show  
how  the  words  are  each  related  to  the  first  one  "energy".  
 
Energy   is   the   most   important   resource   of   modern   society:   without   power   to   work   our  
machines   and   give   us   heat   and   light   our   society   could   not   exist.     Until   half   way   through  
this  century  mankind  was  confident  that  the  world's  supply  of  fossilised  energy  would  last  
forever.    But  now  that  proposition  has  been  questioned  and  it  seems  that  our  supplies  of  
coal,  gas  and  oil  are  destined  to  run  out.    
   

  5  
Cohesive  Writing  Module:  Unit  3.  Independent  Learning  Resources    
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Words   Relationship  between  each  word  and  "energy"  
related  to    
"energy"  
         
  Repetition   Synonym  or   General  or   Collocation  
Antonym   Specific  
         
resource          
         
power          
         
heat          
         
light          
         
fossilised          
energy  
         
coal          
         
gas          
         
oil          
 
✪ ✪ You  can  now  check  the  answers  in  the  Answer  Key  at  the  back  of  the  unit.  
 

3.2   General  and  Specific  relationships:  Taxonomies  

 
We  can  look  in  more  detail  at  relationships  between  general  vocabulary  items  and  
specific  vocabulary  items.  These  relationships  can  form  taxonomies   of  vocabulary  
items  where  one  item  is  a  type  or  kind   of  another,  for  example  a  rose  (specific)  is  a  
kind  of  flower  (general),  or  where  one  item  is  a  part  of  another,  for  example  a  leaf  is  
a  part  of  a  plant.  
 
These  relationships  are  shown  in  the  following  diagram:  
   

  6  
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         type/  superordinate  
(rose/flower)  
         superordination                
(a  rose  is  a      
flower  is  a  plant)    
       type/  type  
(rose/daisy)  
 
Taxonomic    
vocabulary  
relations                    
 
       part/whole          
(leg/chair)  
       part/whole                
(a  leaf  is  part    
of  a  branch)      
       part/part  
(door/window)  
 
To  illustrate  how  a  taxonomy  works,  we  can  develop  the  above  examples.     A  rose  is  
one   type   of   flower.   Geranium,   carnation,   cornflower,   tulip   and   daisy   are   others.  
Hence:  
 
               Rose  
       Geranium  
    Flower            Carnation  
       Tulip  
       Daisy  
 
 
Each  flower  has  the  following  parts:  stem,  roots,  leaves,  stamen,  pistils.    Hence:  
 
       Stem  
       Roots  
Rose          Leaves  
       Stamen  
       Pistils  
 

✪  Exercise  6  
 
Read  the  following  piece  of  writing.    It  is  the  introduction  to  a  scientific  published  
paper.     As   you   are   reading,   notice   the   way   that   the   vocabulary   chosen   is   building   up  
a  ‘taxonomy’  about  rice-­‐growing  areas.    Fill  in  the  diagram  below  to  show  how  the  
words  fit  into  this  taxonomy.  
   

  7  
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Rice   (Oryza   sativa)   is   traditionally   grown   in   tropical   regions   of   the   world,   but   the  
availability  of  irrigation  has  led  to  the  establishment  of  rice  growing  areas  in  temperate  
regions,  such  as  Spain,  Italy  and  California.  
 
The   rice   industry   in   Australia   began   in   the   1920s   in   irrigation   areas   along   the  
Murrumbidgee  and  Murray  Rivers,  and  these  areas  currently  produce  more  than  95%  of  
the  total  Australian  crop  of  about  500,000  t/year,  with  the  remainder  being  produced  in  
Queensland   in   the   Burdekin   Valley   and   the   Atherton   Tablelands   areas   (about   15,000t/y)  
and  the  Ord  River  area  of  Western  Australia  (less  than  2,000t/y).    While  about  90%  of  
the   Australian   crop   is   exported,   the   10%   consumed   locally   constitutes   the   bulk   of   rice  
available   in   Australia   (M.   Goldring,   Rice-­‐growers   Co-­‐operative   Mills,   Ltd.,   pers.  
commun.)  
 
Rice   is   available   in   Australia   in   three   forms;   as   white   or   polished   rice   that   has   had   the  
bran  layer  removed  by  abrasive  milling,  as  brown  or  unpolished  rice  that  has  the  bran  
layer  retained  and  as  parboiled  rice  that  has  been  partially  cooked  with  the  bran  layer  
on  the  grain  and  after  drying,  the  bran  layer  removed  by  milling.  
 
This   paper   reports   on   a   laboratory   investigation   of   the   nutrient   composition   of   seven  
brands  of  Australian  commercially-­‐produced  rice,  including  white,  parboiled  and  brown  
rice,   available   in   retail   outlets   and   the   changes   in   the   levels   of   some   B-­‐vitamins   and  
minerals   during   cooking.     (Willis   R.   Palipane,   K.   Greenfield,   H.   1985   Composition   of  
Australian  foods  13  rice)  
 

Taxonomy  of  rice-­‐growing  areas  

 
       tropical  regions  
 
 
RICE  GROWING  
AREAS  
Spain  
 
.................  regions   ......................  
 
......................    
................  
 
Australia         ................  
 
                  ……………  
 
                      ……………  
 
 
 
 
 
   

  8  
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Unit  2:  Answer  Key  to  Exercises  

✪ ✪ Exercise  1:  Answer  

Stress   is   a   term   adopted   from   engineering   science   by   psychology   and   medicine.     Simply  
defined,   stress   in   engineering   means   force   upon   an   area.     As   so   many   forces   are   working  
upon  us  in  the  modern  age,  and  we  find  it  extremely  difficult  to  cope  under  so  much  stress,  
stress  is  called  the  "disease  of  civilization".    Phillip  Zimbardo  traces  four  interrelated  levels  at  
which   we   react   to   the   stresses   exerted   upon   us   from   our   environment.     The   four   are:   the  
emotional   level,   the   behavioural   level,   the   physiological   level,   and   the   cognitive   level.     The  
emotional  responses  to  stress  are  sadness,  depression,  anger,  irritation  and  frustration.    The  
behavioural   responses   to   stress   are   poor   concentration,   forgetfulness,   poor   interpersonal  
relations,   and   lowered   productivity.     The   physiological   responses   to   stress   consist   of   bodily  
tensions,  which  may  lead  to  headaches,  backaches,  stomach  ulcers,  high  blood  pressure,  and  
even  killer  diseases.    At  the  cognitive  level  one  may  respond  to  stress  by  losing  self-­‐esteem  
and  self-­‐confidence  which  leads  to  feelings  of  helplessness  and  hopelessness.    At  worst,  such  
a  stressed  person  may  even  end  up  committing  suicide.      
(adapted  from  Lily  de  Silva,  One  Foot  in  the  World,  Wheel  Publication,  1986)  
 
✪ ✪ Exercise  2:  Answer  
 
Energy   is   the   most   important   resource   of   modern   society:   without   power   to   work   our  
machines   and   give   us   heat   and   light   our   society   could   not   exist.     Until   half   way   through  
this  century  mankind  was  confident  that  the  world's  supply  of  fossilised  energy  would  last  
forever.    But  now  that  proposition  has  been  questioned  and  it  seems  that  our  supplies  of  
coal,   gas   and   oil   are   destined   to   run   out.     The   production   of   nuclear   energy   leaves   the  
producer   with   dangerous   waste   materials   to   dispose   of.     For   these   reasons   mankind   is  
investigating   alternative   sources   of   energy   and,   of   these,   solar   energy,   energy   collected  
from  the  sun  seems  the  most  promising.    This  assignment  will  explain  in  detail  how  solar  
energy  is  collected  for  the  generation  of  heat.    It  will  examine  the  design  and  use  of  low  
temperature,  medium  temperature  and  high  temperature  collectors.  
 
S  (Synonyms):     energy/power  
    solar/sun  
 
A  (Antonyms)   last  forever/run  out  
   

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✪ ✪ Exercise  3:  Answer  

 
   
General  term   Specific  terms  
   
energy   solar  (energy)  
   
  fossilised  (energy)  
   
  nuclear  (energy)  
   
collectors   low  temperature  
   
  medium  temperature  
   
  high  temperature  

 
✪ ✪ Exercise  4:  Answer  
 
    had  
    enjoyed  
 
 

✪ ✪ Exercise  5:  Answer  

 
   
Words   Relationship  between  each  word  and  "energy"  
related  to    
"energy"  
         
  Repetition   Synonym  or   General  or   Collocation  
Antonym   Specific  
         
resource     ✔  (S)      
         
power     ✔ (S)      
         
heat       ✔    
         
light       ✔    
         
fossilised       ✔    
energy  
         
coal       ✔    
         
gas       ✔    
         
oil       ✔    
 
   

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✪ ✪ Exercise  6:  Answer  

 
 
       tropical  regions  
 
 
RICE  GROWING  
AREAS  
Spain  
 
   temperate  irrigation   Italy  
     regions    
              California    
Murray  
 
Australia         Murrumbidgee  
 
                  Queensland  
 
                      WA  Ord  River  
 

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Cohesive  Writing  Module:  Unit  4.  Independent  Learning  Resources    
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Cohesive  Writing  Module:  Introduction  

Introduction  
 
In  this  module,  we  will  examine  elements  of  academic  writing  that  contribute  to  making  
a  piece  of  writing  cohesive.    When  you  are  writing  assignments  at  university  the  way  
that  you  link  your  ideas  logically  through  your  text  is  by  a  combination  of  grammatical  
and  vocabulary  systems.    Each  unit  of  this  module  will  investigate  aspects  of  a  system  
and  explain  how  to  develop  skills  in  applying  these  to  your  own  writing.  
 

Who  is  this  module  for?  

 
All  students  at  university  who  need  to  improve  their  knowledge  of  clearer  paragraph  
writing.  
 

What  does  this  module  cover?  

 
Unit  1   Paragraph  Structure  
Unit  2   Linking  Themes  within  Paragraphs  
Unit  3   Cohesion  in  Word  Choice  
Unit  4   Cohesion  through  Reference  
 

Exercises  
 
These  are  marked  with  the  icon  ✪  and  you  should  try  to  complete  them  before  
checking  your  work  in  the  Answer  Key,  marked  ✪✪.    
 

Answer  Key  to  all  Exercises  

 
This  can  be  found  at  the  end  of  the  Unit.  
 
   

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Cohesive  Writing  Module  

Unit  4:  Cohesion  through  Reference  
1.0   Introduction  
 
Reference  is  used  to  refer  to  things  in  your  writing  in  order  to  create  cohesion.    The  
main  types  of  reference  in  English,  and  examples  of  each  type,  are  shown  below.  
 

Objectives  of  Unit  4  

 
After  you  have  completed  this  unit  you  should  be  able  to:  
 
• recognise  the  words  that  are  used  as  reference  in  writing  
• understand  how  the  reference  system  makes  connections  in  writing  
• identify  the  types  of  problems  that  you  may  have  with  reference  
• develop  cohesiveness  in  your  writing  by  using  reference  effectively  

The reference system in English

(from Cohesion in English, Halliday & Hasan 1976)

 
        personal  pronouns   e.g.  I,  me,  she,  you,  we,  my,  mine,  his,  hers...  
               
 
                  near   this  
                    these  
                    here  
        demonstratives        
 
 
           reference                   far   that  
                    those  
                    there  
 
        comparatives  e.g.  another,  other,  
              similar,  better,  different  etc.  
 
 
        the  definite  article     the  

   

  2  
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✪  Exercise  1  
 
What   types   of   reference   (personal,   demonstrative,   comparative,   or   definite   article   the)  
are  the  reference  words  underlined  in  the  following  texts?  

Text  1  

1.   Poverty  is  generally  defined  as  deprivation  of  material  needs.  

2.   However,   the   term   ‘poverty’   can   also   apply   to   deprivation   in   other   circumstances,   such   as  
emotional  deprivation  in  young  children.  

3.   While  it  has  been  long  been  recognised  that  children  living  without  family  support  are  more  
at  risk,  increasingly  research  is  indicating  the  impact  of  emotional  deprivation.  

4.   This  is  particularly  so  in  regards  to  the  development  of  a  child’s  self-­‐esteem,  in  their  ability  to  
form  relationships  and  in  their  learning  capabilities.  

5.   Anecdotal   evidence   has   for   some   period   of   time   recognised   the   lack   of   self   worth   among  
orphans  who  have  spent  their  early  years  in  institutional  environments.  

6.   But   comparative,   longitudinal   case   studies   of   these   children   reaching   adulthood   have  
confirmed   that   their   ability   to   form   lasting   emotional   relationships   is   less   successful   than  
children  from  a  nuclear  family.  

7.   These  same  studies  also  took  into  account  comparative  learning  difficulties  encountered  by  
both  groups  and  found  that  those  without  family  support  and  consistent  emotional  input  had  
the  greater  difficulties.  

8.   Although   a   child   may   be   materially   well-­‐off,   if   they   are   denied   on-­‐going   emotional   support  
from  an  early  age  then  the  long  term  prognosis  is  of  emotional  impoverishment.  

Text  2  

1. In  addition,  methane  contributes  to  the  formation  of  ozone  in  the  troposphere,  which  is  
another  greenhouse  gas.      
2. Along  with  other  hydrocarbons  and  CO,  methane  can  be  proto  oxidised  in  the  presence  of  
oxides  of  nitrogens  to  form  ozone.  

Text  3  

1. Plants  acquire  their  energy  in  a  different  way,  although  many  details  of  the  process  are  
surprisingly  similar.      
 
✪✪ You  can  now  check  the  answers  in  the  Answer  Key  at  the  back  of  the  unit.  
   

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1.1   Reference  words  and  their  referents  

 
Not  only  do  we  need  to  know  what  kind  of  reference  is  involved,  but  we  also  need  to  
know  their  referents,  i.e.  what  the  reference  refers  to  and  where  the  original  
referent  can  be  found  in  the  text.    For  instance:  

Neutral  reference  the:  

 
  Poverty      is  generally  defined  as  deprivation  of  material  needs.  
 
  However,     the   term   ‘poverty’   can  also  apply  to  deprivation  in  other  circumstances,  such  as  
  emotional  deprivation  in  young  children.  
 

Comparative  reference  other:  

 
  Poverty  is  generally  defined  as      deprivation  of  material  needs.  
 
However,  the  term  ‘poverty’  can  also  apply  to  deprivation  in  other   circumstances,    such  as  
emotional  deprivation  in  young  children.  
 
The  reference  words  in  the  following  text  (Text  4)  are  in  bold  and  what  they  refer  to  has  
been  indicated  with  an  arrow.  
 

Text  4  
 
FINANCIAL  INFORMATION  is  a  vital  component  of  modern  civilisation.    MUCH  EFFORT  is  devoted  both  to  

producing   it   and   to   using   it.     Not   all   these   endeavours   are   fully   effective.     Sometimes   needed  

information   is   not   available.     Irrelevant   or   misleading   data   may   be   produced   and   even   acted  

upon.     To   master   the   problems   of   handling   financial   information   efficiently   it   is   desirable   to  

understand   SOME   BASIC   IDEAS   and   to   be   able   to   relate   them   to   the   acquisition   and   the   use   of  

financial   information.     Some   of   these   concepts,   such   as   those   of   `GOAL-­‐

SEEKING  ORGANISATIONS',   `SYSTEMS',   `MANAGEMENT',   `ECONOMIC  RESOURCE  ALLOCATION'  AND   `INFORMATION'  

are   discussed   in   this   chapter.     On   this   foundation   later   chapters   explore   the   processes   of  

producing   FINANCIAL   INFORMATION   and   the   ways   in   which   it   may   best   be   put   to   use.   (Source:  

Financial   information   systems   and   models,   (A.S.   Carrington   and   G.   Howitt,   Whitcombe   and  

Tombs,  1980).  

  4  
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Things  to  think  about    

 
• It  [as  in  it  is  desirable  in  line  4]  is  not  underlined  because  it  is  not  a  reference  
word.  It  does  not  refer  to  anything  inside  or  outside  the  text.  
• This  foundation  in  line  7  refers  to  the  whole  of  the  previous  sentence.  
• Notice  that  reference  may  point  backwards  or  forwards  in  the  text,  e.g.    
Backwards:  
FINANCIAL  INFORMATION  is  a  vital  component  of  modern  civilisation.    MUCH  EFFORT  is  devoted  both  
to  producing    
 
it  and  to  using  it.    

Forwards  
 
Some  of  these  concepts,  such  as  those  of    
 
{`GOAL-­‐SEEKING  ORGANISATIONS',  `SYSTEMS',  `MANAGEMENT',  `ECONOMIC  RESOURCE  ALLOCATION'  and  
`INFORMATION'}  are  discussed  in  this  chapter.  
 

✪  Exercise  2  
 
Use  arrows  to  show  what  the  bolded  reference  words  in  Text  5  refer  to.  
 
Financial   information   may   be   described   most   simply   as   the   representation   of   some   real  
phenomena   in   terms   of   money.     For   example   a   residential   property,   an   automobile   or   a   tape-­‐
recorder  may  be  described  in  terms  of  their  size,  type,  age,  technical  features  and  so  forth.    For  
some  purposes,  such  as  arranging  insurance  cover  or  negotiating  a  loan,  an  even  more  important  
aspect  than  these  might  be  the  value  of  the  property  or  machine  in  dollar  terms.    The  question  of  
how   to   best   assign   such   a   value   will   be   considered   in   subsequent   chapters.     The   point   to  
recognise  is  that  monetary  value  can  be  an  important  attribute  of  goods  or  property.    It  may  also  
be   a   useful   way   of   describing   various   activities,   for   example   the   size   of   sales   made   by   a  
supermarket  in  a  week  or  the  productive  output  of  a  factory  over  a  year.  
The  need  for  financial  information  arises  from  the  basic  human  problem  of  making  effective  use  
of   limited   resources.     Mankind,   collectively   and   individually,   has   many   goals,   often   intangible  
ones  such  as  happiness,  freedom,  social  acceptance  or  personal  fulfilment.    Pursuit  of  these  aims  
can  only  take  place  within  the  limits  set  by  the  availability  of  such  requirements  as  food,  clothing,  
shelter,  transportation,  medical  services,  entertainment  and  so  forth.    All  those  goods,  services,  
property  and  equipment,  which  in  a  modern  community  have  a  price  in  money  terms,  are  known  
as  ‘economic  resources’.    They  are  not  the  sole  or  even  the  most  important  concern  of  individual  

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men  and  women,  but  acquisition  and  appropriate  use  of  economic  resources  is  an  essential  basis  
for  most  personal  goal  attainment.    Since  there  are  competing  ways  in  which  a  person  can  use  
his   limited   funds   and   other   resources,   a   key   problem   arises.     This   is   the   decision   on   how   to  
spread  them  over  different  purposes  to  gain  the  greatest  benefit  or  satisfaction.    In  the  jargon  of  
economics,  this  is  the  problem  of  ‘resource  allocation’.  
 
✪ ✪ You  can  now  check  the  answers  in  the  Answer  Key  at  the  back  of  the  unit.  
 

1.2   Use  of  the  definite  article  the  

The  definite  article  the  is  not  as  important  in  linking  ideas  in  a  text  as  the  three  other  
kinds  of  reference  just  described  (i.e.  personal,  demonstrative  and  comparative).    
Nonetheless,  many  students  have  problems  in  using  the,  so  it  is  worthwhile  considering  
when  and  why  the  is  used.  
 
When  `the'  is  used  in  a  written  text  it  is  always  a  signal  to  the  reader  that  the  noun/noun  
group  which  `the'  is  attached  to  can  be  identified  by  the  reader  either  from  within  the  
text  itself  or  in  the  environment  outside  the  text  (either  the  immediate  situation  or  the  
cultural  environment).    The  following  diagram  shows  you  how  `the'  reference  works.  

the  reference  outside  the  text         the  reference  inside  the  text  
 
 
 
 
IDENTIFIED  THROUGH       IDENTIFIED  THROUGH     REFERS                        REFERS  
SITUATION       CULTURAL  ENVIRONMENT   FORWARD                            BACK  
 
 
e.g.  Mind  the  step.     e.g.  The  population   e.g.  I  saw  a  cat.  
               Pass  m e  the     of  Australia  is  22   The  cat  was  eating  
 
               Hammer.   million.   a  m ouse.  *  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  UNIQUE  REFERENCE       ONE  ITEM  REPRESENTS  A  WHOLE  CLASS  
 
 
e.g.  The  sun  is  shining.   e.g.  The  tiger  is  an  
  I  blame  the  government.   endangered  species.  #  
 
 
*  This  is  the  only  type  of  the  reference  which  is  cohesive.  
 #  The  is  used  here  generically  to  refer  to  the  class  of  tigers  as  a  whole.  
   

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Words  which  refer  to  abstract  things  tend  not  to  use  the  e.g.  education,  love  etc.  
However,  the  article  can  be  used  to  refer  to  specific  instances.  For  example,    

General  
Education  is….  
Education  in  Australia  is…  
Education  systems  are…  
Australian  Education  systems  are…  
The  Australian  education  system  is…  
The  education  system  in  Australia  is…  
Specific  
 

✪  Exercise  3  
 
Put  an  article  (either  ‘a’  or  ‘the’)  in  the  following  gaps,  where  necessary.  
 
(a)  For  example,  ______  classic  problem  suited  for  solving  by  ______  Linear  Programming  method  
is   that   of   ______   farmer   who   may   purchase   and   mix   one   or   more   of   several   types   of   grain   for  
cattle   feed,   each   containing   different   amounts   of   nutritional   elements   important   for   a   balanced  
diet.    ______  farmer  would  like  to  determine  ______  amount  of  each  type  of  grain  to  be  mixed.  
 
(b)   On   July   21,   1969   two   American   astronauts   stepped   onto   ______   moon,   and   were   able   to  
communicate  this  historic  occasion  to  ______  earth  through  both  radio  and  television  broadcasts.  
 
(c)   There   are   many   avocado   cultivars   but   all   belong   to______   three   major   national   types,  
previously   mentioned,   although   some   are   hybrids   of   two   types.     Table   2.2   shows   there   are   14  
varieties   of   avocado   cultivated   in   Australia   but   ______   major   commercial   varieties   are   Fuerte,  
Hass,  Sharwil  and  Bacon  (Alexander,  1978).  
 
(d)   Legal   Aid   provides   access   to   ______   law   for   many   people   who   would   otherwise   not   be   able   to  
afford  ______  lawyer  or  to  take  their  case  to  court.  
 
✪ ✪ You  can  now  check  the  answers  in  the  Answer  Key  at  the  back  of  the  unit.  
 

✪  Exercise  4  
 
Put  in  an  article  (either  'a'  or  'the')  ONLY  where  necessary  in  the  following  gaps.  
 
______  success  of  any  business  is  dependent  upon  its  ability  to  accurately  make  ______  decisions.    
______   decision-­‐making   process   is   certainly   not   new   to   ______   business   but   has   been   relevant  
since   ______   man   became   involved   in   ______   most   elementary   business   ventures.     Today,  
however,   with   ______   industrial   world   becoming   increasingly   more   competitive   and   complex,  
both   ______   accuracy   and   ______   speed   are   ______   necessary   prerequisites   to   ______   most  
aspects   of   ______   business   decision-­‐making.     ______   type   of   data   processed   by   ______  

  7  
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companies   varies   according   to   ______   nature   of   their   operations.     However,   every   business  
organization   is   concerned   with   ______   information   processing   and   ______   methods   needed   to  
guarantee  appropriate  action  by  ______  management.  

✪ ✪ You  can  now  check  the  answers  in  the  Answer  Key  at  the  back  of  the  unit.  

✪  Exercise  5  
Put  in  the  following  13  reference  words  in  the  appropriate  place  in  the  gaps  in  the  next  
paragraph.  
the,  this,  the,  those,  the,  this,  other,  it,  they,  this,  the,  their,  the.    

In   addition   to   allocation,   ownership   of   economic   resources   normally   involves   a   problem   of  

safeguarding   and   protecting   _________   resources   from   misuse   or   misappropriation.   _______  
becomes   particularly   important   when     ________   resources   are   entrusted   to   someone   _______  
than    _______  owner.    _________  may  occur  by  way  of  loan,  or  where  someone  is  employed  to  
manage     _________   owner's   affairs.     _________   also   arises   when   people   invest   some   of  
_________  funds  in  a  business  venture  which  ________  are  not  personally  conducting.  
 
Sound   decisions   regarding   resource   allocation   and   protection   often   depend   upon   _______  
availability   of   financial   information.     It   has   been   to   meet   _________   need   that   accounting   and  
some  associated  methods  of  producing  financial  information  have  evolved  and  _______  practice  
of  financial  management  has  developed.  

 
✪ ✪ You  can  now  check  the  answers  in  the  Answer  Key  at  the  back  of  the  unit.  

✪  Exercise  6  
 
Reference  can  be  used  to  diagnose  problems  in  writing.    Look  at  student  Text  6  below.      
• What  kinds  of  reference  words  are  used?      
• What  comparisons  can  you  make  between  the  use  of  reference  in  this  text  and  
the  reference  used  in  the  earlier  text  about  poverty  (Text  1  on  p.3)?  

Text  6  
1.   Poverty  is  a  major  concern  all  over  the  world.  
2.   A  number  of  years  ago,  poverty  was  mainly  related  to  third  world  countries.  
3.   And   one   would   think   of   the   starving   people   in   the   streets   of   India,   or   the   children   with  
swollen  bellies  in  Africa.  
4.   Today,  poverty  has  become  an  issue  in  the  Western  world  as  well.  
5.   There  are  different  grades  of  poverty.  
6.   It  all  depends  on  how  you  look  at  the  definition  of  poverty.  
7.   There  is  obvious  poverty.  

  8  
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8.   People  that  live  without  a  home,  

9.   and  find  their  food  in  bins.  
10.   But  there  is  also  poverty  that  is  less  obvious.  
11.   It  is  within  the  four  walls  of  a  house  of   of  someone  who  is  struggling  with  unemployment  or  
other  social  problems.  
 
✪ ✪ You  can  now  check  the  answers  in  the  Answer  Key  at  the  back  of  the  unit.  
 

2.0   Problems  with  Reference  

 
In  this  section  we  will  look  at  some  of  the  problems  created  when  the  reference  system  
is  not  used  correctly  and  give  you  some  practice  in  recognising  problems  and  using  
reference  appropriately.  
 

2.1   Problems  with  ambiguity  

 
Something  is  ‘ambiguous’  when  it  is  possible  for  us  to  give  it  more  than  one  meaning  and  
we  can’t  decide  between  one  meaning  and  another.    Pronouns  can  cause  many  problems  
in  this  area  as  the  following  sentence  illustrates:  
 
The  counsellor  told  her  she  needed  more  time  to  think  about  the  question.  
 
If  the  counsellor  is  a  man  and  we  know  this  from  elsewhere  in  the  text,  then  there  is  no  
problem  —  ‘her’  and  ‘she’  are  the  same  person.    If  the  counsellor  is  a  woman  then  there  
is  a  problem  and  the  sentence  must  be  changed  to  take  away  the  ambiguity,  for  example:  
 
The  counsellor  told  her  that,  as  a  counsellor,  she  needed  more  time  to  think  about  the  
question.  
 
It  is  now  clear  that  ‘she’  refers  to  the  counsellor.    The  other  possible  meaning  would  be  
written  like  this:  
 
The  counsellor  suggested  to  the  girl  that  she  think  about  the  question  at  greater  length.  
 
When  a  reader  encounters  an  ambiguous  situation,  they  look  back  in  the  text  to  the  
nearest  noun  group  to  try  to  find  who  or  what  the  reference  refers  to.    The  following  
examples  illustrate  this.      
 
Aborigines  experience  social,  economic,  nutritional  and  housing  underprivileges  that  cause  
medical  problems  beyond  those  of  the  general  community  (Saunders  1990:71).    There  is  
discouragement  of  Aborigines  from  visiting  them  except  for  serious  emergency  cases.  
 
1.   The  reader  can  see  that  those  refers  to  medical  problems  of  the  general  
community  (forward-­‐pointing  reference)  
2.       The  reader  then  asks:  ‘Who  or  what  does  them  refer  to?’  

  9  
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3.   To  answer  this,  the  reader  looks  back  to  the  nearest  noun,  which  is  Aborigines.    
‘Aborigines  visiting  themselves’  doesn’t  seem  to  make  sense.  
4.   The  reader  then  tries  each  of  the  other  noun  groups  —  general  community,  
medical  problems,  underprivileges  —none  of  which  seem  to  make  sense  either.  
 
In  this  case,  then,  the  writer  has  probably  left  something  out.    The  example  can  be  
rewritten  to  show  what  this  is:  
 
Aborigines  experience  social,  economic,  nutritional  and  housing  underprivileges  that  cause  
medical  problems  beyond  those  of  the  general  community  (Saunders  1990:71).    Even  though  
medical  facilities  such  as  hospitals  may  be  available,  there  is  discouragement  of  Aborigines  
from  visiting  them  except  for  serious  emergency  cases.  
 
It  is  now  clear  that  ‘them’  refers  to  ‘medical  facilities’.  

✪  Exercise  7  
 
Read  the  following  paragraph  and  work  through  the  above  steps  to  resolve  the  
ambiguity.  

The  importance  of  the  bed  and  bedding  of  the  patient  was  beginning  to  be  realised  in  
preventing  the  spread  of  disease.    If  the  bedding  and  bedclothes  were  not  changed  regularly,  
disease  could  be  harboured  within  it.  

✪ ✪ You  can  now  check  the  answers  in  the  Answer  Key  at  the  back  of  the  unit.  
 

2.2   Problems  with  naming  

 
Referring  words  can  also  be  used  to  refer  to  pieces  of  text  (not  just  noun  groups),  this  is  
called  ‘text  reference’.    When  referring  to  a  piece  of  text,  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  
also  give  it  a  name,  as  in  the  following  examples:  
 
1.   The  literature  strongly  suggests  that  cotton  gowns  offer  nothing  more  than  a  false  sense  of  
security  (Gill  and  Slater,  1991:  54).    This  statement  is  supported  by  a  recent  study  on  the  
most  economical  and  effective  protection.  
 
In  this  example,  the  writer  has  referred  to  the  underlined  piece  of  text  and  has  
appropriately  named  it  as  a  ‘statement’.    The  writer  is  then  able  to  use  this  statement  in  
the  next  part  of  his  argument  i.e.  the  statement  is  supported  by  a  recent  study.  
 
2.     When  the  Coalition  was  re-­‐elected  in  1969,  they  started  improving  the  Earle  Page  scheme  by  
increasing  the  level  of  subsidy  thus  making  provisions  for  low  income  earners  by  establishing  
fees  for  doctors.    These  new  improvements  were  approved  by  the  Australian  Medical  
Association  (AMA)  (Palmer  and  Short,  1989:  3).  
 
The  main  problem  that  writers  experience  with  text  reference  is  knowing  what  to  call  
the  piece  of  text  they  are  making  reference  to.    The  following  example  illustrates  this  
problem:  

  10  
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The  impact  of  poor  working  conditions  would  therefore  increase  the  medical  bill  as  illness  
develops;  however,  many  workers  simply  ignore  the  services  provided.    There  are  many  
reasons  why  this  is  so.    Firstly,  the  under-­‐employed,  experiencing  personal  and  social  crises  
such  as  poor  housing  and  strong  feelings  of  helplessness  may  find  it  difficult  to  improve  their  
health  either  because  the  services  provided  are  not  close  or  the  standards  of  the  services  
may  be  low.    Another  assumption  is  that  they  do  not  seek  help  for  stress-­‐related  illnesses  
because  they  are  considered  to  be  minor.  
 
The  writer  has  inappropriately  named  the  piece  of  text  an  ‘assumption’,  whereas  
previously  in  the  text  it  has  been  called  a  ‘reason’.    It  would  have  been  more  appropriate  
to  say:  
 
Another  reason  is  that  they  do  not  seek  help  for  ...  

✪  Exercise  8  
 
Put  the  most  appropriate  name  in  the  following  examples  (some  suggestions  are  
provided  for  you  to  choose  from  in  the  first  three  examples.)    Underline  the  piece  of  text  
being  referred  to.  
 
1.   In  examining  the  major  causes  of  illness  and  death  it  has  been  found  that  they  are  associated  
with  diet,  cigarette-­‐smoking  and  an  individual’s  country  of  origin.    Another  important  
*__________  is  the  hereditary  component  to  some  major  illnesses.  
 
  [*factor,  cause,  component]  
 
2.   Nightingale  travelled  to  the  continent  collecting  statistics  comparing  success  and  failure  rates  
and  it  was  through  these  *___________  that  she  became  an  expert  on  hospital  
administration.  
 
  [*means,  trips,  methods]  
 
3.   A  study  of  religious  groups,  particularly  Seventh  Day  Adventists  (SDA’s)  and  Mormons  
showed  that  members  of  such  groups  have  a  lifestyle  which  places  great  emphasis  upon  
family  and  friendship  networks  and  they  rarely  smoke  cigarettes  or  drink  alcohol.    Another  
*____________  of  this  study  was  they  limit  their  intake  of  stimulants.  
 
  [*aspect,  finding,  suggestion]  
 
4.   In  some  countries,  refugees  and  migrants  both  suffer  poor  health,  economic  hardship,  
communication  barriers  and  lack  of  knowledge  about  the  health  care  system.    All  
*___________  *___________  have  an  effect  on  their  overall  health  and  illness.  
 
5.   In  their  experiments,  Nordon  and  McMahon  placed  a  fine  copper  wire  in  a  fibre  bed,  and  
measured  its  heat  transfer  co-­‐efficient  by  passing  a  current  through  it.  *___________  
*____________  was  extremely  effective.  
 
✪ ✪ You  can  now  check  the  answers  in  the  Answer  Key  at  the  back  of  the  unit.  
   

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Cohesive  Writing  Module:  Unit  4.  Independent  Learning  Resources    
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Unit  4:  Answer  Key  to  Exercises  

✪ ✪ Exercise  1:  Answer  

Text  1  

1. Poverty  is  generally  defined  as  deprivation  of  material  needs.  

2.   However,   the   term   ‘poverty’   (DEFINITE)   can   also   apply   to   deprivation   in   other  
circumstances  (COMPARATIVE),  such  as  emotional  deprivation  in  young  children.  

3.   While   it   has   been   long   been   recognised   that   children   living   without   family   support   are  
more  at  risk,  increasingly  research  is  indicating  the  impact  of  emotional  deprivation.  

4.   This  (DEMONSTRATIVE:NEAR)  is  particularly  so  in  regards  to  the  development  of  a  child’s  
self-­‐esteem,   in   their   ability   to   form   relationships   (PERSONAL)   and   in   their   learning  
capabilities  (PERSONAL).  
5.   Anecdotal  evidence  has  for  some  period  of  time  recognised  the  lack  of  self  worth  among  
orphans  who  have  spent  their  early  years  in  institutional  environments  (PERSONAL).  
6.   But   comparative,   longitudinal   case   studies   of   these   children   reaching   adulthood  
(DEMONSTRATIVE:   NEAR)   have   confirmed   that   their   ability   to   form   lasting   emotional  
relationships  (PERSONAL)  is  less  successful  than  children  from  a  nuclear  family.  
7.   These   (DEMONSTRATIVE:   NEAR)   same   studies   (COMPARATIVE)   also   took   into   account  
comparative   learning   difficulties   encountered   by   both   groups   and   found   that   those  
without  family  support  and  consistent  emotional  input  (DEMONSTRATIVE:  FAR)    had  the  
greater  difficulties.  
8.   Although   a   child   may   be   materially   well-­‐off,   if   they   (PERSONAL)   are   denied   on-­‐going  
emotional   support   from   an   early   age   then   the   long   term   prognosis   is   of   emotional  
impoverishment.  

Text  2  
 
1. In  addition,  methane  contributes  to  the  formation  of  ozone  in  the  troposphere,  which  is  
another  greenhouse  gas  (COMPARATIVE).      

2. Along  with  other  hydrocarbons  and  CO,  methane  (COMPARATIVE)  can  be  proto  oxidised  in  the  
presence  of  oxides  of  nitrogens  to  form  ozone.  
 

Text  3  

1.   Plants  acquire  their  energy  in  a  different  way  (COMPARATIVE),  although  many  details  of  the  
process  are  surprisingly  similar  (COMPARATIVE).      

  12  
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✪ ✪ Exercise  2:  Answer  

 
NB:  Referents  are  underlined  and  in  capitals  for  reference  words  in  bold.  
Financial   information   may   be   described   most   simply   as   the   representation   of   some   real  
phenomena  in  terms  of  money.    For  example  A  RESIDENTIAL  PROPERTY,  AN  AUTOMOBILE  or  A  
TAPE-­‐RECORDER   may   be   described   in   terms   of   their   size,   type,   age,   technical   features   and   so  
forth.    For  some  purposes,  such  as  arranging  insurance  cover  or  negotiating  a  loan,  an  even  more  
important   aspect   than   these   might   be   the   value   of   the   property   or   machine   in   dollar   terms.     The  
question  of  how  to  best  assign  such  a  value  will  be  considered  in  subsequent  chapters.    The  point  
to   recognise   is   that   MONETARY   VALUE   can   be   an   important   attribute   of   goods   or   property.     It  
may   also   be   a   useful   way   of   describing   various   activities,   for   example   the   size   of   sales   made   by   a  
supermarket  in  a  week  or  the  productive  output  of  a  factory  over  a  year.  
The  need  for  financial  information  arises  from  the  basic  human  problem  of  making  effective  use  
of   limited   resources.     Mankind,   collectively   and   individually,   has   many   GOALS,   OFTEN  
INTANGIBLE   ONES,   SUCH   AS   HAPPINESS,   FREEDOM,   SOCIAL   ACCEPTANCE   OR   PERSONAL  
FULFILMENT.     Pursuit   of   these   aims   can   only   take   place   within   the   limits   set   by   the   availability   of  
such  requirements  as  food,  clothing,  shelter,  transportation,  medical  services,  entertainment  and  
so   forth.     All   those   GOODS,   SERVICES,   PROPERTY   AND   EQUIPMENT,   which   in   a   modern  
community  have  a  price  in  money  terms,  are  known  as  ‘ECONOMIC   RESOURCES’.    They  are  not  
the  sole  or  even  the  most  important  concern  of  individual  men  and  women,  but  acquisition  and  
appropriate  use  of  economic  resources  is  an  essential  basis  for  most  personal  goal  attainment.    
Since   there   are   competing   ways   in   which   A   PERSON   can   use   his   LIMITED   FUNDS   and   other  
resources,  A  KEY  PROBLEM  arises.    This  is  the  decision  on  how  to  spread  them  (LIMITED  FUNDS  
AND  OTHER  RESOURCES)  over  different  purposes  to  gain  the  greatest  benefit  or  satisfaction.    In  
the  jargon  of  economics,  this  (refers  to  previous  sentence  and  back  to  ‘problem’)  is  the  problem  
of  ‘resource  allocation’.  
 

✪ ✪ Exercise  3:  Answer  

 
(a)  For  example,  a   (or   the)  classic  problem  suited  for  solving  by  the  Linear  Programming  method  is  
that   of   a   (or   the)   farmer   who   may   purchase   and   mix   one   or   more   of   several   types   of   grain   for  
cattle   feed,   each   containing   different   amounts   of   nutritional   elements   important   for   a   balanced  
diet.    The  farmer  would  like  to  determine  the  amount  of  each  type  of  grain  to  be  mixed.  
 
(b)   On   July   21,   1969   two   American   astronauts   stepped   onto   the   moon,   and   were   able   to  
communicate  this  historic  occasion  to  the  earth  through  both  radio  and  television  broadcasts.  
 
(c)  There  are  many  avocado  cultivars  but  all  belong  to  the  three  major  national  types,  previously  
mentioned,   although   some   are   hybrids   of   two   types.     Table   2.2   shows   there   are   14   varieties   of  
avocado  cultivated  in  Australia  but  the  major  commercial  varieties  are  Fuerte,  Hass,  Sharwil  and  

  13  
Cohesive  Writing  Module:  Unit  4.  Independent  Learning  Resources    
©  Learning  Centre  University  of  Sydney.  This  Unit  may  be  copied  for  individual  student  use.    

Bacon  (Alexander,  1978).  

 
(d)   Legal   Aid   provides   access   to   the   law   for   many   people   who   would   otherwise   not   be   able   to  
afford  a  lawyer  or  to  take  their  case  to  court.  

✪ ✪ Exercise  4:  Answer  

 
The   success   of   any   business   is   dependent   upon   its   ability   to   accurately   make      decisions.     The  
decision-­‐making  process  is  certainly  not  new  to    business  but  has  been  relevant  since    man  
became  involved  in  the  most  elementary  business  ventures.    Today,  however,  with  the  industrial  
world  becoming  increasingly  more  competitive  and  complex,  both    accuracy  and    speed  are  
the  necessary  prerequisites  to    most  aspects  of    business  decision-­‐making.    The  type  of  data  
processed   by      companies   varies   according   to   the   nature   of   their   operations.     However,   every  
business   organization   is   concerned   with      information   processing   and   the   methods   needed   to  
guarantee  appropriate  action  by  the  management.  
 

✪ ✪ Exercise  5:  Answer  

 
In   addition   to   allocation,   ownership   of   economic   resources   normally   involves   a   problem   of  
safeguarding   and   protecting   the   resources   from   misuse   or   misappropriation.     This   becomes  
particularly   important   when   the   resources   are   entrusted   to   someone   other   than   the   owner.     This  
may  occur  by  way  of  loan,  or  where  someone  is  employed  to  manage  the  owner's  affairs.    It  also  
arises  when  people  invest  some  of  their  funds  in  a  business  venture  which  they  are  not  personally  
conducting.  
 
Sound  decisions  regarding  resource  allocation  and  protection  often  depend  upon  the  availability  
of   financial   information.     It   has   been   to   meet   this   need   that   accounting   and   some   associated  
methods   of   producing   financial   information   have   evolved   and   the   practice   of   financial  
management  has  developed.  

✪ ✪ Exercise  6:  Answer  

 

Text  6  
 
1.   Poverty  is  a  major  concern  all  over  the  world.  (DEFINITE:  CULTURAL)  
2.   A  number  of  years  ago,  poverty  was  mainly  related  to  third  world  countries.  
3.   And  one  would  think  of  the  starving  people  in  the  streets  of  India,  (DEFINITE:  FORWARD)  or  
the  children  with  swollen  bellies  in  Africa.  (DEFINITE:  FORWARD)  

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Cohesive  Writing  Module:  Unit  4.  Independent  Learning  Resources    
©  Learning  Centre  University  of  Sydney.  This  Unit  may  be  copied  for  individual  student  use.    

4.   Today,  poverty  has  become  an  issue  in  the  Western  World  as  well.  (DEFINITE:  CULTURAL)  
5.   There  are  different  grades  of  poverty.  
6.   It  all  depends  on  how  you  look  at  the  definition  of  poverty.  (DEFINITE:  FORWARD)  
7.   There  is  obvious  poverty.  
8.   People  that  live  without  a  home,  
9.   and  [who]  find  their  food  in  bins.  (PERSONAL)  
10.   But  there  is  also  poverty  that  is  less  obvious.  
11.   It  (PERSONAL)  is  within  the  four  walls  of  a  house  of  someone  who  is  struggling  with  
unemployment  or  other  social  problems.  (DEFINITE:  FORWARD)  
 

General  comment  
 
The  main  form  of  reference  used  in  this  student  text  is  the  definite  article  the,  which  is  
either  forward  pointing  or  refers  the  reader  to  shared  cultural  knowledge.    However  
these  uses  of  the  definite  article  do  not  pick  up  previously  mentioned  ideas  so  there  are  
no  strong  referential  links  being  made  between  parts  of  the  paragraph.    The  only  real  
reference  is  the  use  of  the  personal  pronoun  their  in  9  and  the  dubious  use  of  it  to  pick  
up  on  the  idea  of  less  obvious  poverty  in  11.    The  writer  makes  no  use  of  demonstrative  
or  comparative  reference  to  relate,  condense  or  compare  ideas  in  the  text,  as  in  Text  1.      
 

✪ ✪ Exercise  7:  Answer  

 
The   importance   of   the   bed   and   bedding   of   the   patient   was   beginning   to   be   realised   in  
preventing  the  spread  of  disease.    If  the  bedding  and  bedclothes  were  not  changed  regularly,  
disease  could  be  harboured  within  it.  
 
The  relevant  reference  is  ‘it’.  The  nearest  noun  group  is  “disease”  but  this  doesn’t  make  
sense  so  it  is  likely  that  ‘it’  refers  to  either  bedding  or  bedclothes  (it  can’t  be  both  or  the  
reference  word  would  need  to  be  plural,  i.e.  ‘them’).      

The  importance  of  the  bed  and  bedding  of  the  patient  was  beginning  to  be  realised  in  preventing  the  
spread  of  disease.    Disease  could  be  harboured  within  the  bedding  and  bedclothes  if  they  were  not  
changed  regularly.  
 

✪ ✪ Exercise  8:  Answer  

 
1.   cause  
2.   trips  
3.   finding  
4.   these  factors  
5.   this  method  

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