MECH0023

DYNAMICS
&CONTROL

PART 01
Creating Models of
Real-World Systems

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CONTENTS
1. Control & M odelling Learning Objectives ........................................................... 3
2. Control & M odelling Them es .............................................................................. 3
3. M odelling: Choosing the correct level of detail .................................................. 4
4. Exam ple 1: Dynam ic M odel of a Shock Absorber ............................................... 5
5. M odelling: Using Standard Com ponents and Techniques .................................. 6
Example 2: Laser Printer Servo-Mechanism.................................................................. 7
Summary of Through- and Across-Variables for Physical Systems ............................... 9
Summary of Governing Differential Equations for Ideal Elements................................ 9
Summary of Governing Differential Equations for Ideal Elements.............................. 10
6. Servo P osition Control ...................................................................................... 11
7. Exam ple 3: M odelling a D.C. Servo M otor ........................................................ 12
Mechanical Model........................................................................................................ 12
Electrical Model ........................................................................................................... 13
Combining Mechanical & Electrical Models ................................................................. 14
Simplifying the model ................................................................................................. 14
Simplified Model of a DC Motor:.................................................................................. 15
Step Response of the DC Motor: ................................................................................. 15
Controlling a DC Motor ................................................................................................ 16
8. Linearisation ..................................................................................................... 17
Example 4: Linearising a nonlinear thermistor ........................................................... 18
Example 5: Linearising a nonlinear spring .................................................................. 18
Example 6: Nonlinear vehicle suspension ................................................................... 19
Example 7: Linear approximation of a pendulum ....................................................... 19
9. M agnetic Levitation .......................................................................................... 20
Example 8: Modelling a magnetic levitation bearing .................................................. 21
Creating a linear model ............................................................................................... 21
10. Conclusions ..................................................................................................... 24

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1. Control & Modelling Learning Objectives
1. Identification of “systems” with one or more degrees of freedom

1.1. how they can be modelled appropriately

1.2. and investigated using computer simulations

1.3. being aware of the difference between a theoretical simulation and real-life!

2. Knowledge of different control schemes in a wide variety of mechanical and associated systems.

2.1. Perform analytical investigations /simulations of the performance and stability of controlled
systems, designing controllers to meet performance specifications including vibration
control.

2.2. Appreciation of what can & can’t be controlled.

3. Design interfaces between analogue and digital domains, in order to use a computer/
microcontroller to implement measurement and control of an external device.

2. Control & Modelling Themes

The following is a list of themes which will be included in this course. The themes are interrelated,
not separate topics, so they will be covered together instead of one-by-one.
• Laplace-domain models of dynamic systems
Modelling
• Linear / non-linear modelling techniques
• Controller design – many types & techniques

• Numerical modelling and analysis techniques using MATLAB

• Multiple degree-of-freedom models and controllers
• Lab: balancing an inverted pendulum using
o Real-Time Controller hardware and
o National Instruments LabVIEW software

• Numerical simulation and controller design using SIMULINK

• Modelling and optimising control examples
• Digital control and implementation issues

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3. Modelling: Choosing the correct level of detail
The required level of detail depends on the nature of the application and whether any parameters
contribute disproportionately little or much.

Highly-detailed modelling
Detailed modelling is not makes the difference between
critical in these situations: winning & losing in these:

Example(s) of modelling to 1 digit of precision (~10%)

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much detail, notes, images, references and web links as you like.]

Example(s) of modelling to 2 digits of precision (~1%)

Example(s) of modelling to 3 digits of precision (~0.1%)

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4. Example 1: Dynamic Model of a Shock Absorber
In the figures below, consider how the overall vehicle may be considered as hundreds or thousands
of components. Each component of the car can be approximated with a model using the level of
detail required. In a shock absorber in a car, damping is added in parallel to spring suspension in
vehicles to damp oscillations and absorb impulses. Physically, that means a spring is coiled around a
damper cylinder – often an oil-filled piston. A simple mechanical model of that component is shown
below:

F
x

k c

Balancing forces as function of time:

Rewriting as function of the Laplace variable, “s”

𝑋𝑋(𝑠𝑠) 1
The transfer function (TF) is thus: 𝐺𝐺 (𝑠𝑠) = 𝐹𝐹 (𝑠𝑠) = (
𝑘𝑘+𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐)

The spring-damper can be modelled

as a transfer function block as
shown.
Note: “input” very rarely means a
physical flow of a material into a
block! It is just a variable.

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 In this case, the spring-damper has
a very common 1st order response
to a step change in input. The
general form of response is shown
right:
Note: this is purely the shock
absorber component, not the wheel
or vehicle body –they have their
own models which can be combined
with this.

5. Modelling: Using Standard Components and

Techniques
One of the many benefits of modelling components in the Laplace domain is that they can quickly
be identified or categorised into “standard forms”. This shock absorber above has the same kind of
response (i.e. 1st order) as many other components with totally different structures – electrical,
chemical, hydraulic…
Using these standard forms to create models of individual components means that it is possible to
combine them easily to build more detailed models of complex systems, like a modern road car.

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Example 2: Laser Printer Servo-Mechanism
Here’s an example where simple transfer function
components are combined.
Inside laser printers, a laser is scanned very quickly
across a roller to fuse the toner in place where the
paper is required to be printed. A mirror (labelled
‘5’ in the figure) is used to point the laser where it’s
required. This is much lighter & faster than moving
the actual laser light source.
This analysis is inspired by an example, E2.4, in
Modern Control Systems (Dorf & Bishop): In a laser
printer, the position of a laser beam, y(t), is
controlled by an input, r(t).
The input r(t) represents the desired position of the
laser beam.
The positioning system has the following Laplace transfer function:

We can split up the transfer function into simpler parts to work out what the overall response would
be. E.g. the step response is a typical input demand (i.e. “move to ‘X’ position, now!”) and in that
case R(s) = R0/s where R0 is the size of the step.
The expression for Y(s) is found by multiplying the TF by R(s), e.g.
in the ‘unit step’ case where R0 = 1:

UCL’s module MECH0010 -and many control textbooks- describe the Final Value Theorem and
Inverse Laplace Transform techniques which can be used to convert Laplace transfer functions and
signals like Y(s) into the time domain, i.e. y(t), which is more familiar to visualise.
For example, the Final Value Theorem tells us immediately that for a ‘unit’ position demand (=1),
the actual position output would also be 1.
Another way to think of that is the Steady State Gain (SSG) of the
transfer function where we set all the instances of ‘s’ to 0 to
represent ‘no change’. In this case the SSG = 500/500 = 1.

The Inverse Laplace Transform is an analytical technique involving

look-up reference tables so we can convert Y(s) into a graph of
our model’s prediction of the laser beam position, y(t).
We need to break Y(s) down into simpler components; that can
be achieved using the partial fraction technique:
A, B, and C can be calculated using the normal method for
partial fractions…

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 1.5

Partial fraction “A”

1

Overall response = A + B + C
0.5
Superposition
Partial fraction “B”
Values

-0.5 Partial fraction “C”

-1

-1.5
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
Time, s

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Here are some excerpts from one of the course’s recommended text books 1, summarising
similarities between many different types of systems.

Summary of Through- and Across-Variables for

Physical Systems

Summary of Governing Differential Equations for

Ideal Elements

1
Feedback Control of Dynamical Systems, Gene F. Franklin, J. Davis Powell, Abbas F. Emami-Naeini; Pearson;
2019.

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Summary of Governing Differential Equations for
Ideal Elements

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6. Servo Position Control
A very common control application is where electric motors are
used to control position of a remote device; a “servomechanism”
(servo)
Diagrams of brushed DC motors are shown below. Other types of
motors are also commonly used (inductance, brushless DC).
In almost any application where electrical-powered position
control is required, there is a design question to answer:
“W hat m otor do I need?”
To answer that question you can either:
(a) Buy and test a whole range of different motors with your equipment in a workshop.
(b) Model your equipment and a whole range of different motors, sitting at your desk.
Most people choose (b).

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7. Example 3: Modelling a D.C. Servo Motor
The motor converts electrical energy into mechanical (kinetic) energy. Laplace modelling gives a
very straightforward and useful method to relate those two different fields.

Mechanical Model
Equation of motion: Newton’s 2nd Law: 𝛴𝛴𝑇𝑇 = 𝐽𝐽𝑚𝑚 𝜃𝜃̈𝑚𝑚

Sum of torques acting: Motor torque minus friction torque

Write in the Laplace domain:

And arrange for the variable of interest: 𝜃𝜃m

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Electrical Model
Kirchoff’s Voltage Law: the sum of potential
differences around a loop = 0
(or “the sum of the gains = sum of the losses”)
(conservation of energy)

In the Laplace domain:

Rearranging for Ia: (so we can then eliminate it from the equations)

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Combining Mechanical & Electrical Models

Mechanical Electrical

𝜃𝜃𝑚𝑚 (𝑠𝑠)�𝐽𝐽𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏� = 𝐾𝐾𝑒𝑒 𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎 (𝑠𝑠) 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 (𝑠𝑠) − 𝐾𝐾𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑚𝑚 (𝑠𝑠)
𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎 (𝑠𝑠) =
(𝐿𝐿𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎 )

𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 (𝑠𝑠) − 𝐾𝐾𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑚𝑚 (𝑠𝑠)

𝜃𝜃𝑚𝑚 (𝑠𝑠)�𝐽𝐽𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏� = 𝐾𝐾𝑒𝑒
(𝐿𝐿𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎 )

𝜃𝜃𝑚𝑚 (𝑠𝑠)�𝐽𝐽𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏�(𝐿𝐿𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎 ) = 𝐾𝐾𝑒𝑒 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 (𝑠𝑠) − 𝐾𝐾2𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑚𝑚 (𝑠𝑠)

𝜃𝜃𝑚𝑚 (𝑠𝑠)��𝐽𝐽𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏�(𝐿𝐿𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎 ) + 𝐾𝐾2𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠� = 𝐾𝐾𝑒𝑒 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 (𝑠𝑠)

𝜃𝜃𝑚𝑚 (𝑠𝑠) 𝐾𝐾𝑒𝑒

=
𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 (𝑠𝑠) 𝑠𝑠��𝐽𝐽𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑏𝑏�(𝐿𝐿𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎 ) + 𝐾𝐾2𝑒𝑒 �

Simplifying the model

𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎 (𝑠𝑠) 1
Transfer function of electrical (LR) coil: =
𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 (𝑠𝑠) 𝐿𝐿𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎

𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎 (𝑠𝑠) 1
However, La << Ra so we can assume… =
𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 (𝑠𝑠) 𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎

This assumption is only valid for certain limitations / conditions:

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Simplified Model of a DC Motor:

𝜃𝜃𝑚𝑚 (𝑠𝑠) 𝐾𝐾𝑒𝑒

=
𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 (𝑠𝑠) 𝑠𝑠[(𝐽𝐽𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑏𝑏)(𝐿𝐿𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎 ) + 𝐾𝐾𝑒𝑒2 ]

𝐾𝐾𝑒𝑒
𝜃𝜃𝑚𝑚 (𝑠𝑠) �𝑅𝑅 𝜃𝜃𝑚𝑚 (𝑠𝑠)
= 𝑎𝑎
𝐾𝐾 2 This has the form: =
𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 (𝑠𝑠) 𝑠𝑠�𝐽𝐽𝑚𝑚 𝑠𝑠+�𝑏𝑏+ 𝑒𝑒�𝑅𝑅 �� 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 (𝑠𝑠)
𝑎𝑎

𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑚𝑚 (𝑠𝑠)
The transfer function for velocity “out” as a function of voltage “in”: =
𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 (𝑠𝑠)

𝐾𝐾𝑒𝑒 𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎 𝐽𝐽𝑚𝑚

where, 𝐾𝐾 = and 𝜏𝜏 =
𝑏𝑏𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎 +𝐾𝐾𝑒𝑒2 𝑏𝑏𝑅𝑅𝑎𝑎 +𝐾𝐾𝑒𝑒2

Step Response of the DC Motor:

Using the modelling above, we can predict the motor’s position in response to a voltage input
𝜃𝜃𝑚𝑚 (𝑠𝑠)
switching from zero to some positive amount, Va . We use the transfer function and find:
𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 (𝑠𝑠)

Just like any transfer function with the same form, the output (motor angle) shows an
exponentially-decaying lag settling to a constant rate of increase – i.e. the motor accelerates and
then reaches a constant rotary speed for a given constant input (applied voltage).

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Controlling a DC Motor
Assuming we want to use the DC motor to control the position of some object, open loop control
means the user would have to continually adjust the voltage to try to control the object manually.
In the pre-requisite module MECH0010 Instrumentation and Control, a servo motor lab shows how
effective closed-loop control can be to make a motor move to a given position and stop
automatically. This ‘closed loop feedback’ is drawn as below and the MECH0010 notes describe how
the transfer function changes.
Complete this diagram, where Θi(s) is the input: now the voltage applied, Va(s), can be proportional
to the desired position so we can talk in terms of desired angle, Θi(s). The actual position of the
motor, Θm(s) is the output. Note that as usual the input and output are not things which go into or
out of the machine.

Now the input to the plant is an error.

Θi(s) + Θe(s) Θm(s)

When the motor is in the
- desired position the
error is zero, so the
motor input is zero, so
the motor stops!

Using MECH0010 or other sources as a guide, find the closed loop transfer function,
F(s) = Θm(s)/ Θi(s)…

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8. Linearisation
Linear systems obey………

- anything else is nonlinear.

Most practical systems are not linear, but often we can assume they behave linearly under certain
conditions
E.g. if we look at small deviations (perturbations) around a normal operating point:
output y

δy

y0 δx

x0 input x

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Example 4: Linearising a nonlinear thermistor
A thermistor is a component commonly used to sense
temperature. Here’s a typical example of information THERMISTOR
from a manufacturer’s data sheet:
If we want to use this for a commercial air conditioning
R = R0e-0.1T
system we might want to find a linear model for the R = thermistor resistance
thermistor operating around 20°C ± a few degrees.
R0 = 10kW
Method: The data sheet typically lacks information. In
this case, we don’t know whether T is in Celcius or T = temperature in degrees
Kelvin, or Farenheit.
Don’t assume. Always check – at least check whether sensible!
In this case: R0 would likely be from calibrating the sensor at 0 Celcius (in melting ice).

Create new variables originating at our

operating point:
Let t = T - T0 (where T0 = 20)
Let r = R - R0 (where R0 = 1353)
Our linear model will have the form:
r=kt
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑘𝑘 = � = −0.1𝑅𝑅0 𝑒𝑒 −0.1×20
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑇𝑇=20

So the linear model is r = -135.3t

Example 5: Linearising a nonlinear spring

Here’s another example of an imperfect 3
datasheet, this time for a spring. The
axes are ‘sparsely labelled’!
Q: Find the natural frequency of vertical
Force, N

oscillation when a 200g mass is hanging

from the spring as shown. Remember
that at rest the weight is exerting a non-
zero force on the spring. 200g

-4
10 Length, mm 80

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Example 6: Nonlinear vehicle
suspension
Find the spring constant when the vehicle is (a) unladen,
and (b) carrying a payload of 400kg.

What happens to the natural frequency of the suspended

vehicle as the payload increases (not a one-word
answer…)

Example 7: Linear approximation of a pendulum

A simple pendulum is a good example of where a linear approximation can be used in a limited
range of motion.
What is the (non-linear) equation of motion? (Use Newton’s 2nd law..)

What approximation is often made to linearise this equation? θ

What is the error in this approximation for angles of up to 1°, 5°, 10° ?

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9. Magnetic Levitation
Magnetic levitation is most famously used in high speed trains to reduce running friction. It’s come
a long way since its early days…
Japanese Record-Breaker: 603 kph
Birmingham, UK, 1984 JR-Central Central Japan Railway Company

Magnetic levitation has many other uses where it is crucial to minimise friction (accepting a much
greater cost and complexity than conventional bearings). For example, this rheometer (hosted in
UCL Mechanical Engineering, Torrington Place) measures flow properties of liquid and semi-solid
materials and can apply and sense torque at tiny magnitudes: just 5 x 10-9 Newton.metres. 5 nano
Nm. And this isn’t even the top of the range machine. Magnetic levitation bearings are used for
absolutely minimal friction to enable such delicate measurements.

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Example 8: Modelling a magnetic levitation bearing
The equation of motion is:
Sorry darling, I’ll be
15 minutes late…

Gravitational
force: mg

…this is non-linear in two variables Levitation

force: FL(t)
W hat do w e do? Linearise it!
This doesn’t mean we change the laws of physics. It just
means we make an approximate model of the system Gap: z
using only linear components. This model is not perfect. Levitation

Monorail
“All m odels are w rong, but som e are useful” (George coils with
Box, 1987).
We just hope that the model might be not- current: i(t)
wrong enough that it works acceptably for us.

Creating a linear model

We’ll define the nonlinear relationship as a function f(z,i)

Then we’ll find a linear approximation to linearise f(z,i) around a normal operating point. That point
would be when the mag-lev bearing is hovering in a steady position (with a roughly constant gap,
z):

At this operating point,

Define new variables:

Since we’ve only taken off a constant, the derivatives (velocity and acceleration) of these new
variable are equivalent to the derivatives of the original variables.
i.e.

And now we look to a Taylor expansion for f(z,i). We’ve seen this method before when aiming to
create approximations of complicated functions. These sort of simple approximations are very well-
suited to being calculated “mechanically” by computers and electronic devices.

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 and we’ll ignore
higher-order
terms for now…

We have two partial derivatives to calculate – this is just like the method of drawing a straight line
tangent to a curve, but in 2 dimensions.

Partial differentiation with respect to 1st variable, z :

𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑓(𝑧𝑧, 𝑖𝑖) =

𝑘𝑘𝑖𝑖 2 −2
Separating out z: 𝑓𝑓(𝑧𝑧, 𝑖𝑖) = 𝑔𝑔 − 𝑧𝑧
𝑚𝑚

Then we can use our knowledge about the equilibrium condition to simplify:
𝑘𝑘𝑖𝑖02
𝑔𝑔 =
𝑚𝑚𝑧𝑧02

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Partial differentiation with respect to 2nd variable, i :
The method is almost identical to find the second partial derivative.

𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑓(𝑧𝑧, 𝑖𝑖) =

𝑘𝑘 2
𝑓𝑓(𝑧𝑧, 𝑖𝑖) = 𝑔𝑔 − 𝑖𝑖
𝑚𝑚𝑧𝑧 2

𝑘𝑘
=0−2 𝑖𝑖
𝑚𝑚𝑧𝑧02 0

2𝑘𝑘
=− 𝑖𝑖
𝑚𝑚𝑧𝑧02 0

𝑘𝑘𝑖𝑖 2 𝑘𝑘𝑖𝑖20
Then we can use the equilibrium condition to simplify: 𝑔𝑔 = 02 𝑧𝑧20 =
𝑚𝑚𝑧𝑧0 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

2𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
=− 𝑖𝑖0
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖02

2𝑔𝑔
=−
𝑖𝑖0

So returning to the Taylor expansion we now have a simple linear approximation for the equation
of motion:

2𝑔𝑔 2𝑔𝑔
+ 𝛥𝛥𝑧𝑧 − 𝛥𝛥𝑖𝑖
𝑧𝑧0 𝑖𝑖0

But what does this equation mean? Is the maglev bearing stable? Is it damped or will it oscillate?
How do we control it? How much power does it need?
These questions are answered by creating a transfer function.
First, write the equation of motion in the Laplace domain:

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So the linear transfer function is:

So, is the maglev bearing stable?

Is it damped or will it oscillate?

How do we control it?

10. Conclusions
• Models are always approximations
o The level of accuracy is chosen to be the best tradeoff between fidelity and complexity, cost.
• Linearising non-linear systems can allow you to obtain workable controllers within certain limits
(hopefully not exceeded in practice)
• Models allow you to investigate and understand a system
o E.g. how the response depends on key parameters, and how it might be safe to ignore
certain other parameters or components.

“MAY THIS COURSE GIVE YOU THE CAPABILITY TO CHANGE THOSE

THINGS YOU CAN,
… THE DESIGN SKILLS TO ACCOUNT FOR THOSE THINGS YOU CAN’T
… AND THE WISDOM TO KNOW THE DIFFERENCE.”
[paraphrased (badly!) from the Serenity Prayer, Reinhold Niebuhr]

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