Electric Potential and Capacitors MODULE - 5

Electricity and
Magnetism

16
Notes

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AND

CAPACITORS

In modules 2 and 3, you learnt about the direction of flow of fluids and thermal
energy. You may recall that the level of water in a container determines the direction
in which it flows. If the level of water in one container is higher than that in the
other, water will flow from higher level to lower level, irrespective of the quantity
of water in the containers. Temperature plays a similar role in case of flow of
thermal energy from one object to another. Thermal energy always flows from a
body at higher temperature to the one at lower temperature. Here also, the direction
of flow does not depend on the quantity of thermal energy possessed by an object.
Electric potential plays a similar role in the flow of charges from one point to
another. The positive charge always moves from a point at higher potential to a
point at lower potential. A positive test charge, when left free in an electric field,
moves in the direction of the electric field. From this behaviour of a positive test
charge, you may be tempted to say that the electric field (E) and electric potential
(V) are closely related. In this lesson, you will learn to establish a relation between
these physical quantities. You will also learn about a device called capacitor,
which is used to store charge, filter alternating current and finds wide applications
in electronic circuitory as well as power transmission.

OBJECTIVES
After studying this lesson, you should be able to :
z explain the meaning of electric potential at a point and potential difference;
z derive expressions for electric potential due to a point charge and a dipole;
z explain the principle of capacitors and state their applications;
z derive an expression for the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor;
z obtain equivalent capacitance in grouping of capacitors;

PHYSICS 33
MODULE - 5 Electric Potential and Capacitors

Electricity and
Magnetism z calculate the energy stored in a capacitor; and
z explain polarization of dielectric materials in an electric field.16.1

16.1 LECTRIC POTENTIAL AND POTENTIAL

DIFFERENCE
Notes When a charged particle is made to move in an electrostatic field in a direction
opposite to the direction of the field, work is done by an external agency. This
work is stored as potential energy of charge in accordance with the law of
conservation of energy. So, we can say that an electric charge placed at a point in
an electric field has potential energy, which is a function of its position. We can
visualize the potential energy of charge in the field as a scalar function of position
and for a unit charge call it potential. It means that different points in an electric
field would be at different potentials. And if a positively charged particle is placed
in an electric field, it will tend to move from higher to lower potential to minimize
its potential energy. In the next lesson, you will learn how the concept of potential
difference leads to flow of current in electric circuits.
The electric potential at any point in an electric field is equal to the work done
against the electric force in moving a unit positive charge from outside the electric
field to that point. Electric potential is a scalar quantity, as it is related to work
done.
Alessandro, Conte Volta (1745-1827)
Born at Como, Italy, Volta was a professor at Pavia for more
than 20 years. A well travelled man, he was known to many
famous men of his times. He decisively proved that animal
electricity observed by Luigi Galvani in frog muscles was a
general phenomenon taking place between two dissimilar
metals seperated by acidic or salt solutions. On the basis of
this observation, he invented first electro-chemical cell, called
voltaic cell. The unit of potential difference is named volt in his honour.

The potential at a point is taken positive when work is done against the field by a
positive charge but negative when work is done by the electric field in moving the
unit positive charge from infinity to the point in the field.
Consider two points A and B in an electric field (Fig. 16.1). If a test charge q0 is
moved from point A to point B along any path by an external force, the amount of
work done by the external force is given by
WAB = q0 (VB – VA) (16.1)
Thus, potential difference between points A and B will be
WAB
VAB = VB – VA = q (16.2)
0

Here VA and VB are potentials at points A and B, respectively.

34 PHYSICS
Electric Potential and Capacitors MODULE - 5
Electricity and
A potential difference is said to exist between Magnetism
two points in an electric field, if work is done
against the electric force in moving a positive
test charge from one point to the other. Note
that this work is independent of the path. (For
this reason, the electric field is said to be a
conservative field). The SI unit of potential and
potential difference is volt : Fig. 16.1 : The work done in moving Notes
a test charge from one
1 volt = 1 joule/1 coulomb point to another in
an electric field is
independent of the path
If one joule of work is done in taking a test charge
followed.
of one coulomb from one point to the other in an
electric field, the potential difference between
these points is said to be one volt. If one joule of work is done in bringing a test
charge of one coulomb from infinity to a point in the field, the potential at that
point is one volt.
Note that potential at a point is not a unique quantity as its value depends on our
choice of zero potential energy (infinity). However, the potential difference
between two points in a stationary field will have a unique value. Let us now
learn to calculate potential at a point due to a single charge.

16.1.1 Potential at a point due to a Point Charge

Suppose we have to calculate electric potential at point P due to a single point
charge +q situated at O (Fig. 16.2), where OP = r. The magnitude of electric
field at P due to the point charge is given by

1 q
Ep = 4πε × 2 (16.3)
0 r

Fig. 16.2 : Work done per unit charge in moving a charge q0 from infinity to a point P in an
electric field E is the potential at that point.

PHYSICS 35
MODULE - 5 Electric Potential and Capacitors

Electricity and
Magnetism Similarly, the electric field at point A will be

1 q
EA = 4πε r 2 (16.4)
0 A

If points P and A are very close, the average field EAP between these points can be
taken as the geometric mean of EP and EA :
Notes
EAP = EA × E p

1 q 1 q
= ×
4πεo rA 4πεo r 2
2

1 q
= 4πε r r (16.5)
0 A

Therefore, the magnitude of force experienced by a test charge q0over this region
will be

1 q q0
FAP = qo EAP = (16.6)
4πε0 rA r

and the work done in moving charge q0 from A to P is given by

WAP = FAP × rAP

1 q qo
= × (rA – r)
4πε0 rA r

q q0 ⎛1 1 ⎞
= ×⎜ – ⎟ (16.7)
4πε 0 ⎝ r rA ⎠

where rAP is the distance between points A and P.

Similarly, work done in moving this charge from B to A will be given by
q q0 ⎛1 1⎞
WBA = ×⎜ – ⎟ (16.8a)
4πε 0 ⎝ rA rB ⎠

And work done in moving the test charge from C to B will be

q q0 ⎛1 1⎞
WCB = × ⎜r – r ⎟ (16.8b)
4πε 0 ⎝ B C ⎠

and so on. The total work done in moving the charge from infinity to the point P
will be

36 PHYSICS
Electric Potential and Capacitors MODULE - 5
Electricity and
q q0 ⎛1 1 1 1 1 1 1⎞ Magnetism
W = × ⎜ – + – + – ... + ... – ⎟
4πε 0 ⎝ r rA rA rB rB rC ∞⎠

q q0 ⎛1 1 ⎞
= ×⎜ – ⎟
4πε 0 ⎝r ∞⎠

q q0 Notes
= (16.9)
4πε 0 r

By definition, potential at a point is given by

W
VP =
q0

1 q
= (16.10)
4πε 0 r

Note that potential is inversely proportional

to distance. It is positive or negative
depending on whether q is positive or
negative.
If there are several charges of magnitudes
q1, q2, q3,…, the electric potential at a point
is the scalar sum of the potentials due to
individual charges (Fig.16.3) :
V = V1 + V2 + V3+... Fig. 16.3 : Potential at a point P due to a
∞
qi system of charges
= ∑
i =1 4πε 0 ri (16.11)

16.1.2 Potential at a Point due to an Electric Dipole

Let us consider an electric dipole consisting of two equal and opposite point
charges – q at A and +q at B, separated by a distance 2l with centre at O. We wish
to calculate potential at a point P, whose polar co-ordinates are (r,θ); i.e. OP = r
and ∠BOP = θ, as shown in Fig. 16.4. Here AP = r1 and BP = r2. We can easily
calculate potential as P due to point charges at A and B using Eqn.(16.10) :

1 (– q)
V1 = × r
4πε0 1

and
1 q
V2 = ×
4πε0 r2

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MODULE - 5 Electric Potential and Capacitors

Electricity and
Magnetism Total potential at P due to both the charges of the dipole is given by
V = V1 + V2
That is,

q ⎡1 1⎤
V = 4πε ⎢ r – r ⎥ (16.12)
0 ⎣ 2 1⎦
Notes
To put this result in a more convenient form, we draw normals from A and B on
the line joining O and P. From Δ BOD, we note that OD = l cos θ and from Δ
OAC we can write OC = l cos θ. For a small dipole (AB<<OP), from Fig. 16.4,
we can take PB = PD and PA = PC . Hence
r1 = r + l cos θ
r2 = r – l cos θ
Using these results in Eqn (16.12), we get

q ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
V = ⎢ (r - l cos θ) − (r + l cos θ) ⎥
4πε0 ⎣ ⎦

q ⎡ (2l cos θ) ⎤
= ⎢ 2 2 ⎥
4πε0 ⎣ (r -l cos θ) ⎦
2

q × 2l cos θ
=
4πε0 r 2
Fig. 16.4 : Electric potential at
a point P due to an
where we have neglected the term containing second
electric dipole. power of l since l<<r.
In terms of dipole moment (p = q × 2l ), we can express this result as

p cos θ
V= (16.13)
4πε0 r 2

This result shows that unlike the potential due to a point charge, the potential due
to a dipole is inversely proportional to the square of the distance.
Let us now consider its special cases.
Special Cases
Case I : When point P lies on the axial line of the dipole on the side of positive
charge, θ = 0 and cos θ =1. Then Eqn. (16.13) reduces to
p
VAXIS = (16.14)
4πε 0 r 2

38 PHYSICS
Electric Potential and Capacitors MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Case II : When point P lies on the axial line of the dipole but on the side of Magnetism
negative charge, θ = 180º and cos θ = –1. Hence
p
VAXIS = – (16.15)
4πε 0 r 2
Case III : When point P lies on the equatorial line of the dipole (perpendicular
bisector of AB), θ = 90º and cos θ = 0. Then
Notes
Vequatorial = 0 (16.16)

That is, electric potential due to a dipole is zero at every point on the equatorial
line of the dipole. When a dipole is kept in 3D space, the equatorial line will lie in
the plane of the paper. The potential at all points in this plane will be same, i.e.
zero. Such a surface is referred to as equipotential surface.The electric field is
always perpendicular to an equipotential surface. No work is done in moving a
charge from one point to another on the equipotential surface.

(a) Spherical equipotential surface (b) Plane equipotential surface

Fig. 16.5 : Equipotential surfaces and electric field directions

16.1.3 Potential Energy of a System of Point Charges

The electric potential energy is the energy
possessed by a system of point charges by
virtue of their being in an electric field.
When charges are infinite distance apart,
they do not interact and their potential
energy is zero. If we want to assemble a
charge system, i.e. bring charges near each
other, work will have to be done. This
work is stored in the form of potential
energy in the system of these charges. This
is called the electric potential energy of
the charge system. Hence, we can define
potential energy of a system of point
charges as the total amount of work done Fig. 16.6 : Potential energy of a system of
in bringing various point charges of the point charges separated by a
system to their respective positions from distance
infinitely large mutual separations.
PHYSICS 39
MODULE - 5 Electric Potential and Capacitors

Electricity and
Magnetism Suppose that a point charge q1 is located at a point P1 with position vector r1 in
space. Assume that point charge q2 is at infinity. This is to be brought to the point
P2 having position vector r2 where P1P2 = r12, as shown in Fig. 16.6. We know
that electric potential at P2 due to charge q1 at P1 is

1 q1
V2 = (16.17)
4πε0 | r12 |
Notes
From the definition of potential, work done in bringing charge q2 from infinity to
point P2 is
W = (Potential at P2) × value of charge
This work is stored in the system of charges q1 and q2 in the form of electric
potential energy U. Thus,

q1 × q2
U = 4πε | r | (16.18)
0 12

In case the two charges have same sign, work is done against the repulsive force
to bring them closer and hence, electric potential energy of the system increases.
On the other hand, in separating them from one another, work is done by the
field. As a result, potential energy of the system decreases. If charges are of
opposite sign, i.e. one is positive and the other is negative, the potential energy of
the charge system decreases in bringing the charges closer and increases in
separating them from one another.
For a three point charge system (Fig. 16.6), Eqn. (16.18) can be written as

1 ⎛ q1q2 + q1q3 + q2 q3 ⎞
U = ⎜ ⎟ (16.19)
4πε0 ⎝ r12 r13 r23 ⎠

Proceeding in the same way, we can calculate the potential energy of a system of
any number of charges.
By combining Eqns. (16.3) and (16.13), the potential energy of a dipole in a
uniform electric field can be written as
Uθ = – pE cosθ = – p.E (16.20)
where p is the dipole moment in electric field E and θ is the angle between p and
E.

16.2 RELATION BETWEEN ELECTRIC FIELD AND

POTENTIAL
Consider two points A and B in a uniform electric field E, separated by a small
distance Δr. By definition, potential difference ΔV between A and B is equal to the
work done in moving a unit positive test charge from A to B:

40 PHYSICS
Electric Potential and Capacitors MODULE - 5
Electricity and
ΔV = (Force on unit positive charge) × (AB) Magnetism
= E. Δr = E(Δr) cos 180O
= – E Δr

ΔV
or E =–
Δr
(16.21)
The negative sign indicates that work is done against the electric field. Notes
Hence, at any point, the electric field is equal to negative rate of change of potential
with distance (called potential gradient) at that point in the direction of field.
Remember that electric potential is a scalar quantity but electric potential gradient
is a vector as it is numerically equal to electric field.
From the above relation, for a uniform electric field, we can write
VA − VB
E = (16.22)
d
Here VA and VB are potentials at points A and B, respectively separated by a
distance d.

Example 16.1 : In a 10 volt battery, how much work is done when a positively
charged particle having charge 1.6 × 10 –19 C is moved from its negative terminal
to the positive terminal?
Solution : According to Eqn. (16.2)
VAB = WAB / qO
Since VAB= 10 V and q0 = 1.6 × 10–19 C, we get
WAB = (10V) × (1.6 × 10–19C)
= 1.6 × 10–18 J
Example 16.2 : A point charge q is at the origin of Cartesian co-ordinate system.
The electric potential is 400 V and the magnitude of electric field is 150 N C–1 at
a point x. Calculate x and q.
Solution : The electric field
V
E =
x
On inserting the numerical values, we get
400
150 =
x
or x = 2.67 m
Recall that electric field is given by the expression
1 q
E =
4πε0 x 2

PHYSICS 41
MODULE - 5 Electric Potential and Capacitors

Electricity and
Magnetism 1
We subsitute = 9 × 109 N C–2 m2, E = 150 N C–1 and x = 2.67 m and obtain
4πε0
(150 N C –1 ) × (2.67m) 2
q = 9 × 109 N C –2

= 11.9 × 10–8 C
Notes

INTEXT QUESTIONS 16.1

1. A metallic sphere of radius R has a charge +q uniformly distributed on its
surface. What is the potential at a point r ( > R) from the centre of the
sphere?
2. Calculate the work done when a point charge is moved in a circle of radius r
around a point charge q.
3. The electric potential V is constant in a region. What can you say about the
electric field E in this region ?
4. If electric field is zero at a point, will the electric potential be necessarily
zero at that point.
5. Can two equipotential surfaces intersect?
On the basis of charge conduction, substances are broadly classified as conductors
and insulators. In solids, conduction of electricity usually takes place due to free
electrons, whereas in fluids, it is due to ions. Conductors have free charge carriers
through which electric currents can be established on applying an electric field.
Metals are good conductors. Substances having no free charge carriers are called
insulators. The common insulators are wood, ebonite, glass, quartz, mica etc.
Substances which have electrical conductivity in between those of conductors
and insulators are called semiconductors. The ratio of electrical conductivities of
good conductors and good insulators is of the order of 1020. Let us now learn
how conductors behave in an electric field.

16.2.1 Behaviour of Conductors in an Electric Field

Conductors have electrons which are not bound tightly in their atoms. These are
free to move within the conductor. However, there is no net transfer of electrons
(charges) from one part of the conductor to the other in the absence of any
applied electric field. The conductor is said to be in electrostatic equilibrium.
Refer to Fig. 16.7(a) which shows a conductor placed in an external electric field
E. The free electrons are accelerated in a direction opposite to that of the electric
field. This results in build up of electrons on the surface ABCD of the conductor.
The surface FGHK becomes positively charged because of removal of electrons.
These charges (-ve on surface ABCD and +ve on surface FGHK) create their

42 PHYSICS
Electric Potential and Capacitors MODULE - 5
Electricity and
own fields, which are in a direction opposite to E. The transfer of electrons from Magnetism
FGHK to ABCD continues till E becomes equal to E1. Such a state of electrostatic
equilibrium is reached usually in 10–16 s. We then say that equilibrium is reached
almost instantaneously. If there is a cavity inside a conductor, the electric field
inside the cavity is zero (Fig. 16.7(b)).
These results are true for a charged conductor or when charges are induced on a
neutral conductor by an external electric field.
Notes
This property of a conductor is used in Electrostatic Shielding — a phenomenon
of protecting a certain region of space from external electric fields. To protect
delicate instruments from external electric fields, they are enclosed in hollow
conductors. That is why in a thunder storm accompanied by lightning, it is safer
to be inside a car or a bus than outside. The metallic body of the car or bus
provides electrostatic shielding from lightning.
Conductors in electrostatic equilibrium exhibit the following properties :
z There is no electric field inside a conductor.
z The electric field outside a charged conductor is perpendicular to the surface
of the conductor, irrespective of the shape of the conductor.
z Any charge on the conductor resides on the surface of the conductor.

(a) (b)
Fig.16.7 : Electrostatic shielding: (a) External electric field E pulls free electrons on the
surface ABCD. The surface FGHK, which is deficient in electrons, becomes positively
charged;the net field inside the conductor is zero. (b) If there is a cavity inside a
conductor, the field inside the cavity is zero.

16.3 CAPACITANCE
Let us consider two conductors having equal but opposite charges +Q and – Q
on them. There is a potential difference V between them. Such a system of
conductors is called a capacitor. Experimentally it is found that the potential
difference is directly proportional to charge on a conductor. As charge increases,

PHYSICS 43
MODULE - 5 Electric Potential and Capacitors

Electricity and
Magnetism the potential difference between them also increases but their ratio remains
constant. This ratio is termed as capacitance of the capacitor:
C =Q/V (16.23)
The capacitance is defined as the ratio between the charge on either of the
conductors and the potential difference between them. It is a measure of the
capability of a capacitor to store charge.

Notes In SI system of units, capacitance is measured in farad (F). The capacitance is

one farad, if a charge of one coulomb creates a potential difference of one volt :
1 coulomb
1 farad = 1 volt (16.24)
You may recall from the previous unit that coulomb is a very large unit of charge.
It means that farad is also a very large unit of capacitance. Usually we use capacitors
of values in microfarad or picofarad:
1 microfarad = 10–6 farad, written as μF
1 picofarad = 10–12 farad, written as pF
In an electrical circuit, a capacitor is represented by two parallel lines.

16.3.1 Capacitance of a Spherical Conductor

Suppose that a sphere of radius r is given charge q. Let the potential of the sphere
be V. Then
1 q
V =
4πε0 r

Since C = q/V, we find that

q r
C = = 4πε0r = (16.25)
q / 4πε0 r 9 × 109
This shows that capacitance of a spherical conductor is directly proportional to
its radius. In fact, it is numerically equal to its radius divided by 9 × 109,
where radius is taken in metre. For example, the capacitance of a sphere of radius
0.18 m is
0.18
C = × 10–9 F = 20 pF
9

16.3.2 Types of Capacitors

You will come across many types of capacitors in your physics laboratory. The
power supply system of your city also uses capacitors. These also form important
components of devices such as radio, T.V., amplifires and oscillators. A capacitor
essentially consists of two conductors, one charged and the other usually earthed.
To understand the principle of a capacitor, let us consider an insulated metal plate
A and give it positive charge (q) till its potential (V) becomes maximum. (Any

44 PHYSICS
Electric Potential and Capacitors MODULE - 5
Electricity and
further charge given to it would leak out.) The Magnetism
capacitance of this plate is equal to q/V.
Now bring another insulated metal plate B near plate A.
By induction, negative charge is produced on the nearer
face of B and equal positive charge develops on its farther
face (Fig. 16.8a). The induced negative charge tends to
decrease whereas induced positive charge tends to
Notes
increase the potential of A. If plate B is earthed
(Fig.16.8b), the induced positive charge on it, being free,
flows to earth. (In reality, it is the negative charge that
flows from the earth to the plate. Positive charges in the
plate are immobile.) But negative charge will stay as it
is bound to positive charge on A. Due to this induced
negative charge on B, the potential of A decreases and Fig.16.8 : Working
its capacitance increases. principle
of a capacitor
Hence, we can say that capacitance of an insulated
conductor can be increased by bringing near it an uncharged earthed conductor.
This is the basic principle of a capacitor. Capacitors are used for storing large
amounts of electric charge and hence electrical energy in a small space for a small
interval of time.
A Parallel Plate Capacitor
A parallel plate capacitor is one of the simplest
capacitors in which two parallel metallic plates, each
of area A, are separated from one another by a small
distance d. An insulating medium like air, paper, mica,
glass etc separates the plates. The plates are connected
to the terminals of a battery, as shown in Fig. 16.9.
Suppose that these plates acquire +q and –q charge
when the capacitor is fully charged. These charges
set up a uniform electric field E between the plates.
When the separation d is small compared to the size Fig. 16.9 : Working principle
of the plates, distortion of electric field at the of a capacitor
boundaries of the plates can be neglected.
If σ is surface charge density on either plate, the magnitude of electric field
between the plates is given by

σ q
E= =
ε0 ε0 A

and the potential difference between the plates is given by

V = Ed

PHYSICS 45
MODULE - 5 Electric Potential and Capacitors

Electricity and
Magnetism Hence, capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor, whose plates are separated by d
and have air in-between them is given by

q q
C0 = =
V qd / ε 0 A

ε0 A
= (16.26)
Notes d
It shows that capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is directly proportional to
the area of the plates and inversely proportional to their separation. It means that
to obtain high capacitance, area of the plates should be large and separation
between them should be small.
If the plates of a capacitor are separated by a dielectric material other than air
or vacuum, the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is given by

εA kε0Α
C = =
d d

where ε is called permittivity of the medium. Therefore, we find that capacitance

of a dielectric filled parallel plate capacitor becomes K times the capacitance with
air or vacuum as dielectric :
C = KC0 (16.27)

16.3.3 Relative Permittivity or Dielectric Constant

We can also define dielectric constant by calculating the force between the charges.
According to Coulomb’s law, the magnitude of force of interaction between two
charges q1 and q2 separated by a distance r in vacuum is :

1 q1 q2
FV = (16.28)
4πε0 r 2

where ε0 is the permittivity of free space.

If these charges are held at the same distance in a material medium, the force of
interaction between them will be given by

1 q1 q2
Fm = (16.29)
4πε r 2

On combining Eqns. (16.28) and (16.29), we get

Fv̂ ε
= = εr (16.30)
Fm ε0

46 PHYSICS
Electric Potential and Capacitors MODULE - 5
Electricity and
where εr (or K) is relative permittivity. It is also termed as dielectric constant of Magnetism
the medium. Note that it is the ratio of permittivity of the material medium to the
permittivity of free space. We can also define the dielectric constant of a medium
as the ratio of the electrostatic force of interaction between two point charges
held at certain distance apart in air or vacuum to the force of interaction between
them held at the same distance apart in the material medium.
The dielectric constant can also be expressed as
Notes
Capacitance with dielectric between the plates
K = Capacitance with vacuum between the plates

Cm
= C
0
Thus
Cm = KC0 (16.31)
For metals, K = ∞, for mica K ≈ 6, and for paper K = 3.6.

16.4. GROUPING OF CAPACITORS

Capacitors are very important elements of electrical and electronic circuits. We
need capacitors of a variety of capacitances for different purposes. Sometimes a
capacitance of a proper value may not be available. In such situations, grouping
of capacitors helps us to obtain desired (smaller or larger) value of capacitance
with available capacitors. Two most common capacitor groupings are :
z Series grouping, and
z Parallel grouping
Let us learn about these now. q1

16.4.1 Parallel Grouping of Capacitors V1 C1

In parallel grouping, one plate of each capacitor is
connected to one terminal and the other plate is q2
connected to another terminal of a battery, as shown A B
in Fig. 16.10. Let V be the potential difference applied V2 C2
to the combination between points A and B. Note
that in parallel combination, potential difference q3
across each capacitor is the same. Therefore, charge
on these will be different, say q1, q2 and q3 such that V3 C3
q1 = C1V
V
q2 = C2V
V1 = V2 = V3 = V
q3 = C3V (16.32)
Fig. 16.10 : Capacitors joined
in parallel

PHYSICS 47
MODULE - 5 Electric Potential and Capacitors

Electricity and
Magnetism Total charge on all the capacitors of the combination is :
q = q1 + q2 + q3
q = (C1 + C2 + C3 + …)V (16.33)
Let Cp be the equivalent capacitnace in parallel combination. Then
q = Cp V
Notes
From these relations, we get
q = Cp V = (C1 + C2 + C3 )V
In general, we can write
n

Cp = C1 + C2 + C3 = ∑ C i (16.34)
i =1

Thus, we see that equivalent capacitance of a number of capacitors joined in

parallel is equal to the sum of the individual capacitances.
Remember that in parallel combination, all the capacitors have the same potential
difference between their plates but charge is distributed in proportion to their
capacitances. Such a combination is used for charge accumulation.

16.4.2 Series Grouping of Capacitors

In the series combination of capacitors, the first plate of the first capacitor is
connected to
the electrical source. The second plate of the first capacitor is connected to the
first plate of the second capacitor. The second plate of second capacitor is
connected to first plate of the next capacitor of the combination and so on. The
second plate of last capacitor of the combination is connected to the electrical
source, as shown in Fig.16.11. Let +q unit of charge be given to the first plate of
capacitor C1 from the source. Due to electrical induction, as expalined in the
principle of capacitor, –q charge
appears on the inner side of right
plate of C 1 and +q charge
develops on the outer side of the
second plate of C1. The +q unit
of charge flows to the first plate
of C2 and so on. Thus, each
capacitor receieves the same
charge of magnitude q. As their
capacitances are different,
potential difference across these Fig.16.11 : Capacitors in series grouping. The amount
capacitors will be of charge on each capacitor plate is same.
q q q
V1 = , V2 = , V3 = (16.35)
C1 C2 C3

48 PHYSICS
Electric Potential and Capacitors MODULE - 5
Electricity and
If Cs is the total capacitance of the series grouping, then Magnetism

q
V =
Cs

and V = V1 + V2 + V3 (16.36)
q q q q
Hence = + + Notes
Cs C1 C2 C3

1 1 1 1
or = + + (16.37)
Cs C1 C2 C3

For n capacitors joined in series, we can write

1 n
1
Cs = ∑C
i =1 i

Types of Capacitors
There are three common varieties of capacitors in commercial use. Their
schematic diagrams are shown in Fig.16.12.
1. Paper capacitor: Several large thin sheets of paraffin impregnated paper
or mylar are cut in proper size (rectangular). Several sheets of metallic
foils are also cut to the same size. These are spread one over the other
alternately. The outer sheet is mylar, then over it a sheet of metal foil,
again over it a sheet of mylar and then a sheet of metal foil and so on. The
entire system is then rolled in the form of a cylinder to form a small device.
2. Metal plate capacitors: A large number of metals are alternately joined
to two metal rods as shown in Fig.16.12 (b). The entire plate system is
immersed in silicon oil which works as dielectric material between the
plates. High voltage capacitors are usually of this type. Variable capacitors
of micro farad capacitance are usually of this type and use air as dielectric.
One set of plates is fixed and the other set is movable. The movable
plates, when rotated, change their effective area, thereby changing the
capacitance of the system. You might see such capacitors in a radio
receiver. Variable capacitance helps in tuning to different radio stations.
Aluminum
roil
metallic
Paper
metal
Paper oil
Paper
Paper and Oxide film
(a) electrolyte
(b) (c)
Fig.16.12 : Different types of capacitors : a) paper capacitor, b) variable capacitor, and
c) electrolytic capacitor

PHYSICS 49
MODULE - 5 Electric Potential and Capacitors

Electricity and
Magnetism 3. Electrolytic capacitor: An electrolytic capacitor is shown Fig. 16.12(c).
A metal foil is rolled in the shape of a cylinder with increasing diameter
so that there is always a space between one surface and the other. The
system is immersed in an electrolyte in the form of a solution. This solution
is conducting because of ions in the solution. A voltage is applied between
the electrolyte and the metallic foil. Because of the conducting nature of
Notes the electrolyte, a thin layer of metal oxide, which is an insulator, is formed
on the foil. The oxide layer works as dielectric material. Since the
dielectric layer is extremely thin, the system provides a very high value
of capacitance. It is important in this type of capacitor to mark the positive
and negative terminals. A wrong connection of positive and negative
terminals removes the oxide layer. (The capacitor then starts conducting.)
This type of capacitor is used in storing large amount of charge at low
voltage.

Thus, the reciprocal of equivalent capacitance of any number of capacitors

connected in series is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of individual
capacitances. From the above relation, you will agree that Cs is less than the least
of C1, C2, and C3 .
Note that all the capacitors in series grouping have the same amount of charge
but the potential difference between their plates are inversely proportional to
their capacitances.It means that the capacitor with minimum capacitance of the
combination will have maximum potential difference between its plates.

Example 16.3 :The capacitance of a parallel plate air capacitor is 22.0 µF. The
separation between the plates is d. A dielectric slab of thickness d/2 is put in-
between the plates. Calculate the effective capacitance, if the dielectric constant
K = 5.
Solution: The Capacitance of the air capacitor is given by
ε0 A
C0 = = 22.0 μF
d
The new system can be considered as a series combination of two capacitors:

K ε0 A 2K ε0 A
C1 = = = 2 KC0
d /2 d

ε0 A 2ε0 A
and C2 = = = 2C0
d /2 d

50 PHYSICS
Electric Potential and Capacitors MODULE - 5
Electricity and
The effective capacitance C is given by Magnetism

1 1 1
= C + C
C 1 2

C1 C2
or C = C +C
1 2
Notes
2 KC0 × 2C0
= 2 KC + 2C
0 0

2 KC 0
= K +1

10 × 22 ×10–6F
=
6
= 36.7 μF

INTEXT QUESTIONS 16.2

1. Write the dimensions of capacitance.
2. What is the potential difference between two points separated by a distance
d in a uniform electric field E ?
3. The usual quantities related with an air capacitor are C0, E0 and V0. How are
these related with C, E and V of the same capacitor filled with dielectric
constant K ?
4. Calculate the area of air filled capacitor plate when the separation between
the plates is 50 cm and capacitance is 1.0 µF .

16.4.3 Energy Stored in a Capacitor

The charging of a capacitor can be visualized as if some external agent, say a
battery, pulls electrons from the positive plate of a capacitor and transfers them
to the negative plate. Some work is done in transferring this charge, which is
stored in the capacitor in the form of electrostatic potential energy. This energy is
obtained from the battery (stored as chemical energy). When this capacitor is
discharged through a resistor, this energy is released in the form of heat.
Let us assume that an uncharged capacitor, when connected to a battery, develops
a maximum charge q. The charging takes place slowly. The initial potential
difference between the capacitor plates is zero and the final potential difference is
V. The average potential difference during the entire process of charging is
0 +V V q
= =
2 2 2C
PHYSICS 51
MODULE - 5 Electric Potential and Capacitors

Electricity and
Magnetism The work done during charging is given by
W = Charge × potential difference
q 1 q2
=q =
2C 2 C
Hence potential energy
1 1 q2 1
Notes U = qV = = CV 2 (16.38)
2 2 C 2
This energy is stored in the electric field between the plates. The stored energy is
directly proportional to the capacitance. It also increases as potential difference
increases. However, every capacitor can store only a limited amount of energy.
An automatic discharge will take place when the potential difference becomes
more than its threshold value.
It is dangerous to touch the plates of a charged capacitor. The capacitor may get
discharged through your body resulting in an electric shock. Such a shock could
be fatal for high value capacitors when fully charged.

16.5 DIELECTRICS AND DIELECTRIC POLARIZATION

We know that dielectrics are insulating materials, which transmit electric effects
without conducting. Dielectrics are of two types : non-polar and polar. We now
learn about these.
(a) Non-polar dielectrics
In the molecules of non–polar dielectrics, the centre of positive charge coincides
with the centre of negative charge. Each molecule has zero dipole moment in its
normal state. These molecules are mostly symmetrical such as nitrogen, oxygen,
benzene, methane, CO2 , etc.
(b) Polar dielectrics
Polar dielectrics have asymmetric shape of the molecules such as water, NH3,
HCl etc. In such molecules, the centres of positive and negative charges are
separated through a definite distance and have finite permanent dipole moment.
When a non-polar dielectric is held in an external electric field, the centre of
positive charge in each molecule is pushed in the direction of E and the centre of
negative charge is displaced in the direction opposite to E. Because of external
electric field, centres of positive and negative charges in the non-polar dielectric
molecules are separated. Dielectric is then said to be polarized and a tiny dipole
moment develops in each molecule. In fact, the force due to external electric field
pulling the charge centres apart balances the force of mutual attraction between
the centres (i.e. equilibrium is set) and the molecule is said to be polarised. Induced
dipole moment p acquired by the molecule may be written as
p = α ε0 E

52 PHYSICS
Electric Potential and Capacitors MODULE - 5
Electricity and
where α is constant of proportionality and is called atomic/molecular polarizability. Magnetism
Let us now consider a non-polar slab ABCD placed in an electric field E maintained
between the plates of a capacitor. As shown in Fig.16.13, the dielectric slab gets
polarised. The nuclei of dielectric molecules are displaced towards the negative
plate and electrons towards the positive plate. Because of polarisation, an electric
field Ep is produced within the dielectric, which is opposite to E. Hence, due to
the presence of a non-polar dielectric, the field between the plates is reduced, i.e.
effective electric field in a polarised dielectric is given by Notes
E(effective) = E - Ep (16.39)
Thus, the potential difference between the capacitor plates is correspondingly
reduced (as V= Ed ), increasing the value of capacitance of the capacitor (as
C = q/V ).
A B
–+ –+ –+
E
–+ –+ –+

–+ –+ –+ EP
+ –+ –+ –+ –

–+ –+ –+

–+ –+ –+

D C

Fig.16.13 : A dielectric slab between the charged capacitor plates.

Applications of Electrostatics
Electrostatics provides basis for the theory of electromagnetics, apart from
useful assistance in many fields of science and technology.
z Capacitors are essential parts of most electronic and electrical circuitry.
These play a very crucial role in power transmission.
z Gold leaf electroscope – the simple device used for detecting charge,
paved the way for cosmic ray research.
z Lightning conductor devised by Benjamin Franklin is still used to protect
sky-scrappers from the strokes of lightning and thunder.
z The working of photocopiers, so common these days, is based on the
principle of electrostatics.

PHYSICS 53
MODULE - 5 Electric Potential and Capacitors

Electricity and
Magnetism

INTEXT QUESTIONS 16.3

1. Two capacitors C1= 12 mF and C2 = 4 mF are in group connections. Calculate
the effective capacitance of the system when they are connected (a) in series
(b) in parallel.
Notes 2. Four capacitors are connected together as shown in Fig.16.14. Calculate the
equivalent capacitance of the system.
3. An air capacitor C = 8 mF is connected to a 12V battery. Calculate
(a) the value of Q when it is fully
charged?
(b) the charge on the plates, when
slab of dielectric constant K = 5
fills the gap between the plates
completely.
(c) potential difference between the
plates; and Fig.16.14 : Grouping of capacitors
(d) capacitance of the new capacitor
4. A parallel plate capacitor of capacitance C0 is connected to a battery and
charged to a potential difference V0. After disconnecting the battery, the gap
between the plates is completely filled with a slab of dielectric constant K.
How much energy is stored in the capacitor (a) in the first state? (b) in the
second state? and (c) which one is larger and why?

WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT

z The potential at any point in an electric field is equal to the work done against
the electric field in moving a unit charge from infinity to that point.
z Work done in transferring a charge from one point to another in an electrostatic
field is path independent.
z If one joule of work is done in bringing a test charge of one coulomb from
infinity to a point in the field, we say that potential at that point is one volt.
z Electric potential due to a dipole is zero at every point on the equatorial line
of the dipole.
z In an equipotential surface, every point has same electric potential.
z At any point in an electric field, the negative rate of change of potential with
distance (called potential gradient) gives the field.
z Electrostatic shielding is the phenomenon of protecting a region of space
from electric field.

54 PHYSICS
Electric Potential and Capacitors MODULE - 5
Electricity and
z Capacitance of a conductor depends on its shape, size and nature of medium, Magnetism
rather than its material.
z The capacitance of a dielectric filled parallel plate capacitor becomes K times
the capacitance with air or vacuum as dielectric.
z Relative permittivity is the ratio of capacitance with dielectric between the
plates to the capacitance with air or vacuum between the plates.
z In series combination of capacitors, the equivalent capacitance is less than Notes
the least of any of the individual capacitances.
z In parallel combination of capacitors, the equivalent capacitance is equal to
the sum of individual capacitances.
z Due to the presence of a non-polar dielectric, the field between the plates of
a capacitor is reduced.

TERMINAL EXERCISES
1. Calculate the potential at a point P at a distance of 30 cm from a point charge
q = 20 μC
2. Three point charges q1, q2 and q3, each of magnitude 200 μC, are placed at
the corners A, B and C respectively of an equilateral triangle. The length of
the side is 10cm. Calculate the potential energy of the system.
3. The potential difference between the plates of a capacitor separated by 3mm
is 12.0 V. Calculate the magnitude of E between the plates?
4. Two ions having charges +e and – e are 4.0 × 10–10 m apart. Calculate the
potential energy of the system.
5. The plates A and B of a parallel plate capacitor have a potential difference of
15 V. A proton (m = 1.67 × 10–27 kg) is moved from the positive plate A to B.
Calculate the speed of the proton near plate B.
6. Show that dimensionally the quantities Vq and (½)mv2 are equivalent. The
symbols carry the usual meaning.
7. Under what condition, the electric field between the plates of a parallel plate
capacitor is uniform?
8. A metallic sphere of radius r has a charge +q. Calculate the work done in
moving a test charge q0 from one end of a diameter to its other end.
9. A parallel plate air capacitor of value C0 is charged to a potential V0 between
the plates and +q0 is charge on one plate. Separation between plates is d. A
dielectric of dielectric constant K = 3 fills the space between the plates. Which
of these quantities will change and why. (i) capacitance (ii) charge (iii) po-
tential difference and (iv) field density?

PHYSICS 55
MODULE - 5 Electric Potential and Capacitors

Electricity and
Magnetism 10. Examine the following network of capacitors. The potential difference be-
tween A and B is 16V :

Notes

C1 = 2 μF, C2 = 4 μF, C3 = 8 μF, C4 = 3 μF, C5 = 3μF

Calculate (a) the effective capacitance between A and B, (b) the charge on each
capacitor, and (c) the potential difference across each capacitor.
11. The value of capacitance of an air capacitor is 8μF. Two dielectrics of identical
size fill the space between the plates as shown. Dielectric constants are K1 =
3.0 and K2 = 6.0. Calculate the value of the new capacitance.
12345678901234
1234567890123412345678901234
1234567890123412345678901234
12345678901234
1234567890123412345678901234
12345678901234
12345678901234
K1
12345678901234
12345678901234
K2
12345678901234
1234567890123412345678901234
12345678901234
1234567890123412345678901234
1234567890123412345678901234
12. Calculate the equivalent capacitance of the following system.

13. A 3.0 μF air capacitor is charged to a potential 12.0 V. A slab of dielectric

constant K = 7 is made to fill the space. Calculate the ratio of the energies
stored in the two systems.
14. A dipole of dipole moment P = 3.5 × 10–15 Cm is placed in a uniform electric
field E = 2.0 × 104 NC–1. The dipole makes an angle of 60° with the field.
Calculate the (a) Potential energy of the dipole and (b) the torque on the
dipole.
15. The capacitance of a parallel plate air capacitor is 12μF. The separation
between the plates is 8mm. Two dielectric slabs of the same size fill the
air space. Calculate the new value of capacitance.

123456789012345
123456789012345
123456789012345
123456789012345
K =2
123456789012345
1

123456789012345
123456789012345
123456789012345
123456789012345
K =4
123456789012345
2

56 PHYSICS
Electric Potential and Capacitors MODULE - 5
Electricity and
Magnetism
ANSWERS TO INTEXT QUESTIONS

16.1
1. The potential at r (r > R)
1 q Notes
V = 4πε
0 r

2. The field around a point charge possesses spherical symmetry. Thus every
point on the surface of the sphere is equipotential. And no work is done
when a charge moves on an equipotantial surface
dV
3. E = – Since V is constant, E is zero.
dr
We can obtain the same result using Eqn. (16.22) :
VA -VB
E= . Since VA = VB ,E is zero
d
4. No. Not necessarily. When E = 0, the potential is either constant or zero.
5. Two equipotential surfaces never intersect. If they do so, at the point of
intersection we can draw two normals giving directions of electric field.

16.2
Q
Q Work done Q× Q
1. C = = = Work done
V Charge

Q2
=
N.m.
The basic unit is
C
A =
s
m
∴ C2 = A2 s2 and newton = mass × acc = kg
s2

A 2s 2
C 2
2 A 2s4
Capacitance = = kg m = kg m 2
Nm
s2
= A2 s4 (kg m2)–1
2. In a capacitor, E is uniform between this plates. Potential difference between
the plates
VA – VB = E × d.
PHYSICS 57
MODULE - 5 Electric Potential and Capacitors

Electricity and
Magnetism 3. C0 , E0 , V0 for air capacitor and
C, E, V for dielectric capacitor. Then
C V E
k = C ,k= 0 k= 0.
0 V E
4. C = 1.0 μ F = 1.0 × 10–6 F.
d = 50 cm = 0.5m.
Notes
ε0 A
C =
d
Cd
∴ A= . Since ε0 = 8.85 × 10–12,
ε0
1.0 ×10 –6 × 0.5
A= 8.85 ×10-12

5 × 10 –7
= 8.85 × 10 –12
= 0.56 × 105 m2

16.3
1 (a) 3 mF (b) 16 mF 2. 12.2μF
3. (a) 96mC (b) 0.480 C (c) 12 v (d) 40 mF

1 1 (C0V0 ) 2 1
4. (a) C0 V02 (b) 2 C R = C0V02
2 0 2k
(c) The energy in the first case is more, because same energy is used up for
sucking in the dielectric slab.

Answers to Problems in Terminal Exercises

1. 6 × 105 V. 2. 1.08 × 104 J.
3. 4 × 103 Vm –1 4. – 5.76 × 10 –19 J
5. 1.4 × 109 ms–2
37 128 128 128
10. (a) μF, (b) μC, μC, μC, 24μC,
14 7 7 7

64 32 16
(c) V, V, V, 8V, 8V
7 7 7

16
11. 36 μF. 12. μF.
5
13. 1 : 7 14. (a) 3.5 × 10 –11 J (b) 6 × 10–11Nm.
15. 32 μF

58 PHYSICS