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Calculus Module

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17 views

Calculus Module

Read

Uploaded by

viclim1992
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Module: Introduction to Calculus

Overview

Calculus is a branch of mathematics focused on limits, functions, derivatives, integrals, and


infinite series. It is a fundamental tool in science and engineering for modeling and analyzing
change.

Objectives

By the end of this module, you should be able to:

1. Understand the concepts of limits and continuity.


2. Calculate derivatives and understand their geometric and physical interpretations.
3. Compute basic integrals and understand their applications.
4. Apply calculus concepts to solve real-world problems.

Key Concepts

1. Limits and Continuity

 Limit: The value that a function f(x)f(x)f(x) approaches as xxx approaches a certain
point. lim⁡x→cf(x)=L\lim_{x \to c} f(x) = Lx→climf(x)=L
 Continuity: A function is continuous at a point x=cx = cx=c if:
1. f(c)f(c)f(c) is defined.
2. lim⁡x→cf(x)\lim_{x \to c} f(x)limx→cf(x) exists.
3. lim⁡x→cf(x)=f(c)\lim_{x \to c} f(x) = f(c)limx→cf(x)=f(c).

2. Derivatives

 Derivative: The derivative of a function f(x)f(x)f(x) at a point xxx measures the rate at
which f(x)f(x)f(x) changes with respect to xxx. f′(x)=lim⁡Δx→0f(x+Δx)−f(x)Δxf'(x) =
\lim_{\Delta x \to 0} \frac{f(x + \Delta x) - f(x)}{\Delta x}f′(x)=Δx→0lim
Δxf(x+Δx)−f(x)
o Geometric Interpretation: The slope of the tangent line to the curve y=f(x)y =
f(x)y=f(x) at xxx.
o Physical Interpretation: The instantaneous rate of change, such as velocity.

3. Integrals

 Integral: The integral of a function f(x)f(x)f(x) over an interval [a,b][a, b][a,b] represents
the area under the curve y=f(x)y = f(x)y=f(x) from x=ax = ax=a to x=bx = bx=b.
∫abf(x) dx\int_a^b f(x) \, dx∫abf(x)dx
o Definite Integral: Has limits of integration [a,b][a, b][a,b] and gives a numerical
value.
o Indefinite Integral: Represents a family of functions and includes a constant of
integration CCC. ∫f(x) dx=F(x)+C\int f(x) \, dx = F(x) + C∫f(x)dx=F(x)+C

Example Problems

Example 1: Finding a Derivative

Find the derivative of f(x)=x2f(x) = x^2f(x)=x2:

f′(x)=lim⁡Δx→0(x+Δx)2−x2Δx=lim⁡Δx→0x2+2xΔx+(Δx)2−x2Δx=lim⁡Δx→02xΔx+(Δx)2Δ
x=2xf'(x) = \lim_{\Delta x \to 0} \frac{(x + \Delta x)^2 - x^2}{\Delta x} = \lim_{\Delta x \to 0}
\frac{x^2 + 2x\Delta x + (\Delta x)^2 - x^2}{\Delta x} = \lim_{\Delta x \to 0} \frac{2x\Delta x +
(\Delta x)^2}{\Delta x} = 2xf′(x)=Δx→0limΔx(x+Δx)2−x2=Δx→0limΔxx2+2xΔx+(Δx)2−x2
=Δx→0limΔx2xΔx+(Δx)2=2x

Example 2: Computing an Integral

Compute the integral of f(x)=xf(x) = xf(x)=x over [0,2][0, 2][0,2]:

∫02x dx=[x22]02=222−022=2\int_0^2 x \, dx = \left[ \frac{x^2}{2} \right]_0^2 = \frac{2^2}{2}


- \frac{0^2}{2} = 2∫02xdx=[2x2]02=222−202=2

Applications

Calculus is used in various real-world applications:

 Physics: Describing motion, forces, and energy.


 Economics: Analyzing cost, revenue, and profit functions.
 Biology: Modeling population growth and decay.
 Engineering: Designing systems and optimizing processes.

Summary

Calculus is a powerful mathematical tool for analyzing change and modeling real-world
phenomena. Understanding the basics of limits, derivatives, and integrals provides a foundation
for more advanced study and applications in various fields.

Exercises

1. Find the limit: lim⁡x→3(2x+1)\lim_{x \to 3} (2x + 1)x→3lim(2x+1)


2. Calculate the derivative of f(x)=3x3−5x+2f(x) = 3x^3 - 5x + 2f(x)=3x3−5x+2.
3. Compute the integral: ∫14(2x+3) dx\int_1^4 (2x + 3) \, dx∫14(2x+3)dx

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