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ALL IMPORTANT FORMULA FOR BSM 101

1. Calculus (differentiation):
a) Mean Value Theorems:
Rolle’s Theorem: Statement: let f be a function defined on a finite closed interval [a, b] such that
(i) f(x) is continuous for all x in 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏.
(ii) f’(x) exists for all x in 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏.
(iii) 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏).
Then there exists at least one value c, in 𝑎 < 𝑐 < 𝑏, such that f'(c) = 0

Lagrange’s theorem: Statement: Let f be a function defined on a finite closed interval [a, b] such that
(i) f(x) is continuous for all x, 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏
(ii) f’(x) exists for all x, a<x<b.
!(#)%!(&)
Then there exists at least one value c, a <c <b, such that #%&
= 𝑓 ' (𝑐).
𝞱 form of Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem:
Let f be a function defined on a finite closed interval [a, a +h] such that
(i) f is continuous on [𝑎, 𝑎 + ℎ].
(ii) f is derivable on (𝑎, 𝑎 + ℎ).
Then 𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) = 𝑓(𝑎) + ℎ 𝑓 ' (𝑎 + 𝜃ℎ), 0 < 𝜃 < 1 … (I).
Note: For the interval [0, 𝑥], equation (I) reduces to
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(0) + ℎ 𝑓 ' (𝜃𝑥), 0 < 𝜃 < 1 … (II).
This form is known as Maclaurin's Formula.

Cauchy’s Mean Value Theorem: Let f & g be a function defined on a finite closed interval [a, b] such that
(i) f(x) & g(x) is continuous for all x, 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏
(ii) f’(x) & g’(x) exists for all x, 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏.
(iii) 𝑔’(𝑥) ≠ 0 , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥𝜖(𝑎, 𝑏).
!(#)%!(&) ! ! ())
Then there exists at least one value c, 𝑎 < 𝑐 < 𝑏, such that ((#)%((&) = (! ()).

Generalized Mean Value Theorem: Taylor’s Theorem:

Statement (Lagrange’s form of remainder): Let f be a function defined on a finite closed interval [a, b] such
that
(i) 𝑓 (*%+) is continuous on [𝑎, 𝑏]
(ii) 𝑓 (*) exists on (𝑎, 𝑏)
Then there exists at least one value c, a <c <b, such that
+ + +
𝑓(𝑏) = 𝑓(𝑎) + (𝑏 − 𝑎)𝑓 ' (𝑎) + ,! (𝑏 − 𝑎), 𝑓 '' (𝑎) + ⋯ + (*%+)! (𝑏 − 𝑎)*%+ 𝑓 (*%+)(𝑎) + *! (𝑏 − 𝑎)* 𝑓 (*) (𝑐).

𝞱 form: Statement: Let f be a function defined on a finite closed interval [a, a+ h] , h> 0 such that
(i) 𝑓 (*%+) is continuous on [𝑎, 𝑎 + ℎ]
(ii) 𝑓 (*) exists on (𝑎, 𝑎 + ℎ)
Then there exists at least one value 𝜃, 0 < 𝜃 < 1, such that
' (𝑎)
ℎ, '' ℎ*%+ (*%+)
ℎ* (*)
𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) = 𝑓(𝑎) + ℎ𝑓 + 𝑓 (𝑎) + ⋯+ 𝑓 (𝑎) + 𝑓 (𝑎 + 𝜃ℎ).
2! (𝑛 − 1)! 𝑛!

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IMPORTANT NOTE: 𝑷𝒖𝒕 𝒃 = 𝒙 𝒐𝒓 𝒂 + 𝒉 = 𝒙

Statement (Cauchy’s form of remainder): Let f be a function defined on a finite closed interval [a, b] such
that
(i) 𝑓 (*%+) is continuous on [𝑎, 𝑏]
(ii) 𝑓 (*) exists on (𝑎, 𝑏)
Then there exists at least one value c, a <c <b, such that
1 1
𝑓(𝑏) = 𝑓(𝑎) + (𝑏 − 𝑎)𝑓 ' (𝑎) + (𝑏 − 𝑎), 𝑓 '' (𝑎) + ⋯ + (𝑏 − 𝑎)*%+ 𝑓 (*%+) (𝑎)
2! (𝑛 − 1)!
1
+ (𝑏 − 𝑎)(𝑏 − 𝑐)*%+ 𝑓 (*) (𝑐).
(𝑛 − 1)!

𝞱 form: Statement: Let f be a function defined on a finite closed interval [a, a+ h] , h> 0 such that
(i) 𝑓 (*%+) is continuous on [𝑎, 𝑎 + ℎ]
(ii) 𝑓 (*) exists on (𝑎, 𝑎 + ℎ)
Then there exists at least one value 𝜃, 0 < 𝜃 < 1, such that
ℎ, ℎ*%+ ℎ* (1 − 𝜃)*%+ (*)
𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) = 𝑓(𝑎) + ℎ𝑓 ' (𝑎) + 𝑓 '' (𝑎) + ⋯ + 𝑓 (*%+)(𝑎) + 𝑓 (𝑎 + 𝜃ℎ).
2! (𝑛 − 1)! (𝑛 − 1)!
IMPORTANT NOTE: 𝑷𝒖𝒕 𝒃 = 𝒙 𝒐𝒓 𝒂 + 𝒉 = 𝒙

Maclaurin’s Theorem: Statement (Lagrange’s form of remainder): (Taking a=0 and h=x in Taylor’s)
Let f be a function defined on a finite closed interval [0, x] , x> 0 such that
(i) 𝑓 (*%+) is continuous on [0, 𝑥]
(ii) 𝑓 (*) exists on (0, 𝑥)
Then there exists at least one value 𝜃, 0 < 𝜃 < 1, such that
𝑥, 𝑥 *%+ 𝑥*
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(0) + 𝑥𝑓 ' (0) + 𝑓 '' (0) + ⋯ + 𝑓 (*%+) (0) + 𝑓 (*) (𝜃𝑥).
2! (𝑛 − 1)! 𝑛!
Maclaurin’s Theorem: Statement (Cauchy’s form of remainder): (Taking a=0 and h=x in Taylor’s)
Let f be a function defined on a finite closed interval [0, x] , x> 0 such that
(i) 𝑓 (*%+) is continuous on [0, 𝑥]
(ii) 𝑓 (*) exists on (0, 𝑥)
Then there exists at least one value 𝜃, 0 < 𝜃 < 1, such that
𝑥, 𝑥 *%+ 𝑥 * (1 − 𝜃)*%+ (*)
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(0) + 𝑥𝑓 ' (0) + 𝑓 '' (0) + ⋯ + 𝑓 (*%+) (0) + 𝑓 (𝜃𝑥).
2! (𝑛 − 1)! (𝑛 − 1)!

b) Maxima & Minima: Necessary condition for maximum or minimum:

If a function f(x) has maximum or minimum at point x=c and if f'(c) exists then f'(c) =0
Evaluation of Maxima and Minima: Theorem 1. Let f(x) be a function defined on an interval [a, b] and let
be a point in this interval. If 𝑓′(𝑐) = 0 and 𝑓"(𝑐) ≠ 0 then f(x) has a
(i) 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑐 𝑖𝑓 𝑓"(𝑐) < 0
(ii) 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 𝑐 𝑖𝑓 𝑓"(𝑐) > 0
Theorem 2. Let f(x) be a function defined on an interval [a, b]. c be a point in this interval.
If 𝑓 ' (𝑐) = 𝑓 '' (𝑐) = 𝑓 ''' (𝑐) = ⋯ = 𝑓 (*%+) (𝑐) = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 (*) (𝑐) ≠ 0, Then,
(i) for n odd, f(c) is neither maximum nor minimum.
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(ii) for n even, f(c) is maximum if 𝑓 (*) (𝑐) < 0 and minimum if 𝑓 (*) (𝑐) > 0.

c) Indeterminate Form (L’Hospital’s rules):

Generally, a function is said to assume indeterminate form when it takes up any one of the following forms:
𝟎 /
(A) (B) (C) ∞ − ∞ (D) 0.∞ (E) 00 , 10 , ∞0 , 1/ etc.
𝟎 /
L’Hospital’s Theorem:
If two functions ƒ and g are
(i) Continuous in the closed interval [a, b]
(ii) Derivable in the open interval (a, b)
(iii) lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 = lim 𝑔(𝑥)
1→& 1→&

!(1) !'(1)
Then lim ((1) = lim ('(1)
1→& 1→&

2. Calculus (Integration):
a) Evolutes & Involutes:
Cartesian form: If y=f(x) be the curve then Radius of Curvature at the given point (a, b) is
$
3+45"# 6# 75 7#5
𝜌=Z 5#
Z , (𝑦, ≠ 0), 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑦+ = 71 𝑎𝑡 (𝑎, 𝑏), 𝑦, = 71 # 𝑎𝑡(𝑎, 𝑏).

Polar Form: If 𝑟 = 𝑓(𝜃) be the curve then the Radius of Curvature at the given point is
$
38 # 48"# 6# 78 7#8
𝜌 = Z8 # 4,8 # %88 Z , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑟 , 𝑟+ = 79 , 𝑟, = 79# 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡.
" #

`, 𝒚
If C (𝒙 `) be the coordinates of the Center of Curvature of Γ at P then
5" (+45"# ) (+45"# ) 75 7#5
𝑥̅ = 𝑥 − 5#
, 𝑦d = 𝑦 + 5#
, (𝑦, ≠ 0), 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑦+ = 71 𝑎𝑡 𝑃 , 𝑦, = 71 # 𝑎𝑡 𝑃.
Let Γ be the curve and C (𝒙`, 𝒚
`) be Center of Curvature of Γ at P. The locus of C as the point P travels on Γ
is called the Evolute of the curve Γ. If the curve Γ1 be the evolute of Γ then Γ is called the Involute of the
curve Γ1
To find equation of evolute make a relation between 𝒙 `&𝒚 ` and then in that relation replace 𝒙 ` by x & 𝒚`
by y.

b) Improper Integral:
Improper Integrals of First K𝐢𝐧𝐝:
/ # /
(A) Type 1: ∫& 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 . (B) Type 2: ∫%/ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 . (C) Type 3: ∫%/ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 .
Improper Integrals of Second K𝐢𝐧𝐝:
#
Type 1:∫& 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 , Only point of infinite discontinuity is at 𝑥 = 𝑎
#
Type 2:∫& 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 , Only point of infinite discontinuity is at 𝑥 = 𝑏
#
Type 3:∫& 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 , both the end points a and b be the only points of infinite discontinuity of the function f(x)
#
Type 4:∫& 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 , Let c be the only point of infinite discontinuity of the function. 𝑎 < 𝑐 < 𝑏
Some Standard Improper Integrals:
/ 71
(A) C𝐨𝐧𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐨𝐟 ∫& 1%
, (𝑎 > 0): 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 > 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 ≤ 1

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# 71
(B) C𝐨𝐧𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐨𝐟 ∫& (1%&)%
, (𝑛 > 0) ∶ 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 < 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 ≥ 1
# 71
(C) C𝐨𝐧𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐨𝐟 ∫& (#%1)% , (𝑛 > 0).: 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 < 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 ≥ 1

c) Beta & Gamma Functions:

/
Definition of Gamma Function: 𝛤(𝑛)= ∫0 𝑒 %1 𝑥 *%+ 𝑑𝑥 , (𝑛 > 0).
Properties of Gamma Function:
i) Г(1) = 1
ii) 𝛤(𝑛 + 1) = 𝑛𝛤(𝑛)
iii) 𝛤(𝑛 + 1) = 𝑛! , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟.
;
iv) 𝛤(𝑛)𝛤(1 − 𝑛) = <=**; , 0 < 𝑛 < 1 (𝐷𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎)
+
v) 𝛤 •,€ = √𝜋
+
Definition of Gamma Function: 𝐵(𝑚, 𝑛)= ∫0 𝑥 >%+ (1 − 𝑥)*%+ 𝑑𝑥 , (𝑚, 𝑛 > 0)
Properties of Beta Function:
(i) 𝐵(𝑚, 𝑛) = 𝐵(𝑛, 𝑚)
(>%+)!
(ii) 𝐵(𝑚, 𝑛) = *(*4+)(*4,)…(*4>%+) , 𝑒𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚 𝑜𝑟 𝑛 𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟.
&
(iii) 𝐵(𝑚, 𝑛)=2 ∫0 𝑠𝑖𝑛,>%+ 𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠 ,*%+ 𝜃𝑑𝜃.
#

/ 1 '("
(iv) 𝐵(𝑚, 𝑛)= ∫0 (+41)')%
𝑑𝑥 .
+ +
(v) 𝐵 •, , ,€ =𝜋
@(>)@(*)
Relation between Beta and Gamma function: 𝐵(𝑚, 𝑛)= @(>4*)
.
d) Surface Area and Volume of Revolution:
Volume of Revolution, the axis of revolution being X axis: If the region R enclosed by the curve of a
continuous function y=f(x), as 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏, the ordinates x=a, x=b and the x-axis be rotated about X-axis then
the volume of revolution
𝒃 𝒃
𝑽 = 𝝅 † 𝒚𝟐 𝒅𝒙 = 𝝅 † {𝒇(𝒙)}𝟐 𝒅𝒙
𝒂 𝒂
Surface of Revolution, the axis of revolution being X axis: If the region R enclosed by the curve of a
continuous function y=f(x), as 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏, the ordinates x=a, x=b and the x-axis be rotated about X-axis then
the surface of revolution
𝒃
𝒅𝒚 𝟐 𝒃
𝟐
𝑺 = 𝟐𝝅 † 𝒚•𝟏 + • • 𝒅𝒙 = 𝟐𝝅 † 𝒇(𝒙)‘𝟏 + ’𝒇' (𝒙)“ 𝒅𝒙
𝒂 𝒅𝒙 𝒂
Volume of Revolution, the axis of revolution being Y axis: If the region R enclosed by the curve of a
continuous function x = 𝝓(𝒚), as 𝑐 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑑, the ordinates y=c, y=d and the Y-axis be rotated about Y-axis
then the volume of revolution
𝒅 𝒅
= 𝝅 † 𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒚 = 𝝅 † {𝝓(𝒚)}𝟐 𝒅𝒚
𝒄 𝒄
Surface of Revolution, the axis of revolution being Y axis: If the region R enclosed by the curve of a
continuous function x = 𝝓(𝒚), as 𝑐 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑑, the ordinates y=c, y=d and the Y-axis be rotated about Y-axis
then the surface of revolution

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𝒅
𝒅𝒙 𝟐 𝒅
𝟐
= 𝟐𝝅 † 𝒙•𝟏 + • • 𝒅𝒚 = 𝟐𝝅 † 𝝓(𝒚)‘𝟏 + ’𝝓' (𝒚)“ 𝒅𝒚
𝒄 𝒅𝒚 𝒄
Volume of Revolution, the axis of revolution being X axis: If the equation of the curve be in parametric
form as x=f(t), y=g(t), t being the parameter, then the volume(V) of the solid of revolution is given by
𝒕𝟐
𝑽 = 𝝅 † {𝒈(𝒕)}𝟐 𝒇′(𝒕)𝒅𝒕
𝒕𝟏
Where t1, t2 are the values of t corresponding to x=a, y=b respectively.
Surface of Revolution, the axis of revolution being X axis: If the equation of the curve be in parametric
form as x=f(t), y=g(t), t being the parameter, then the Surface area (S) of the solid of revolution is given by
𝒕𝟐
𝒅𝒙 𝟐 𝒅𝒚 𝟐
•
𝑺 = 𝟐𝝅 † 𝒚 • • + • • 𝒅𝒕
𝒕𝟏 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
Where t1, t2 are the values of t corresponding to x=a, y=b respectively.
Volume and Surface of revolution if the curve revolved be given by its Polar equation and the polar axis
is Axis of Revolution: Let AB is the curve where the vectorial angles of A and B are respectively 𝜽𝟏 and 𝜽𝟐.
If BA is revolved about hte polar axis OX then
𝜽𝟐
Volume of Revolution = 𝝅 ∫𝜽𝟏 𝒓𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜽𝒅(𝒓𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽)
𝜽𝟐
Surface of Revolution = 𝟐𝝅 ∫𝜽𝟏 𝒓𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽œ(𝒅𝒓)𝟐 + (𝒓)𝟐 𝒅𝜽

3. Matrix & Determinants:

Different types of Matrices:
(a) RECTANGULAR MATRIX: A matrix A is said to be rectangular if the number of rows is not equal to
the number of columns , i.e., if 𝑚 ≠ 𝑛.
(b) SQUARE MATRIX: A matrix A is said to be a square matrix if the number of rows and columns are
equal. i.e., if 𝑚 = 𝑛.
(c) ROW MATRIX OR ROW VECTOR: A matrix of n elements arranged in one row only is called a row
matrix or a row vector, i.e. it is an 1 × n matrix.
(d) COLUMN MATRIX OR COLUMN VECTOR: A matrix of n elements arranged in one column only is
called a column matrix or a column vector, i.e. it is an m × 1 matrix.
(e) NULL MATRIX OR ZERO MATRIX: All the elements of the matrix is 0.
(f) DIAGONAL MATRIX: A square matrix in which all off-diagonal elements are zero is called a diagonal
matrix.
(g) UNIT MATRIX OR IDENTITY MATRIX: The Diagonal elements are all 1 and all the off-diagonal
elements are all 0.
(h) Orthogonal Matrix: A square matrix A is said to be an Orthogonal if 𝐴𝐴I = 𝐴I 𝐴 = 𝐼 , where I is the
identity matrix of same order.
Properties:
I. If A and B are orthogonal matrices of the same order then prove that AB is orthogonal.
II. Every orthogonal matrix A is non- singular and det(A) = ±1
III. If A and Bare orthogonal matrices and de(A) + de(B) = 0, then prove that A + B is singular.
IV. Prove that if A is an orthogonal matrix, then AT and A-1 are also orthogonal.
V. If A is skew symmetric matrix, then prove that (I-A) (I+A)-1 is orthogonal matrix
(i) Idempotent matrix: A square matrix A is said to be an idempotent matrix if 𝐴, = 𝐴.

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(j) NILPOTENT MATRIX: A square matrix Ais said to be a nilpotent matrix with index k, if k be the least
positive integer for which 𝐴J = 𝑂, a null (or zero) matrix.
(k) INVOLUTARY MATRIX: A square matrix A is said to be an involutory matrix if 𝐴, = 𝐼.

Note: MATRIX MULTIPLICATION IS NON-COMMUTATIVE.

If A, B are two matrices, even if AB and BA are defined, 𝐴𝐵 ≠ 𝐵𝐴, in general.
Properties of TRANSPOSE OF A MATRIX:
If A and B are two matrices, then
(i) (𝑘𝐴)I = 𝑘𝐴I , where k is a scalar (or number)
(ii) (𝐴I )I = 𝐴
(iii) (𝐴 + 𝐵)I = 𝐴I + 𝐵I , 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝐴 + 𝐵 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑
(iv) (𝐴 − 𝐵)I = 𝐴I – 𝐵I , provided A- B is defined
(v) (𝐴𝐵)I = 𝐵I 𝐴I , provided AB is defined
SYMMETRIC AND SKEW-SYMMETRIC MATRICES:
(i) A square matrix A is said to be symmetric if 𝐴I = 𝐴 .
(ii) A square matrix A is said to be skew-symmetric if 𝐴I = −𝐴
PROPERTIES:
(a) If A, B are symmetric matrices of same order, then A+B is also symmetric.
(b) The product of two symmetric matrices A, B of same order is symmetric if and only if AB = BA.
(c) If A be a square matrix, then 𝐴 + 𝐴I is symmetric and 𝐴 − 𝐴I is skew-symmetric.
(d) Any square matrix can be expressed uniquely as a sum of a symmetric matrix and a skew-symmetric
matrix.
(e) If A is a skew-symmetric matrix, then 𝐴, is symmetric.

Singular & Non-Singular Matrix: A square matrix A is said to singular its determinant i.e. det(A) = |A|
= 0, otherwise it is called Non-Singular Matrix.
Inverse of A Matrix: Let A be a square matrix. Another matrix B of same size is said to the Inverse of A
if 𝑨𝑩 = 𝑩𝑨 = 𝑰 , where I is the identity Matrix of same size. If B is inverse of A then it is denoted by
𝑨%𝟏 . Thus, 𝑨𝑨%𝟏 = 𝑨%𝟏 𝑨 = 𝑰
𝟏
Theorem: A non-singular square matrix 𝐴(𝑖. 𝑒. det(𝐴) ≠ 0) is invertible and 𝑨%𝟏 = 𝒅𝒆𝒕(𝑨) 𝑨𝒅𝒋(𝑨)
Properties:
1. The inverse of any matrix is unique.
2. For any invertible matrix A (𝐴%+ )%+ = 𝐴.
3. If A and B are invertible then (𝐴𝐵)%+ = 𝐵%+ 𝐴%+
4. For any invertible matrix A (𝐴%+ )I = (𝐴I )%+

Determinants:
Properties of Determinant:
Property 1. The value of a determinant is unaltered if the determinant is transposed, i.e. if rows and columns
are interchanged.
Property 2. The value of a determinant is unaltered but the sign is altered if two adjacent rows / columns are
interchanged.
Property 3. If two rows /columns of a determinant are identical then the value of the determinant is 0.

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Property 4. If all the elements of one row/column are multiplied by a number then the value of the
determinant is multiplied by that number
Property 5. If each element of a row / column is expressed as the sum of two numbers then the determinant
can be expressed as sum of two determinants
Property 6. The value of a determinant is not altered by adding to the elements of any row / column the same
multiple of the corresponding elements of any other row / column.

Cofactor of an element in a Determinant: If 𝑎𝑟𝑠 is the element in a determinant lying in rth row and sth
column, then cofactor of 𝒂𝒓𝒔 = (−1)84< × 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑠 in the determinant and is denoted by Ars.
Minor of an element in a Determinant: The sub-determinant of a determinant |A| obtained by deleting the
r-th row and s-th column is called the Minor of the element ars in |A|, where ars stands for the element
belonging to r-th row and s-th column in |A|.
Jacobi's Theorem (for 3rd order determinant).
If D be a 3rd order non-zero determinant, then 𝐷′ = 𝐷2, where D' is the adjugate/adjoint determinant of D.

Laplace method of expansion of Determinant: In an nth order determinant, 𝐷 = |𝑎=M |*×* , if any r rows be
selected, D can be expressed as the ums of the products of al minors of order r formed from shoes r number of
rows and their respective algebraic complements.
Cramer’s Rule for Solution of Linear Equations:

Let, be a system of three linear equations with the three unknowns x, y and z.

If the co-efficient determinant

𝑫𝟏 𝑫𝟐 𝑫𝟑
Then, 𝒙= 𝑫
, 𝒚= 𝑫
, 𝒛= 𝑫
, where,

Corollary:
(1) If in the system 𝑑1 = 𝑑2 = 𝑑3 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷 ≠ 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑦 = 𝑧 = 0.
(2) If in the system 𝐷 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐷1, 𝐷2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷3 𝑖𝑠 ≠ 0, the system has certainly, no solution.
(3) If 𝐷 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷1 = 𝐷2 = 𝐷3 = 0 also then the system has infinite number of solutions.
RANK OF A MATRIX:
Rank of a matrix A is the positive integer r such that
(i) there exists at least one rth order non-singular square submatrix of A.
(ii) all the square submatrices of A of order greater than r are singular.
(iii) Number of non-zero rows in the Row Reduced Echelon Form.
Rank of matrix A is denoted by rank (A) / R(A) / 𝝆(𝑨).
ELEMENTARY ROW OPERATIONS ON A MATRIX:
An elementary row operation on a matrix A is any one operation of the following three types:
(i) Interchange of any two rows of A. Interchange of ith and jth rows of A is denoted by Rij.
(ii) Multiplication of a row by a non-zero scalar k. Multiplication of ith row of A by a non-zero scalar k is
denoted by kRi.

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(iii) Addition of a scalar multiple of one row to another row. Addition of k times the elements of jth row to
the corresponding elements of ith row is denoted by Ri +kRj
ECHELON MATRIX:
A matrix A is said to be an Echelon matrix or is said to be in echelon form if
(i) All zero-rows of A follow all non-zero rows.
(ii) The number of zeros preceding the first non-zero element of a row increases as we pas from row to
row downwards.
Theorem 1. Every matrix can be made row equivalent to an Echelon matrix.
Theorem 2. Elementary operations (row and/or column) do not alter the rank of a matrix.
Theorem 3. If an Echelon matrix has r number of non-zero rows, then the rank of this matrix is r.
Properties of Rank:
1. Ranks of A and AT are same.
2. Rank of a null matrix is zero.
3. For a matrix of order 𝑚 × 𝑛, 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘 (𝐴) ≤ 𝑚𝑖𝑛 (𝑚, 𝑛).
4. For an nth order square matrix A, 𝑖𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘 (𝐴) = 𝑛, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 | 𝐴| ≠ 0, 𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟,
5. For any square matrix A of order n, 𝑖𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘 (𝐴) < 𝑛, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 | 𝐴| = 0, 𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟.
Rank-nullity theorem: For a 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix A, 𝑹𝒂𝒏𝒌(𝑨) + 𝑵𝒖𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚(𝑨) = 𝒏
CONSISTENCY AND INCONSISTENCY OF SYSTEM OF LINEAR EQUATION:
I. The system is inconsistent i.e. has no solution if and only if 𝑹𝒂𝒏𝒌 (𝑨) ≠ 𝑹𝒂𝒏𝒌 ([𝑨: 𝒃])
II. The system is consistent i.e. has solution if and only if 𝑹𝒂𝒏𝒌 (𝑨) = 𝑹𝒂𝒏𝒌 ([𝑨: 𝒃]).
(a) The system has unique (exactly one) solution if 𝑹𝒂𝒏𝒌(𝑨) = 𝑹𝒂𝒏𝒌([𝑨: 𝒃]) =
𝒏 (𝒏𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝒗𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆𝒔).
(b) The system has many (more than one) solutions if 𝑹𝒂𝒏𝒌 (𝑨) = 𝑹𝒂𝒏𝒌 ([𝑨: 𝒃]) <
𝒏(𝒏𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝒗𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆𝒔).
Where, [A:b] = The Augmented Matrix
This method is also called Gauss Jordan Elimination Method or simply Gauss Elimination Method.

Inconsistent i.e. has

Consistent i.e. has no solution
solution
Condition:
Condition: 𝑹𝒂𝒏𝒌 𝑨 = 𝑹𝒂𝒏𝒌 𝑨 ≠
𝑹𝒂𝒏𝒌 𝑨: 𝒃
𝑹𝒂𝒏𝒌 ([𝑨: 𝒃])

unique (exactly one) solution many (more than one) solutions

Condition: 𝑹𝒂𝒏𝒌 𝑨 = Condition: 𝑹𝒂𝒏𝒌 𝑨 =
𝑹𝒂𝒏𝒌 𝑨: 𝒃 = 𝑹𝒂𝒏𝒌 𝑨: 𝒃 <
𝒏 (𝒏𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝒗𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆𝒔). 𝒏(𝒏𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝒗𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆𝒔)

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4. Vector Space:
Definition of Vector Space:
Let V be a non-empty set and ⨁ be a composition in V i.e. ⨁ composes two elements of V; R be the field of
real numbers.
Let ⨀ be a composition which composes the elements of R with the elements of V. (i.e. ⨀ is a mapping
whose domain is 𝑅 × 𝑉).
V is said to be a vector space over the field R, if the following axioms are satisfied: ⨂
I. V is abelian group with respect to the composition ⨁, that is
(i) 𝛼 ⨁ 𝛽 ∈ 𝑉 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽 𝑖𝑛 𝑉. [closure property under ⨁]
(ii) 𝛼 ⨁(𝛽 ⨁ 𝛾) = (𝛼 ⨁ 𝛽)⨁𝛾 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾 𝑖𝑛 𝑉 [Associative property under ⨁]
(iii) V contains an element, say 𝜃, such that a 𝛼 ⨁ 𝜃 = 𝛼 for all 𝛼 in V.
(iv) Corresponding to each element 𝛼 in V, there exists an element, say −𝛼 in V such that 𝛼⨁(−𝛼) = 𝜃
(v) (𝛼 ⨁ 𝛽) = (𝛽 ⨁ 𝛼) for all 𝛼,ß in V [commutative property under ⨁]
II.
(i) c⨀𝛼 ∈ 𝑉 for all c in R and for all 𝛼 in V.
(ii) 1⨀𝛼 = 𝛼 for all 𝛼 in V.
(iii) (𝑐. 𝑑)⨀𝛼 = 𝑐⨀(𝑑⨀𝛼) for all c, d in R and for all 𝛼 in V.
(iv) 𝑐⨀(𝛼 ⨁ 𝛽) = (𝑐⨀𝛼)⨁(𝑐⨀𝛽) for all c in R and for all 𝛼,ß in V.
(v) (𝑐 + 𝑑)⨀𝛼 = (𝑐⨀𝑎)⨁(𝑑⨀𝛼) for all c, d in R and for all 𝛼 in Y.

Subspace: Let V be a vector space of the field R. A subset S of V is called subspace of V if S itself is a vector
space over the same field R under the same composition of V.
Theorem: (A criterion for subspace)
A non-null subset S of a vector space V is subspace, if and only if
(i) 𝛼 + 𝛽 ∈ 𝑆 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽 𝑖𝑛 𝑆.
(ii) c𝛼 ∈ 𝑆 for all c in R and for all 𝛼 in S.
Theorem: Intersection of two subspaces is a subspace.

Linear Combination of Vectors: Let 𝛼+ , 𝛼, , … , 𝛼8 be r number of vectors in a vector space V over R. Then
𝒓

𝒄𝟏 𝜶𝟏 + 𝒄𝟐 𝜶𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝒄𝒓 𝜶𝒓 = À 𝒄𝒊𝜶𝒊
𝒊S𝟏
is called a linear combination of the vectors 𝛼+ , 𝛼, , … , 𝛼8 where c1, c2, … cr belong to R.
Linear Dependence and Independence of Vectors:
Let V be a vector space over R. The set of vectors {𝛼+ , 𝛼, , … , 𝛼8 } are called linearly dependent (or simply
dependent), if it is possible to get r scalars c1, c2, … cr in R, at least one non-zero, such that
𝒄𝟏 𝜶𝟏 + 𝒄𝟐 𝜶𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝒄𝒓 𝜶𝒓 = 𝜽
If 𝛼+ , 𝛼, , … , 𝛼8 are not linearly dependent then they are called linearly independent (or simply independent);
that is 𝛼+ , 𝛼, , … , 𝛼8 are linearly independent if
𝒄𝟏 𝜶𝟏 + 𝒄𝟐 𝜶𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝒄𝒓 𝜶𝒓 = 𝜽
⇒ 𝒄𝟏 = 𝒄𝟐 = ⋯ = 𝒄𝒓 = 𝟎
Test of linear dependency and independency by using elementary row operation on Matrix:
The Rank of A = Maximum number of independent vectors among 𝛼+ , 𝛼, , … , 𝛼> .
Corollary. All the vectors 𝛼+ , 𝛼, , … , 𝛼> are independent if and only if Rank of A= m. If Rank of A < m then
the vectors 𝛼+ , 𝛼, , … , 𝛼> are dependent. Obviously Rank of A can not be greater than m.

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Generator or Spanning vectors: Let V be a vector space over R. Also let 𝛼+ , 𝛼, , … , 𝛼8 be r number of
vectors in a vector space V over R and S be a subspace of V(S may be equal to V). If every element of S can
be expressed a linear combination of the vectors 𝛼+ , 𝛼, , … , 𝛼8 then we say 𝛼+ , 𝛼, , … , 𝛼8 generate or span the
subspace S.
Basis: Let V be a vector space over R. The set of vectors {𝛼+ , 𝛼, , … , 𝛼8 } is said ot be a basis of V, if
𝛼+ , 𝛼, , … , 𝛼8 are linearly independent and fi they generate V.
Dimension or Rank of a Vector Space: The number of vectors present in abasis of a vector space V is called
the dimension of V. It is denoted by dim (V).
Basis & Dimension of Subspace: Since a subspace S of a vector space V is basically a vector space so the
subspace must have a basis and consequently a dimension or rank.
Thus 𝐴 = {𝛼+ , 𝛼, , … , 𝛼8 } will be abasis of a subspace S of V if A is linearly independent and every vector of
S can be expressed as a linear combination of 𝛼+ , 𝛼, , … , 𝛼8 Since the basis of A contains r number of vectors
so dim(S) = r.

Extension theorem: A linearly independent set of vectors can be extended to a basis if it is not a basis itself.
Replacement theorem: If the set {𝜶𝟏 , 𝜶𝟐 , … , 𝜶𝒏 } be a basis of a vector space V over R and if 𝜷 be a non-null
vector in V such that ß can be expressed as 𝜷 = 𝒄𝟏 𝜶𝟏 + 𝒄𝟐 𝜶𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝒄𝒏 𝜶𝒏 where the scalar 𝒄𝒋 ≠ 𝟎 then if 𝜶𝒋
is replaced by 𝜷 the set {𝜶𝟏 , 𝜶𝟐 , … , 𝜶𝒋%𝟏 , 𝜷, 𝜶𝒋4𝟏 , … , 𝜶𝒏 } , will also be a basis of V.

Linear Transformation (Mapping):

Introduction: Let A and B be two non-empty sets. A law or rule T is said to be a transformation or mapping
from A to B if to each element x in A we get a definite element y in B by this rule. We denote if by 𝑻: 𝑨 →
𝑩 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑻(𝒙) = 𝒚.
Domain and Co-domain of a Transformation:
If 𝑻: 𝑨 → 𝑩 is a transformation then the set A is called domain and the set B is called co-domain of T.
Image of a Transformation: If 𝑻: 𝑨 → 𝑩 be a transformation then for any element x in A we get a definite
element y in B. We write 𝑻(𝒙) = 𝒚. Here y is called image of x by T. In other words T(x) is an image of x. If
𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 Т(х) ∈ В.
Image-set or Range: Let 𝑻: 𝑨 → 𝑩 be a transformation. Set of all images by T is a subset of B. This subset is
called image set of T. It is denoted by T(A) or Im(T)
Linear Transformation: Let V and W be two vector spaces over the Real Field. A transformation 𝑻: 𝑽 → 𝑾
is said to be linear transformation if
(i) 𝑻(𝜶 + 𝜷) = 𝑻(𝜶) + 𝑻(𝜷) 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝜶, 𝜷 𝒊𝒏 𝑽
(ii) 𝑻(𝒄. 𝜶) = 𝒄. 𝑻(𝜶) 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒄 𝒊𝒏 𝑹 & 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝜶 𝒊𝒏 𝑽 .

Null Space or Kernel of a Linear Transformation.: Let 𝑻: 𝑽 → 𝑾 be a linear transformation where V and
W are two vector spaces. Let 𝜃 and 𝜃′ be the null vectors of V and W respectively. The set of all elements 𝛼
of V for which
𝑻(𝜶) = 𝜽'
is called Kernel of T. It is denote by or Ker(T). So 𝒌𝒆𝒓 (𝑻) = {𝜶: 𝑻(𝜶) = 𝜽′}.
Nullity of a linear transformation:
Let 𝑻: 𝑽 → 𝑾 be a linear transformation. We have seen its kernel 𝒌𝒆𝒓 (𝑻) is a subspace of V. The dimension
of 𝒌𝒆𝒓 (𝑻) is called the Nullity of T.
Rank of a Linear Transformation:
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Let 𝑻: 𝑽 → 𝑾 be a linear transformation: We have seen the image set T(V) is a subspace of the vector space
W. The dimension of this subspace T(V.) or Im(T) is called the Rank of T.
Sylvester's Law:
If T:V →W is a linear transformation, where V and W are two vector space, then
𝑵𝒖𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 (𝑻) + 𝑹𝒂𝒏𝒌 𝒐𝒇 (𝑻) = 𝒅𝒊𝒎 (𝑽).
Matrix Representation of Linear Transformation:
Theorem: If T:V →W be a linear transformation represented by the matrix A (V and W are finite
dimensional vector space) then Rank of T = Rank of A matrix.
INVERSE OF LINEAR TRANSFORMATION:
Let 𝑻: 𝑽 → 𝑾 be a linear transformation. T-1 exists if T is both One-one and Onto.
(i) If 𝑲𝒆𝒓(𝑻) = {𝜽} ⟺ 𝑇 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑒 − 𝑜𝑛𝑒.
(ii) If 𝒅𝒊𝒎(𝑽) = 𝒅𝒊𝒎(𝑾) & 𝑻 𝒊𝒔 𝒐𝒏𝒆 − 𝒐𝒏𝒆 ⟹ 𝑇 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜.

Matrix of Inverse map: Let T:V →W be a linear transformation represented by the matrix A (V is a finite
dimensional vector space). If the inverse of the matrix A exists, the transformation T-1:T(V)→V exist and is
represented by the inverse matrix A-1

Eigenvalues & Eigenvectors:

Characteristic Equation: Let A be an 𝒏 × 𝒏 Matrix over R/C. Then 𝒅𝒆𝒕 (𝑨 − 𝝀)𝑰𝒏 is said to be the
Characteristic Polynomial of A. If Characteristic Polynomial of a matrix A is denoted by 𝝍𝑨 (𝒙) = 𝟎 , is said
to the characteristic equation of A.
Eigenvalue of a matrix: A root of the characteristic equation of a square matrix A is said to be an eigen value
(or a characteristic value) of A.
Eigenvector of a matrix: Let A be an 𝒏 × 𝒏 Matrix over R/C. A non-null vector X is said to be an
eigenvector or a characteristic vector of A if there exists a scalar belonging to R/C such that
𝑨𝑿 = 𝝀𝑿
holds.
Theorem 1. The product of the eigen values of a square matrix A is det(A).
Theorem 2. The sum of the eigen values of a square matrix A is Trace(A).
Theorem 3. If A be a singular matrix, 0 is an eigen value of A.
Theorem 4. The eigen values of a diagonal matrix are its diagonal elements.
Note:
1. To an eigenvector of A there corresponds an unique eigenvalue of A.
2. To an eigenvalue of A there corresponds at least one eigenvector.
3. r eigen vectors of a matrix A corresponding to r distinct eigenvalues are linearly independent.
Cayley - Hamilton theorem: Every square matrix satisfies its own characteristic equation

Inner Product Space:

Real Inner Product Space: Let V be a vector space on Real Field R. A rule under which we get a real
number, denoted by (𝛼, 𝛽), corresponding to a pair of vectors 𝛼, 𝛽 in V is called inner product on V if the
rule obeys the following axioms:
1) (𝛼, 𝛽) = (𝛽, 𝛼) for all 𝛼, 𝛽 in V. [Symmetry]
2) (𝑐 ∙ 𝛼, 𝛽) = 𝑐 ∙ (𝛼, 𝛽)for all 𝛼, 𝛽 in V and for all c in R (real field) [Homogeneity]
3) (𝛼, 𝛽 + 𝛾) = (𝛼, 𝛽) + (𝛼, 𝛾) for all 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾 in V [Linearity]
4) (𝛼, 𝛼) > 0 𝑖𝑓 𝛼 ≠ 𝜃 where 𝜃 is null vector of V [Positivity]

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The vector space V together with an inner product defined on it is called Real inner product space or
Euclidean Space.
Complex Inner Product Space: Let V be a vector space on Complex Field C. A rule under which we geta
real number, denoted by (𝛼, 𝛽), corresponding ot a pair of vectors 𝛼, 𝛽 in V is called inner product on V if
the rule obeys the following axioms:
(𝛼, 𝛽) = dddddddd
(𝛽, 𝛼) for all 𝛼, 𝛽 in V. [Symmetry]
(𝑐 ∙ 𝛼, 𝛽) = 𝑐 ∙ (𝛼, 𝛽)for all 𝛼, 𝛽 in V and for all c in C. [Homogeneity]
(𝛼, 𝛽 + 𝛾) = (𝛼, 𝛽) + (𝛼, 𝛾) for all 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾 in V [Linearity]
(𝛼, 𝛼) > 0 𝑖𝑓 𝛼 ≠ 𝜃 where 𝜃 is null vector of V [Positivity]
The vector space V together with an inner product defined on it is called Complex inner product space or
Unitary Space.
Norm of Vector: Let V be an inner product space (Real or Complex). The norm of a vector 𝛼 in V, denoted
by ||𝛼||, is defined as Ô|𝛼|Ô = œ(𝛼, 𝛼), where (𝛼, 𝛽) is inner product between the vectors 𝛼 & 𝛽. The square
root is a positive square root. Since (𝛼, 𝛼) > 0 so ||𝛼|| is a positive real number.
Example:
Properties: Let 𝛼 be any vector in an inner product space V(Real or Complex), whose null vector is 𝜃 then
(1) (𝜃, 𝛼) = (𝛼, 𝜃) = 0
(2) ||𝑐 ∙ 𝑎|| = |𝑐|||𝛼|| where c is any real
(3) Ô|𝛼|Ô > 0 𝑖𝑓 𝛼 ≠ 𝜃.
(4) ||𝜃|| = 0.
Theorem: (Schwarz's Inequality) : For any two vectors 𝛼, 𝛽 in a Euclidean Space
|(𝜶, 𝜷)| ≤ Ô|𝜶|Ô ||𝜷||
Theorem: (Triangle Inequality) : For any two vectors 𝛼, 𝛽 in a Euclidean Space
||𝛼 + 𝛽|| ≤ Ô|𝛼|Ô + ||𝛽||
Theorem. (Parallelogram Law) : For any two vectors 𝛼, 𝛽 in a Euclidean Space
, , , ,
Ô|𝛼 + 𝛽|Ô + Ô|𝛼 − 𝛽|Ô = 2(Ô|𝛼|Ô + Ô|𝛽|Ô )
Orthogonal Set of Vectors: A set of vectors {𝛼1, 𝛼2, … , 𝛼𝑛} in an inner product space is said to be
orthogonal set if any two distinct vectors in the set are orthogonal; that is, (𝛼𝑖, 𝛼𝑗) = 0 whenever 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗
Orthonormal Set of Vectors: A set of vectors {𝛼1, 𝛼2, … , 𝛼𝑛} ni an inner product space is said ot be
orthonormal set if any two distinct vectors in the set are orthogonal and norm of every vector is one;
that is, (𝛼𝑖, 𝛼𝑗) = 0 whenever 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗 𝑎𝑛𝑑 Ô|𝛼𝑖|Ô = 1 , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖 = 1,2,3, … , 𝑛.
The vector whose norm is 1 is called unit vector.
Note: An orthogonal set of vectors may contain null vector but an orthonormal set of vectors can not contain
null vector because norm of a null vector is not 1.
Scalar Component & Projection of a Vector: Let 𝛼 & 𝛽 be two vectors in a Euclidean space V, with 𝛽 ≠ 0.
(V,X)
The scalar 𝑡 = (X, X) . is called the scalar component (or component) of a along B and the vector t . 𝛽 is called
projection of 𝛼 upon 𝛽.
Angle between two vectors: If 𝛼 & 𝛽 be two non-zero vectors in a Euclidean space, the angle 𝜃 between
𝛼 & 𝛽 is defined as
(𝛼, 𝛽)
𝜃 = cos %+
Ô|𝛼|Ô Ô|𝛽|Ô
Gram-Schmidt Orthogonalization Process
ALL THE BEST!!
Tending to Infinity 12