UNIT I

Sensors and Measurements

Basics of Measurement – Classification of errors – Error analysis – Static
and dynamic characteristics of transducers – Performance measures of
sensors – Classification of sensors – Sensor calibration techniques –
Sensor Output Signal Types.
 MEASUREMENT
• Measurement is a comparison of an unknown quantity with a known
fixed quantity of the same kind.
• The value obtained on measuring a quantity is called its magnitude.
• The magnitude of a quantity is expressed as numbers in its unit.
 METHODS OF MEASUREMENT

Direct Measurement Indirect Measurement

The value of the physical The value of the physical
parameter is determined by parameter is more generally
comparing it directly with determined by indirect comparison
different standards. with the secondary standards
Eg: Mass, length and time through calibration.
Eg: Gauge Block

Measurement is performed using the

scale of the measuring instrument. Comparison with the reference device
 TYPES OF MEASUREMENT

• Based upon the complexity of the measurement systems, the

measurement is generally grouped into three categories.
Primary measurement:
The sought value of physical parameter is determined by comparing it
directly with reference standards the required information is obtained to
sense of side and touch.
Example: Matching of two lengths is determining the length of a object
with ruler.
Secondary & Tertiary Measurement:
• The indirect measurements involving one transmission are called secondary
measurements.
• The indirect measurements involving two convergent are called tertiary
measurements.
Examples:
a) The convergent of pressure into displacement by means of be allows and the
convergent of force into displacement.
b) Pressure measurement by manometer and the temperature measurement by
mercury in glass tube thermometer.
c) The measurement of static pressure by boundary tube pressure gauge is a
typical example of tertiary measurement.
 Contact And Non-contact Type Of Measurements

Contact type:
Where the sensing element of measuring device as a contact with
medium whose characteristics are being measured.
Non-contact type:
Where the sense doesn't communicate physically with the medium.
Example:
• The optical, radioactive and some of the electrical/electronic
measurement belong to this category.
Error
Error is the difference between the result of the measurement and the
true value of the quantity being measured.
Error = measured value – true value
For example, measurement system gives a temperature reading of 50℃ ,
but the actual reading is 49 ℃, then the error is +1℃ (50℃ – 49℃). If
the actual reading is 52 ℃ , then the error is -2℃ (50℃ – 52℃). The
error can obtain in both positive and negative values.
 Types of Errors
1. Gross Errors
• Human mistakes in reading instruments and recording and calculating
measurement result.
2. Systematic Errors
These type of errors are divided into three categories.
3. Random Errors
• The causes of such errors is unknown (or) not determinable in the
ordinary process making measurements.
a. Certain human errors
b. Errors caused due to the disturbances to the equipment’s
c. Errors caused by fluctuating experimental conditions.
Range and Span
The range of a transducer defines the limits between which the input can
vary on the working.
The Span is the difference between the maximum value and the minimum
value.
For example, a load cell for the measurement of forces might have a range
of 0 to 50kN and its span is 50kN (50 kN – 0 kN = 50kN).
Accuracy:
It is the degree of closeness of readings from an instrument to the true
value. Always accuracy is measured relative to the true value or actual
value.
Precision:
It is the degree of closeness of reading with the previous reading. An
instrument is said to be precise when there is negligible difference
between successive readings.
Sensitivity:
It refers to the least change in measured value to which instrument or
device responds. The ratio of change in the output of an instrument to a
change in the value of the quantity to be measured is known as sensitivity.
Linearity:
The linearity is defined as the ability to give the input characteristics
symmetrically and linearly (Straight line). In other words, the ability to
measure maximum deviation from the ideal linear line. Instruments are
said to be linear when there is an increment in input and output are
constant over the specified range.
Resolution:
It refers to a small change in input value does not affect the output value of
an instrument. This continues until both the increment value and output
value exceed the threshold value. This increment is called a resolution.
Repeatability:
It defines how consistent is the output of an instrument for the same input
tried again and again under the same conditions.
Reproducibility:
It defines how consistent is the output of an instrument for the same input
tried again and again under different conditions.
Stability:
Stability of a transducer is the performance of a transducer which will give
the same output when used to measure the same input for a period of time.
Drift:
The term drift is used to describe the change in output for a given period of
time for the same input.
Dead Band/Zone:
The dead band of a transducer is the range of input values in the system for
which there will be no output.
Hysteresis
Hysteresis is a phenomenon that defines various effects of output during
loading and unloading.
Generally, an instrument may indicate one set of output values for
increasing input values of an instrument,
It may indicate a different set of output values for the decreasing input
values of an instrument.
The maximum variation is observed at 50% of the full scale for
increasing and decreasing inputs.
Dynamic Error
Dynamic Error is the variation between the true values of a measurable quantity to
the values indicated by the measuring instrument which are affected by operating
conditions.
Response Speed
Response Speed is defined as the rapidity of the instrument to responds to the
changes in the measuring variable. It indicates how active and fast the system is.
Fidelity
Fidelity is defined as the degree to which a measuring instrument reproduces
change in input faithfully without any dynamic error
Measuring Lag
The lag time is taken by the system to respond, since every instrument takes
at least some time to respond, whatever time it may be to the changes in the
measured variable.
Retardation Lag
The response of the measurement begins immediately after the change in
measured quantity has occurred.
Time Delay Lag
In this case, after the application of input, the response of the measurement
system begins with some dead times.
Transducer:
A transducer is a device that converts one type of energy to another. The
conversion can be to/from electrical, electro-mechanical, electromagnetic,
photonic, photovoltaic, or any other form of energy. While the term transducer
commonly implies use as a sensor/detector, any device which converts energy
can be considered a transducer. Transducers may be categorized by
application: Sensor, actuator, or combination
Sensor:
A sensor is a device that measures a physical quantity and converts it into a
signal which can be read by an observer or by an instrument. For example, a
mercury-in- glass thermometer converts the measured temperature into
expansion and contraction of a liquid which can be read on a calibrated glass
tube. A thermocouple converts temperature to an output voltage which can be
read by a voltmeter. For accuracy, all sensors need to be calibrated against
known standards.
 Classification of Sensors

• Displacement sensors are concerned with the measurement of amount

by which some object has moved.
• Position sensors are concerned with the determination of the position
of some object with reference to some reference point.
• Proximity sensors are a form of position sensors. They are used to
determine when an object has moved to within some particular critical
distance of the sensor.
• When selecting these sensors its essential to care of :
-The size of displacement -Nature of the displacement - Cost
-The required resolution & accuracy -The material of the measured
object
What is Sensor Calibration?
Sensors are electronic devices. They are sensitive to the changes in their working environment. Undesirable
and sudden changes in the working environments of the sensors give undesired output values. Thus, the
expected output differs from the measured output. This comparison between the Expected output and
measured output is called Sensor Calibration.

Why Calibration?
How Do We Calibrate?

Standard Reference Method

Here the sensor output is compared with a standard physical reference to know the
error in some sensors. Examples of sensor calibration are rulers and meter sticks,
For temperature sensors- Boiling water at 100C, Triple point of water, For
Accelerometers- ”gravity is constant 1G on the surface of the earth”.
The Characteristic Curve
 Types of Calibration Methods
1. One point calibration
This method is used to correct the sensor offset errors when accurate measurement
of only a single level is required and the sensor is linear. Temperature sensors are
usually one point calibrated.
2. Two-point calibration
It is used to correct both slope and off-set errors. This calibration is used in the cases
when the sensor we know that the sensor output is reasonably linear over a
measurement range. Here two reference values are needed- reference High,
reference Low.
3. Multi-point Curve fitting:
This is used for sensors that are not linear over the measurement range and require
some curve-fitting to get the accurate measurements. Multi-point curve fitting is
usually done for thermocouples when used in extremely hot or extremely cold
conditions.