AP World History: Modern

Master Notes
This document contains complete notes for the AP World History:
Modern course. The “Basic Notes” section contains a summary of
every unit. The other sections contained detailed, accurate notes that
can be used to study for the AP test in May!

The notes were made from the AMSCO book with a bit of ChatGPT’s
help to choose more important information! While you’re here, why
not check out the Quizlet Vocab set that goes along with this (Anki
cards are also available with pictures that the Quizlet set doesn’t
have!):

Quizlet
Anki Anki Cards Computer Tutorial Anki Cards Phone Tutorial

This Quizlet set was made with most of EVERY vocab term from the
AMSCO book! 18 terms are missing due to Quizlet’s 2,000 card limit.
So don’t be shocked when you see the 2000 cards (only 1,000
unique cards, the other half is just a flipped version), some of them
will be terms you already know! Anki will include EVERY vocab term,
as well as the pictures for them.

This project is about a month in the making. I hope you use this to
study and this can help you achieve your target score!

- Michael G.
APWH Student
 Table of Contents

AP World History: Modern Master Notes

Table of Contents
Heimler’s BIG Ideas
Unit 1
Unit 2
Unit 3
Unit 4
Unit 5
Unit 6
Unit 7
Unit 8
Unit 9
Basic Notes
Unit 1
Unit 2
Unit 3
Unit 4
Unit 5
Unit 6
Unit 7
Unit 8
Unit 9
Prologue
Part 1: Human Development to c. 600 B.C.E.
Part 2: The Classical Era, c. 600 B.C.E. to c. 600 C.E.
Part 3: Postclassical Civilizations, c. 600 C.E. - 1200 C.E.
Unit 1: The Global Tapestry from c. 1200 to c. 1450
1.1 - Developments in East Asia
1.2 - Developments in Dar al-Islam
1.3 - Developments in South and Southeast Asia
1.4 - Developments in the Americas
1.5 - Developments in Africa
1.6 - Developments in Europe
1.7 - Comparison in the Period from c. 1200 to c. 1450
Unit 2: Networks of Exchange from c. 1200 to c. 1450
2.1 - The Silk Roads
 2.2 - The Mongol Empire and the Modern World
2.3 - Exchange in the Indian Ocean
2.4 - Trans-Saharan Trade Routes
2.5 - Cultural Consequences of Connectivity
2.6 - Environmental Consequences of Connectivity
2.7 - Comparison of Economic Exchange
Unit 3: Land-Based Empires
3.1 - European, East Asian, and Gunpowder Empires Expand
3.2 - Empires: Administrations
3.3 - Empires: Belief Systems
3.4 - Comparison in Land-Based Empires
Unit 4: Transoceanic Interconnections from c. 1450 to c. 1750
4.1 - Technological Innovations
4.2 - Exploration: Causes and Events
4.3 - Columbian Exchange
4.4 - Maritime Empires Link Regions
4.5 - Maritime Empires Develop
4.6 - Internal and External Challenges to State Power
4.7 - Changing Social Hierarchies
4.8 - Continuity and Change from c. 1450 to c. 1750
Unit 5: Revolutions from c. 1750 to c. 1900
5.1 - The Enlightenment
5.2 - Nationalism and Revolutions
5.3 - Industrial Revolution Begins
5.4 - Industrialization Spreads
5.5 - Technology in the Industrial Age
5.6 - Industrialization: Government’s Role
5.7 - Economic Developments and Innovations
5.8 - Reactions to the Industrial Economy
5.9 - Society and the Industrial Age
5.10 - Continuity and Change in the Industrial Age
Unit 6: Consequences of Industrialization from c. 1750 to c. 1900
6.1 - Rationales for Imperialism
6.2 - State Expansion
6.3 - Indigenous Responses to State Expansion
6.4 - Global Economic Development
6.5 - Economic Imperialism
6.6 - Causes of Migration in an Interconnected World
6.7 - Effects of Migration
6.8 - Causation in the Imperial Age
Unit 7: Global Conflict After 1900
 7.1 - Shifting Power
7.2 - Causes of World War 1
7.3 - Conducting World War 1
7.4 - Economy in the Interwar Period
7.5 - Unresolved Tensions After World War |
7.6 - Causes of World War II
7.7 - Conducting World War Il
7.8 - Mass Atrocities
7.9 - Causation in Global Conflict
Unit 8: Cold War and Decolonization
8.1 - Setting the Stage for the Cold War and Decolonization
8.2 - The Cold War
8.3 - Effects of the Cold War
8.4 - Spread of Communism after 1900
8.5 - Decolonization after 1900
8.6 - Newly Independent States
8.7 - Global Resistance to Established Power Structures
8.8 - End of the Cold War
8.9 - Causation in the Age of the Cold War and Decolonization
Unit 9: Globalization after 1900
9.1 - Advances in Technology and Exchange
9.2 - Technological Advancements and Limitations — Disease
9.3 - Technology and the Environment
9.4 - Economics in the Global Age
9.5 - Calls for Reform and Responses
9.6 - Globalized Culture
9.7 - Resistance to Globalization
9.8 - Institutions Developing in a Globalized World
9.9 - Continuity and Change in a Globalized World
People to Know (All Units)
1200-PRESENT:
Important Events (All Units)
1200- PRESENT:
Heimler’s BIG Ideas
Unit 1
● Song China maintained and justified its rule through Confucianism and an
imperial bureaucracy.
○ Buddhism continued to shape China’s society.
○ The Song economy flourished during this period.
● As the Abbasid Caliphate was falling apart, new Islamic political entities
emerged, and they engaged in significant expansion, while creating the occasion
for intellectual innovations and transfer.
● Hinduism, Buddhism, and Islam deeply influenced state-building in South and
Southeast Asia.
● The various civilizations of the Americas developed strong states, large urban
centers, and complex belief systems.
● African state-building was facilitated through participation in trade networks and
religion.
● State building in Europe was characterized by religious belief, feudalism, and
decentralized monarchies.
Unit 2
● Networks of exchange expanded in geographical scope and led to increasing
interactions between states.
● A major effect of the growth of trading routes was cultural diffusion.
● The increasing interconnection facilitated by trading routes led to significant
environmental consequences.
● The Mongols created the largest land-based empire in history, which facilitated
further interconnection and interaction across Afro-Eurasia.
Unit 3
● Various land-based empires developed and expanded throughout 1450-1750,
most significantly through the use of gunpowder.
● Rulers of land-based empires gained power and maintained control by
establishing bureaucracies, sponsoring the creation of art, centralizing tax
collection, and developing large militaries.
● Belief systems could play different roles in and among land-based empires.
○ In some cases, shared beliefs bound people together.
○ In other cases, conflicting beliefs caused conflict.
Unit 4
● New and updated maritime technology facilitated transoceanic trade and the
development of sea-based empires.
● European state-sponsored exploration led to a rapid expansion of trade and
trans-Atlantic contact with the Americas.
● The Columbian Exchange was the transfer of animals, plants, foods, and
diseases from Europe to the Americas, and vice versa.
○ As a result of new contact, Europeans sought to colonize the Americas.
● With transoceanic contact established, European states established empires
fueled by mercantilist economic policy and coerced labor systems.
● The development of maritime empires over time significantly changed the
economies and societies in which they were established.
● As states imposed their cultural, political, and economic will on various colonized
and enslaved people, resistance occurred.
● Social categories, roles, and practices were both maintained and underwent
significant changes.
Unit 5
● New ways of thinking embodied in the Enlightenment created the occasion for
reform and revolution.
● The ideas of the Enlightenment, combined with rising nationalism, led to various
revolutions throughout the world.
● The Industrial Revolution began in Britain and would eventually transform the
world.
● As Western industrialization spread, Middle Eastern and Asian countries’ share in
global manufacturing declined.
● The advent of new technologies fundamentally changed the landscape of
manufacturing.
● Significant economic shifts occurred during this period including the rise of free
market capitalism, transnational businesses, and increased standards of living.
Unit 6
● Various ideologies contributed to the growing development of imperialism in the
period 1750-1900.
● Imperial states employed different means of consolidating power in their empires
and expanding their empires.
● The new wave of imperialism during this period led to new waves of resistance
from colonized peoples.
● The growing need for imperial powers to extract raw materials and increase the
food supply transformed the global economy.
● Industrialized states and businesses within those states practiced economic
imperialism primarily in Asia and Latin America.
● Various environmental and economic factors contributed to patterns of migration
between 1750-1900.
Unit 7
● Internal and external factors contributed to significant change in various states
across the world after 1900.
● World War 1 was caused by a combination of militarism, alliances, imperialism,
and nationalism.
● Governments used a variety of strategies to fight World War 1 including
propaganda to mobilize their homefronts and new weapons technology on the
battlefield.
● Following WWI, governments began to take a more prominent role in their
nations’ economies.
● World War 2 was caused by the unsustainable peace agreement of WW1, the
economic crisis, and the rise of fascist regimes, most notably, Nazi Germany.
● WWII was another total war, and totalitarian and democratic nations deployed all
their nations’ resources to fight and win.
● The rise of extremist groups led to the attempted destruction of certain
populations through genocide or ethnic violence.
Unit 8
● The Cold War was a decades-long ideological struggle between the United
States and the Soviet Union that shaped, to a significant degree, the geopolitics
in the second half of the 20th century.
● The major effects of the Cold War included an arms race, new military alliances,
and proxy wars across the globe.
● During this period, some states adopted communism, but none were more
significant than China.
● The process of decolonization essentially occurred in one of two ways:
negotiated independence or armed conflict.
 ● The redrawing of political boundaries during decolonization led to conflict and
population displacement.
● In newly independent states, governments often took a strong rule in guiding
economic life in order to promote their own growth and development.
● Movements to resist oppressive power structures multiplied in this period.
○ Some were characterized by non-violence, others by violence.
● The Cold War ended because of U.S. military development, the Soviet Union’s
failed invasion of Afghanistan, and the reform policies of Mikhail Gorbachev.
Unit 9
● New technologies increased the speed of globalization and had widespread
effects on the global population in the 20th & 21st centuries.
● New and old diseases continue to pose a threat in the age of globalization.
● Globalization has created some significant environmental problems with various
attempted solutions.
● Both the nature and scope of the globalized economy have changed significantly
since 1900.
● Since 1900, increasing globalization has led to calls for reform in terms of human
rights and economic inequality.
● After 1900, culture became increasingly globalized.
● Despite all the benefits of globalization, there have also been significant
resistance movements against its effects.
● Globalization has changed the way nations and states interact across the world.
Basic Notes
Unit 1
● The Song Dynasty experienced economic, political, and cultural prosperity under
Neo-Confucianism.
● After Muhammad, Islam expanded through conquests and trade, promoting
tolerance toward monotheists.
● South Asia witnessed occasional unity but mostly decentralized governance, with
Hinduism providing cultural unity.
● Civilizations like the Aztecs and the Inca emerged, displaying advanced
governance and cultural practices.
● Sub-Saharan Africa's political landscape was shaped by Bantu migrations,
leading to the rise of larger kingdoms like Mali and Zimbabwe.
● Feudalism emerged in Europe alongside technological advancements like the
three-field system and new plows, leading to population growth.
● Mongol military strength and trade impacted state-building processes globally,
leading to the emergence of new empires.
● Religion played a vital role in state-building by providing legitimacy and unity, with
Islam, Confucianism, and Hinduism/Buddhism influencing governance.
● Increased trade facilitated cross-cultural exchanges and technological
innovations, spreading paper manufacturing and intellectual advancements.
● Social structures remained patriarchal with religion sometimes reinforcing male
power while providing opportunities for women's learning and leadership in
certain cultures.
Unit 2
● The land route of the Silk Roads became vibrant and essential for interregional
trade in the 14th and 15th centuries.
● Crusades introduced fabrics and spices to Europe, while sea routes across the
Mediterranean and Indian Ocean remained active.
● Tang China contributed compass, paper, and gunpowder to global trade.
● The rise of the Mongol Empire unified the Silk Roads, improved safety, and
established new trade channels.
● Commercial innovations like flying cash and banking houses supported
increasing trade.
● Mongols brought destruction across Eurasia in the 13th century.
● Genghis Khan expanded eastward, conquering the Jin Empire and beyond.
● Established Pax Mongolica, ensuring the safety of trade routes and promoting
religious tolerance.
● Islamic merchants connected regions from North Africa to South Asia, fostering
global exchange networks.
● Bubonic plague or "Black Death" spread via trade, causing widespread death.
Unit 3
● The emergence of large, multiethnic states in Southwest, Central, and South
Asia relied on firearms.
● Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal Empires were prominent examples of Gunpowder
Empires.
● The rise of powerful monarchies like the Tudors, Valois, and Spanish rulers
marked the transition from medieval to early modern Europe.
● Ivan IV's expansion eastward in Russia relied increasingly on gunpowder,
positioning the country for trade between Europe and Asia.
● The Ming Dynasty stabilized China, repelling Mongol invasions, while the Qing
Dynasty expanded China's borders.
● Origins in Turkic nomads' conquests, reliance on gunpowder, and conquests
characterized Islamic Gunpowder Empires.
● The Ottoman Empire reached its peak under Suleiman I but later declined due to
weak leadership.
● Centralization of power in Europe varied, with England relying on justices of the
peace and Parliament, while France embraced absolutism under Louis XIV.
● Centralizing control in the Ottoman Empire involved the Devshirme system
recruiting Christian boys for military and government service.
● Religious factions emerged in Europe, challenging the authority of the Roman
Catholic Church, and leading to significant historical shifts.
Unit 4
● Introduction of Navigation Technologies: Magnetic compass and astrolabe
facilitated navigation, originating from China and improved by Muslim navigators.
● Transoceanic Trade Developments: Christopher Columbus's voyages connected
Afro-Eurasia and the Americas, initiating extensive trade networks.
● Causes and Motivations for Maritime Exploration: Economic incentives, religious
zeal, and political ambition drove exploration.
● Portuguese Exploration and Expansion: Vasco da Gama reached India,
establishing Portuguese trade dominance.
● Spanish Exploration and Conquest: Spanish colonization in the Philippines and
the Americas yielded gold and silver.
● French and English Exploration: English colonization in Virginia challenged
Spanish dominance.
● Dutch Exploration and Colonization: Dutch merchants thrived, trading fur, crops,
and goods.
● Effects of the Columbian Exchange: Conquest and colonization devastated
indigenous populations.
● Disease and population decline were significant outcomes.
 ● Advances in ideas and equipment enhanced navigation safety.
Unit 5
● Enlightenment ideals promoted individualism, freedom, and progress.
● Declaration of Independence (1776) reflects Enlightenment ideals.
● French Revolution: Influenced by Enlightenment ideas and economic crisis.
● Bastille stormed in 1789, leading to the Reign of Terror and the rise of Napoleon.
● Haitian Revolution: Inspired by the American and French revolutions.
● Creoles led movements against Spanish rule for economic and political
autonomy.
● Germany: Bismarck's realpolitik resulted in the German Empire by 1871.
● Rise of Italy and Germany as new powers.
● Britain’s Industrial Advantages: Geographic advantages, coal resources, and
colonies provided raw materials.
● United States, Great Britain, and Germany were pivotal in the late 19th-early
20th-century advancements.
Unit 6
● Nationalist motives drove Western European powers to assert authority over
other territories to establish national identity.
● European expansion to Australia and India by Britain and to territories like
Algeria, Senegal, and Indochina by France exemplified the spread of imperialism.
● Economic motives, including the desire for profits and resources, fueled
imperialism, notably seen through companies like the East India Company
seeking raw materials.
● The "New Imperialism" era saw Britain's economic lead prompting other nations
to expand into Asia, Africa, and the Pacific for markets and resources.
● King Leopold II's conquest of the Congo Basin for Belgium exemplified state
expansion in Africa, marked by European demand for resources.
● Indigenous responses to state expansion included nationalist movements
inspired by Enlightenment ideals and resistance against colonial powers.
● Economic imperialism led to the exploitation of natural resources beyond
borders, impacting regions like Asia, Africa, and Latin America.
● The Opium Wars in China and the flooding of the Indian market with British
textiles showcased the impact of economic imperialism on colonies.
● Migration patterns, driven by economic globalization and urbanization, led to
demographic shifts and the formation of ethnic enclaves globally.
● Discriminatory legislation like the Chinese Exclusion Act in the U.S. and the
White Australia Policy highlighted racial and ethnic prejudice faced by migrant
groups.
Unit 7
● Nicholas II faced intense opposition, leading to his assassination in 1918.
● Sun Yat-sen's revolution overthrew the Qing Dynasty, leading to the
establishment of the Chinese Republic.
● Established empires collapsed under internal and external pressures, shaping a
new global order by the end of the century.
● The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand by Serbian nationalists triggered
Austria-Hungary's declaration of war on Serbia.
● Hitler's extreme views on Aryan superiority and expansionist vision fueled the
persecution of minorities and land seizure.
● Allied advances in Europe and the Pacific put Axis powers on the defensive.
● Nazis executed the Holocaust, targeting Jews and other groups.
● Power shift from Western Europe to the United States due to World Wars.
● Control of markets and resources drove imperialism and territorial expansion.
● Advances in science and technology intensified warfare, resulting in massive
civilian casualties.
Unit 8
● Post-World War II Ideological Conflict: Colonies' desire for independence
intertwined with a global ideological conflict between capitalist countries (led by
the United States) and communist countries (led by the Soviet Union).
● The U.S. emerged as the most powerful country with the least wartime losses
and an intact industrial base.
● Soviet Union developed the atomic bomb by 1949, becoming the only challenger
to the U.S. in military might and political influence.
● U.S.-Soviet tensions led to a cold war characterized by propaganda, secret
operations, and an arms race.
● Efforts resumed to undermine colonialism post-WWII, with weakened colonial
powers facing anti-colonial movements and pressure for self-determination.
● Democratic USA and the authoritarian Soviet Union emerged as global powers
after WWII.
● Churchill's 1946 speech symbolized the Cold War, highlighting the 'Iron Curtain'
between Eastern and Western Europe.
● Superpower conflicts extended to Cuba, Central America, and Africa, with
military, economic, and nuclear influences.
● Nuclear weapons deterred direct conflict between the USA and the USSR.
● The Cuban Missile Crisis brought the USA and USSR to the brink of nuclear war,
resolved through diplomacy and treaties.
Unit 9
● Advancements in radio, air travel, and shipping containers facilitated global
connectivity.
● Antibiotics revolutionized bacterial infection treatment, saving millions of lives.
● Global vaccination campaigns, like against smallpox, contributed to disease
eradication.
● Environmental changes caused by agricultural, industrial, and commercial
activities raised concerns.
● Globalization led to increased economic inequality and exploitation, prompting
resistance.
● The United Nations aimed to prevent conflicts and promote human rights
globally.
● Rapid population growth and migration reshaped societies and gender roles.
● Economic globalization intensified with the rise of Asian economies and reforms
in China and India.
● The spread of Western culture and two-way cultural exchanges transformed
global consumer culture.
● Environmental challenges, like pollution and climate change, prompted debates
and activism.

Prologue
Part 1: Human Development to c. 600 B.C.E.
● First Migrations
○ Modern humans appeared in East Africa 200,000-100,000 B.C.E.
○ Survived by hunting and foraging.
○ Developed animism and cultural diversity.
● Agricultural Revolution
○ It started around 10,000 years ago and led to surplus food.
○ Population growth, specialization, and social stratification.
● First Civilizations
○ Mesopotamia: Patriarchal, polytheistic, engaged in trade.
○ Egypt: Centralized under pharaohs, advanced in technology.
○ Indus: Advanced civilization, language undeciphered.
○ China: Highly patriarchal, revered ancestors.
○ Non-River Valley Civilizations: Olmec, and Chavin engaged in trade.
● Hinduism and Judaism
○ Hinduism: Evolved from polytheism to monotheism, belief in reincarnation
and caste system.
○ Zoroastrianism: Early monotheistic belief system focusing on good vs. evil.
 ○ Judaism: Originated around 4,000 years ago, belief in covenant with
Yahweh, influenced Christianity and Islam.
Part 2: The Classical Era, c. 600 B.C.E. to c. 600 C.E.
● Great Empires (600 B.C.E. - 600 C.E.)
○ Western Eurasia: Persian, Greek, Roman, and Byzantine empires.
○ Southern Asia: Mauryan, Gupta empires.
○ Eastern Asia: Qin, Han dynasties.
○ Mesoamerica: Mayan Empire.
○ Provided stability, and facilitated trade via the Silk Roads, Mediterranean,
and Indian Ocean.
● Spread of Buddhism
○ China: Provided alternative to Vedic beliefs, spread via trade routes.
● South Asian Developments
○ Mauryan Empire: Under Ashoka, promoted prosperity and the spread of
Buddhism.
○ Gupta Empire: Golden Age, advancements in medicine, mathematics.
● Confucianism and East Asia
○ Mandate of Heaven: Divine justification for rulership.
○ Confucianism: Emphasized education, benevolence, and respect for
authority.
○ Daoism: Harmony with nature.
○ Qin and Han Dynasties: Centralized control, and promoted trade and
cultural flourishing.
● Western Eurasian Civilizations and Christianity
○ Persia: Efficient bureaucracy, religious tolerance.
○ Greece: City-states, cultural advancements, democracy.
○ Rome: Legal advancements, decline due to internal and external
pressures.
○ Development of Christianity: Spread, adoption as official religion, impact
on future civilizations.
● Byzantine Empire
○ Constantinople: Political and economic hub, Justinian's achievements.
● Early American Civilizations
○ Teotihuacan: Multicultural city, influential in Mesoamerica.
○ Mayans: Advanced civilization with complex writing and an accurate
calendar.
● Comparisons in the Classical Age
○ Increased trade, technological innovation, and centralized government led
to longer, safer, and more comfortable lives.
 ○ Common reasons for the decline: taxation challenges, trade decline,
disease spread, social conflicts, and external attacks.
Part 3: Postclassical Civilizations, c. 600 C.E. - 1200 C.E.
● Decline of Classical Civilizations and Rise of Centralized States
○ The decline was marked by decreased trade, intellectual innovation, and
social stability.
○ The emergence of centralized states promoted peace and prosperity.
● Afro-Eurasian Trade Networks
○ Intensified after 600 C.E., facilitated by Silk Roads, Indian Ocean, and
trans-Saharan routes.
○ Exchange of goods, technology, and ideas.
● Spread of Islam
○ Muhammad's revelations led to the Quran, the birth of Islam.
○ Core principles: Five Pillars, Sharia law.
○ Sunni-Shi'a split after Muhammad's death.
● Expansion of Islam
○ Rapid spread across southern Spain, North Africa, the Middle East, and
India.
○ Abbasid Caliphate (750-1258) - Golden Age, trade, cultural
advancements.
● China: Sui and Tang Dynasties
○ Sui Dynasty (581-618): Rebuilt centralized government, and constructed
Grand Canal.
○ Tang Dynasty (618-907): Expanded boundaries, population growth, and
technological innovations.
● Japan
○ Golden age (800-1200) in art and literature.
○ The feudal system decentralized power among shogun, daimyos,
samurais, peasants, and merchants.
● Africa
○ Kin-based chiefdoms, Bantu migrations, trans-Saharan trade, rise of Great
Zimbabwe.
● South Asia and Southeast Asia
○ The decline after the Gupta Empire, the trade hub in India, and the spread
of religions.
● Europe
○ Eastern Roman Empire flourished, and the Western Roman Empire
declined.
○ Rise of Christianity, feudalism, Crusades.
● The Americas
 ○ Mayan decline, the emergence of Mississippian and Toltec civilizations.
● World in 1200
○ Recovery from decline, emergence of new states, continued trade and
cultural exchange.

Unit 1: The Global Tapestry from c.

1200 to c. 1450
1.1 - Developments in East Asia
● Song Dynasty (960-1279):
○ Prosperity and Stability:
■ China flourished economically, politically, and culturally under
Neo-Confucian influence.
○ Bureaucracy and Meritocracy:
■ Expanded imperial bureaucracy and civil service exams promoted
merit-based governance.
○ Economic Developments:
■ Agricultural advancements and manufacturing expansion led to
population growth and proto-industrialization.
○ Cultural and Intellectual Advances:
■ Woodblock printing facilitated the spread of knowledge, blending
Buddhist and Confucian ideals.
● Social Structures:
○ Urbanization and Class Hierarchy:
■ Urbanization increased, with the scholar gentry rising above the
aristocracy.
○ Women's Roles:
■ Confucian norms reinforced patriarchal society, symbolized by foot
binding.
● Comparing Japan, Korea, and Vietnam:
○ Japan:
■ Influenced by China but maintained feudal society and limited
central governance.
○ Korea:
■ Emulated Chinese politics and culture but retained strong
aristocracy.
○ Vietnam:
■ Resisted Chinese influence, maintaining distinct gender and social
structures.
● Religious Diversity in China:
 ○ Buddhism:
■ Adapted and spread, influencing culture and society, and leading to
syncretic forms like Chan Buddhism.
○ Neo-Confucianism:
■ Combined Confucian, Daoist, and Buddhist principles, emphasizing
ethics and governance.
● Military Conflict with China:
○ Vietnamese rebels resisted Chinese occupation, demonstrating expertise
in guerilla warfare.
1.2 - Developments in Dar al-Islam
● Islamic Expansion and Tolerance:
○ After Muhammad, Islam spread through conquests, trade, and missionary
efforts, fostering tolerance toward monotheists.
● Invasions and Trade Shifts:
○ Abbasid Empire faced challenges from nomads, Crusaders, Seljuks, and
Mongols, leading to economic decline.
● Cultural and Social Life:
○ Despite political fragmentation, Islamic states shared culture through trade
and learning centers.
○ Scholars in the golden age made significant advancements in various
fields.
● Commerce, Diversity, and Women's Rights:
○ Commerce thrived, merchants had high status, and slavery was practiced
but regulated.
○ Women enjoyed rights like property ownership and inheritance, influenced
by Muhammad's policies.
● Islamic Rule in Spain:
○ The Umayyad rule in Spain fostered tolerance and prosperity, contributing
to cultural exchanges that influenced European development.
1.3 - Developments in South and Southeast Asia
● Political Structures:
○ South Asia saw occasional unity but mostly decentralized governance,
with Hinduism providing cultural unity.
○ Southern India had stable Chola and Vijayanagara kingdoms, while
northern India faced Rajput conflicts and Muslim invasions.
● Religion in South Asia:
○ Islam's arrival led to a dynamic interaction with Hinduism and Buddhism,
with converts drawn voluntarily.
○ The caste system remained strong, but Islam brought some social mobility
opportunities.
 ○ The Bhakti Movement emerged, resembling Sufi mysticism and spreading
Hinduism.
● Cultural Interactions:
○ Indian religions influenced Southeast Asia, with trade routes facilitating the
spread of Hinduism and Buddhism.
○ Indian architectural styles merged with local traditions in Southeast Asian
kingdoms.
○ Islam spread through trade and Sufi missionaries, adapting to local beliefs
and practices.
1.4 - Developments in the Americas
● Emergence of Civilizations:
○ Rise of new civilizations in Mesoamerica and the Andes after the decline
of Olmecs and Chavin.
○ The first large-scale civilization in North America - Mississippian culture.
● Mississippian Culture:
○ Known for enormous earthen mounds and rigid class structure.
○ Cahokia, the largest mound, reflects advanced society.
● Chaco and Mesa Verde:
○ Innovations in architecture in the southwestern United States.
○ Decline due to the drier climate in the late 13th century.
● Maya City-States:
○ Flourished between 250 and 900 C.E. in southern Mexico and Central
America.
○ City-states governed by kings, with complex religion and science.
● Aztecs:
○ Originated as hunter-gatherers, founded Tenochtitlan in 1325.
○ It was developed into an empire with a complex tribute system and
theocracy.
○ The central role of religion includes human sacrifices.
● Inca Empire:
○ Emerged under Pachacuti in 1438, extended across South America.
○ Efficient governance, mandatory public service (mit’a), and strong religious
beliefs.
○ Contributions in mathematics, agriculture, and engineering.
● Decline of Civilizations:
○ Factors include environmental changes, diseases, and the Spanish
conquest.
○ Continuities and debates about cultural relationships among
Mesoamerican civilizations.
1.5 - Developments in Africa
● Political Structures:
○ Sub-Saharan Africa's political landscape was shaped by Bantu migrations,
leading to kin-based governance.
○ The rise of larger kingdoms like the Hausa Kingdoms, Mali, Zimbabwe,
and Ethiopia was fueled by trade and cultural exchange.
● Social Structures:
○ Communities were organized around kinship, age, and gender roles, with
slavery prevalent in various forms.
● Comparison of Slavery:
○ Slavery existed in different forms across regions, with notable slave
rebellions like the Zanj Rebellion.
● Cultural Life:
○ Music, visual arts, and storytelling played vital roles, with griots preserving
history through oral traditions.
1.6 - Developments in Europe
● Medieval Context and Feudalism:
○ Europe in the Middle Ages saw decentralized political systems and the
dominance of the Roman Catholic Church.
○ Feudalism emerged, with lords granting land (fiefs) to vassals for loyalty
and service.
● Manorial System:
○ Large estates (manors) provided economic self-sufficiency, with serfs
bound to the land in exchange for protection.
● Technological and Agricultural Advancements:
○ Advancements like the three-field system and new plows improved
agricultural efficiency, leading to population growth.
● Political Trends:
○ Monarchies grew more powerful, establishing bureaucracies, and
consultative bodies like France's Estates-General and England's
Parliament emerged.
● The Hundred Years’ War:
○ Fought between England and France, led to the development of national
identities and the spread of gunpowder weapons.
● Crusades and Religious Dynamics:
○ European Christians sought to reclaim the Holy Land, leading to cultural
exchange and technological advancements.
● Social and Economic Changes:
○ Trade expansion and agricultural surplus spurred urban growth and the
rise of the middle class (bourgeoisie).
● Jewish and Muslim Communities:
○ Despite facing discrimination, Jews and Muslims contributed to European
society through trade and cultural exchange.
● Renaissance and Intellectual Revival:
○ The Renaissance saw a revival of classical learning and humanist ideals,
leading to cultural and political transformations.
● Origins of Russia:
○ Kyivan Rus adopted Orthodox Christianity and maintained ties with
Byzantium before Mongol rule led to further separation and the
emergence of an independent Russia.
1.7 - Comparison in the Period from c. 1200 to c. 1450
● State-Building Trends (1200-1450):
○ States in core regions grew larger and more centralized, following similar
trends globally.
○ Mongol military strength, Islam, and trade impacted state-building
processes.
● Emergence of New Empires:
○ Song Dynasty in China and the Abbasid Caliphate in the Middle East
continued advancements.
○ Chola Kingdom, Vijayanagar Empire, and Delhi Sultanate in South Asia
expanded.
○ Mali in Africa, Aztecs in the Americas, and Inca in Andean regions formed
powerful states.
● Role of Religion:
○ Religion played a vital role in state-building, providing legitimacy and unity.
○ Islam, Confucianism, and Hinduism/Buddhism influenced governance in
various regions.
● Trade and Cultural Exchange:
○ Increased trade led to cross-cultural exchanges and technological
innovations.
○ Paper manufacturing, inventions, and intellectual advancements spread
across Eurasia.
● Impact of Nomadic Peoples:
○ Mongols and Turkish groups established vast empires, facilitating trade
and interactions.
○ Nomadic influence waned as organized trade and commerce networks
developed.
● Patriarchy and Religion:
○ Social structures remained patriarchal, with religion sometimes reinforcing
male power.
 ○ Religious communities provided opportunities for women's learning and
leadership in some cultures.

Unit 2: Networks of Exchange from c.

1200 to c. 1450
2.1 - The Silk Roads
● Revival of Silk Roads:
○ The land route of the Silk Roads became vibrant and essential for
interregional trade in the 14th and 15th centuries.
● Causes of Exchange Network Growth:
○ Crusades introduced fabrics and spices to Europe, while sea routes
across the Mediterranean and Indian Ocean remained active.
○ Tang China contributed compass, paper, and gunpowder to global trade.
○ The rise of the Mongol Empire unified the Silk Roads, improved safety,
and established new trade channels.
○ Transportation Improvements:
■ Caravans made travel safer.
■ China's naval advancements aided navigation and ship control.
● Effects of Exchange Network Growth:
○ The development of oases and cities along the Silk Roads facilitated trade
and cultural exchange.
○ Commercial innovations like flying cash and banking houses supported
increasing trade.
○ Demand for luxury goods led to expanded production and
proto-industrialization in China.
2.2 - The Mongol Empire and the Modern World
● Mongol Conquests:
○ Mongols brought destruction across Eurasia in the 13th century.
○ Mongol atrocities were widely reported, but they also facilitated
interregional connection and exchange.
● Mongols and Their Surroundings:
○ Mongols were nomadic clans north of the Gobi Desert, coveting wealth
closer to the Silk Roads.
○ Genghis Khan, born Temujin, united Mongols through alliances and
ruthless tactics.
● Beginning of Conquest:
○ Genghis Khan expanded eastward, conquering the Jin Empire and
beyond.
 ○ Mongol soldiers were highly skilled and disciplined, employing efficient
communication and military strategies.
● Genghis Khan at Peace:
○ Established Pax Mongolica, ensuring the safety of trade routes and
promoting religious tolerance.
○ Genghis Khan's governance focused on centralization and infrastructure
development.
● Mongol Empires Expand:
○ The grandsons of Genghis Khan expanded the empire further into Asia
and Europe.
○ Batu led the Golden Horde westward into Russia, creating tributary
relationships.
○ Hulegu invaded Abbasid territories, leading to the destruction of Baghdad.
○ Kublai Khan established the Yuan Dynasty in China, promoting religious
tolerance and cultural exchange.
● Mongols Lose Power:
○ Mongols faced resistance and alienated the Chinese by promoting
foreigners in government.
○ Attempts to expand beyond China failed, leading to the decline and
eventual overthrow of Mongol rule.
● Long-Term Impact of Mongolian Invasions:
○ Mongols facilitated interregional trade and cultural exchange.
○ Transmission of knowledge and technology occurred between different
regions.
○ Mongols inadvertently spread the bubonic plague.
○ Mongol governance influenced centralized power structures globally.
○ Mongol military tactics led to the decline of knights and walled cities in
Europe.
2.3 - Exchange in the Indian Ocean
● Expansion of Indian Ocean Trade:
○ Islamic merchants connected regions from North Africa to South Asia,
fostering global exchange networks.
○ South Asia, central to the Indian Ocean, thrived in trade due to its strategic
location.
● Causes of Expanded Exchange:
○ Spread of Islam:
■ Islamic expansion facilitated trade connections across East Africa,
Southeast Asia, and South Asia.
■ West Coast cities like Calicut flourished as hubs for trade with East
Africa and Southwest Asia.
 ○ Increased Demand for Specialized Products:
■ Regions specialized in products like fabrics, spices, porcelain, and
enslaved people.
■ Demand for unique goods drove trade expansion and economic
prosperity.
○ Environmental Knowledge:
■ Understanding monsoon winds was crucial for navigating the Indian
Ocean.
■ Advances in maritime technology, like lateen sails and the
astrolabe, aided navigation.
○ Growth of States:
■ Trade networks led to the rise of states like Malacca, which taxed
passing ships for revenue.
■ States institutionalized trade and invest in maritime infrastructure.
● Effects of Expanded Exchange:
○ Diasporic Communities:
■ Merchants settling in distant lands formed diasporic communities,
spreading cultural and religious influence.
■ Interactions with local cultures shaped the identities of these
communities.
○ Response to Increased Demand:
■ Producers increased efficiency and state involvement to meet rising
demands.
■ States like Gujarat profited significantly from customs revenue and
became trade intermediaries.
○ Swahili City-States:
■ East African city-states like Kilwa and Zanzibar thrived on the
Indian Ocean trade.
■ Trade brought wealth, cultural exchange, and architectural
development to coastal cities.
○ Significant Cultural Transfers:
■ Intensified trade facilitated exchanges in knowledge, culture,
technology, and religion.
■ The voyages of Zheng He exemplify this transfer, though they
stirred controversy in China.
■ Zheng He's expeditions led to prestige for China and concerns
about cultural influences and expenses.
2.4 - Trans-Saharan Trade Routes
● Trans-Saharan Trade:
 ○ Muslim merchants facilitated trade across the Sahara, especially after the
7th and 8th centuries.
○ Empires like Mali expanded commerce, exchanging gold, ivory, hides, and
enslaved people for salt, cloth, paper, and horses.
● Camels, Saddles, and Trade:
○ Camels became vital for traversing the Sahara due to their adaptability to
arid conditions.
○ Various types of camel saddles were developed for different purposes,
including trade.
● Caravans and Trade Routes:
○ Caravans carried goods across the Sahara, relying on oases for water and
provisions.
○ Multiple trade routes connected Sub-Saharan Africa with diverse cultures
and trading partners.
● Economic Significance:
○ Gold, acquired from West Africa, was a highly sought-after commodity.
○ Trans-Saharan trade brought wealth to societies like Ghana and Mali,
spreading Islam in the region.
● Expansion of West African Empires:
○ Mali rose to prominence in the 12th century, profiting from the gold trade
and taxing other commerce.
○ Mali's rulers, like Sundiata and Mansa Musa, established religious and
trade networks, enhancing the empire's prosperity and cultural influence.
● Decline and Succession:
○ Despite Mali's eventual decline, its efforts to strengthen Islam endured.
○ The Songhai Kingdom succeeded Mali, fostering further trade and cultural
exchange in West Africa.
● Empires in Western Eurasia and Africa:
○ Various empires, like Al-Andalus, Byzantine, and Russia, played
significant roles in trade and cultural exchange during this period.
○ Key figures, such as Sundiata, Mansa Musa, and Ibn Rushd, contributed
to the economic and intellectual growth of their respective regions.
2.5 - Cultural Consequences of Connectivity
● Trade Networks (c. 1200 - c. 1450):
○ Facilitated exchange of goods, people, and ideas across Afro-Eurasia.
○ Mongol Empire stability encouraged free trade and provided protection.
● Religious, Cultural, and Technological Impact:
○ Religious Influence:
■ Spread of Buddhism, Hinduism, and Islam influenced art and
culture.
 ○ Technological Advancements:
■ Translation of texts, agricultural innovations, and seafaring
advancements.
○ Urbanization and Decline:
■ Factors like stability, commerce, and disease impacted urban
growth and decline.
● Effects of the Crusades:
○ Increased knowledge of Eastern cultures, demand for goods, and
exposure to diseases.
● Travelers' Tales:
○ Marco Polo:
■ Influential descriptions of China's prosperity and customs.
○ Ibn Battuta:
■ Insights into Islamic lands, culture, and achievements.
○ Margery Kempe:
■ Mystical experiences and pilgrimages offer a unique medieval
perspective.
2.6 - Environmental Consequences of Connectivity
● Impact of Disease:
○ Bubonic plague or "Black Death" spread via trade, causing widespread
death.
○ Estimated to have killed 75 to 200 million people in Eurasia, peaking in
Europe from 1347 to 1351.
● Agricultural Consequences:
○ The introduction of new crops influenced land use and population growth.
○ The migration of crops like Champa rice and bananas led to increased
food production and population spikes.
● Environmental Degradation:
○ Population growth strained resources, leading to overgrazing,
deforestation, and soil erosion.
○ Little Ice Age (c. 1300 - c. 1800) and environmental factors contributed to
agricultural decline.
● Spread of Epidemics:
○ Mongol conquests facilitated the transmission of diseases like the Black
Death.
○ Caravanserai and trade routes may have aided disease spread.
○ The Black Death caused significant loss of life in Europe and other
regions, leading to economic changes and labor shifts.
○ Some regions like South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa were spared due to
fewer trading ports.
2.7 - Comparison of Economic Exchange
● Similarities Among Networks of Exchange:
○ Origins:
■ Interregional trade began before the common era, building on early
trade routes.
■ The expansion of kingdoms and empires facilitated the growth of
trade routes.
■ Stable states ensured protection for merchants and supported
technological advancements.
○ Purpose:
■ Economic exchange was the primary purpose, of trading goods for
desired items.
■ Diplomats and missionaries also traveled the routes, exchanging
ideas and beliefs.
○ Effects:
■ Trading networks led to the emergence of trading cities, fostering
centralization.
■ Wealth from trade enabled cities to invest in security measures like
navies.
■ Standardized currency facilitated transactions and commerce.
● Differences Among Networks of Exchange:
○ Goods Exchanged:
■ Different networks traded unique goods, such as silk, tin ingots, and
cowrie shells.
○ Routes and Transportation:
■ Over time, there was a shift to metal-based coin economies and the
use of "flying cash" in China.
○ Technological Inspiration:
■ China experienced proto-industrialization to meet the demand for
goods like iron and porcelain.
○ Religious Spread:
■ Networks played roles in spreading various religions, each with its
unique impact.
● Social Implications of Networks of Exchange:
○ Efficiency in Production:
■ Efforts to meet the rising demand for luxury goods drove
proto-industrialization in China.
○ Increased Trade Volume:
■ Maritime trade routes saw increased trade volume, requiring larger
ships and improved navigation.
 ○ Labor Demand:
■ Demand for labor rose, leading to various forms of labor including
free workers and enslaved people.
○ Large-scale Projects:
■ Large-scale projects like irrigation canals required organized labor,
often coordinated through kinship ties.
● Social and Gender Structures:
○ Patriarchal Societies:
■ Societies remained patriarchal, but there were exceptions where
women had more freedom and influence.
○ Women's Roles:
■ Women worked as farmers, artisans, and marketplace operators in
some regions, but overall, opportunities were limited.
● Environmental Processes:
○ Population Decline:
■ Trade routes facilitated the spread of diseases like the bubonic
plague, leading to significant population declines.
○ Cultural Diffusion:
■ Changes in trade networks promoted cultural diffusion and the
development of educational centers.
○ Environmental Strain:
■ Political instability and increased agriculture strained the
environment, leading to issues like soil erosion and overgrazing.

Unit 3: Land-Based Empires

3.1 - European, East Asian, and Gunpowder Empires
Expand
● Gunpowder Empires (1450-1750):
○ The emergence of large, multiethnic states in Southwest, Central, and
South Asia relying on firearms.
○ Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal Empires are prominent examples.
○ Militaristic societies with splendid artistic and architectural legacies.
● Europe (1450-1750):
○ The transition from the medieval to the early modern period was marked
by political and economic development.
○ Rise of powerful monarchies like the Tudors, Valois, and Spanish rulers.
○ Expansion through overseas explorations and colonization.
● Russia (1450-1750):
○ Positioned for trade between Europe and Asia.
○ Ivan IV expands eastward, relying increasingly on gunpowder.
 ○ Expansion to control fur trade routes and advance to the Pacific Ocean.
● East Asia (1450-1750):
○ The Ming Dynasty stabilizes China, repelling Mongol invasions.
○ Qing Dynasty expands China's borders under Kangxi and Qianlong.
○ Conflicts with the West over trade privileges and internal challenges.
● Islamic Gunpowder Empires:
○ Origins in Turkic nomads' conquests, reliance on gunpowder, and
conquests.
○ Tamerlane's invasions set the stage for the rise of Ottoman, Safavid, and
Mughal.
○ The Ottoman Empire reached its peak under Suleiman I but later declined
due to weak leadership.
● Decline of Gunpowder Empires:
○ The Ottoman Empire was weakened by the naval defeat at Lepanto and
internal strife.
○ The Safavid Empire declines due to economic mismanagement and
internal rebellion.
○ The Mughal Empire was weakened by corruption, military failures, and
internal conflicts, paving the way for British dominance in India.
3.2 - Empires: Administrations
● Monarchy is seen as supreme, and rulers are considered God's lieutenants on
earth
○ King James I emphasized the divine right of kings
● Methods of consolidating power varied:
○ Centralization of power in England and France through control of taxes,
military, and religion
○ Different methods were used in other states: building temples, paying the
military elite, establishing bureaucratic systems
● Centralizing control in Europe:
○ England: Tudors relied on justices of the peace, and Parliament checked
the monarch's powers
○ France: Absolutism under Louis XIV, intendants oversaw provinces
● Reigning in control in the Russian Empire:
○ Ivan IV used paramilitary force (oprichnina) to control Boyars
○ Peter the Great reformed government, created provinces, established
senate
● Centralizing control in the Ottoman Empire:
○ Devshirme system recruited Christian boys for military and government
service(Janissaries).
● Centralizing control in East and South Asia:
 ○ Ming Dynasty in China restored civil service exam, bureaucracy
○ Tokugawa shogunate reorganized governance in Japan, centralized power
○ The Mughal Empire under Akbar used zamindars and later saw the rise of
powerful local officials
● Legitimizing power through religion and art:
○ European monarchs used divine right and built grand structures (e.g., the
Palace of Versailles)
○ Other rulers promoted Islam (e.g., Askia the Great), built architectural
wonders (e.g., Taj Mahal)
● Financing empires:
○ Various methods of taxation used (e.g., land tax in Russia, tax farming in
the Ottoman Empire)
○ Tributes collected from other states as a sign of respect and allegiance
3.3 - Empires: Belief Systems
● Christianity:
○ French King Henry IV converted to Catholicism for political stability.
○ Religious factions emerged in Europe, leading to significant historical
shifts.
○ The Protestant Reformation challenged the Roman Catholic Church's
authority.
○ Lutheranism: Martin Luther's 95 Theses criticized Church practices.
○ Calvinism: John Calvin's teachings emphasized predestination.
○ Anglicanism: King Henry VIII broke from the Catholic Church to remarry.
○ Counter-Reformation efforts included the Inquisition, Jesuits, and Council
of Trent.
● Russia:
○ Peter the Great centralized power, reforming the Orthodox Church.
○ Reforms faced resistance from peasants and Old Believers.
● Religious Conflicts:
○ Wars, like the Thirty Years' War, ravaged Europe due to religious divisions.
○ France experienced Catholic-Huguenot conflicts, later mitigated by Henry
IV.
● Islamic Empires:
○ Ottoman Empire replaced Byzantine Orthodox with Islamic rule.
○ The Safavid Empire adopted strict Shi’a Islam, causing tension with the
Sunni Ottoman.
○ The Mughal Empire under Akbar promoted religious tolerance and
prosperity.
● Religious Schisms Through History:
 ○ Buddhism, Islam, Christianity: Disagreements over leadership, doctrine,
and rituals.
● Scientific Revolution:
○ Scientific thinking emerged amidst religious turmoil, based on reason and
evidence.
○ Francis Bacon's empiricism challenged traditional beliefs.
○ Isaac Newton's Principia influenced science and led to Enlightenment
ideals.
3.4 - Comparison in Land-Based Empires
● Military Might:
○ Well-trained, organized armies with gunpowder weapons dominated.
○ Elite soldiers like Janissaries and Ghulams bolstered rulers' power.
○ Warfare among empires, influenced by religion and territorial disputes,
was common.
● Centralized Bureaucracy:
○ Empires established organized bureaucracies to govern diverse
populations.
○ Ming and Manchu China used civil service exams, while the Ottoman
Empire relied on the devshirme system.
○ Taxation was vital to sustain bureaucracies and militaries.
● Striving for Legitimacy:
○ Religion, art, and architecture were used to unite diverse subjects.
○ Islamic rulers referred to titles like "caliph," while European monarchs
claimed divine right.
○ Monumental architecture, religious rituals, and patronage of the arts
symbolized legitimacy.
● Decline of Empires:
○ Gunpowder Empires faltered due to competition with European trading
companies, internal conflicts, and weak leadership.
○ Religious schisms, like Sunni-Shi’a divisions, weakened empires like the
Mughals and Safavids.
● Interactions and Influences:
○ Cultural blending occurred as conquered peoples influenced conquerors.
○ The interconnectedness of hemispheres led to further cultural exchange.
● Examples:
○ Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal Empires showcased military strength,
bureaucratic organization, and cultural patronage.
○ Ming China, Aztec, and Inca Empires employed centralized bureaucracies
and taxation systems.
Unit 4: Transoceanic Interconnections
from c. 1450 to c. 1750
4.1 - Technological Innovations
● Introduction of Navigation Technologies:
○ Magnetic compass and astrolabe facilitated navigation, originating from
China and improved by Muslim navigators.
○ Caravel, a three-masted ship, developed by Portuguese in the 15th
century, enhanced sea survival during storms.
○ Cartography, knowledge of currents, wind patterns, and star navigation
improved maritime exploration.
● Demographic Pressures and Exploration Motivations:
○ Population growth and inheritance laws drove Europeans to seek new
lands for opportunities.
○ Religious minorities sought tolerance and settlement areas in the early
17th century.
○ Europeans ventured into exploration motivated by wealth, conversions,
and adventure.
● Transoceanic Trade Developments:
○ European involvement in Indian Ocean trade increased in the 16th
century, facing competition from Middle Eastern traders.
○ Christopher Columbus's voyages connected Afro-Eurasia and the
Americas, initiating extensive trade networks.
○ European maritime empires emerged, trading various goods from the
Americas, Africa, and Asia.
● Technological Contributions from Classical, Islamic, and Asian Cultures:
○ The exchange of sailing knowledge between classical Greek, Islamic, and
Asian cultures influenced European naval advancements.
○ Prince Henry the Navigator promoted exploration along Africa's Atlantic
coast, facilitating Portugal's maritime expansion.
● Advances in Ideas and Equipment:
○ Scholars' discoveries, like Newton's gravitation and accurate wind records,
enhanced navigation safety.
○ Cartography improvements aided navigation accuracy, dating back to
ancient times.
○ The development of rudders, lateen sails, and magnetic compasses
revolutionized ship maneuverability and direction finding.
● Long-Term Effects of Technological Exchange:
 ○ Navigation techniques fusion spurred rapid exploration and global trade
expansion.
○ Gunpowder's introduction aided European conquests but also led to pirate
activities.
○ Islam spread in North and East Africa due to the Abbasid Empire's
influence and trade interactions.
○ Navigational knowledge dissemination continued, evidenced by Tsar Peter
the Great's interest in European technology in the 17th century.
4.2 - Exploration: Causes and Events
● Causes and Motivations for Maritime Exploration:
○ Economic incentives, religious zeal, and political ambition drove
exploration.
○ European states sought new trade routes due to the Italian monopoly on
Asian trade.
● State-Sponsored Expansion:
○ European states sponsored voyages to expand authority, resources, and
wealth.
○ State support was crucial due to the high cost of exploration.
● Portuguese Exploration:
○ Prince Henry the Navigator initiated exploration along African and Indian
routes.
○ Vasco da Gama reached India, establishing Portuguese trade dominance.
● Portuguese Expansion in Asia:
○ Admiral Afonso de Albuquerque secured Portuguese control in the Indian
Ocean.
○ Portuguese presence influenced Chinese society and attracted
missionaries.
● Trading Post Empire:
○ Portugal established a global trading post empire with forts and
monopolistic policies.
○ Dutch competition and corruption weakened Portuguese control.
● Spanish Exploration and Conquest:
○ Ferdinand Magellan's voyage circumnavigated the globe, enriching Spain.
○ Spanish colonization in the Philippines and the Americas yielded gold and
silver.
● French and English Exploration:
○ French and English explorers sought new routes to Asia, finding wealth in
the fur trade and colonization.
○ English colonization in Virginia challenged Spanish dominance in the
Americas.
● Dutch Exploration and Colonization:
○ Dutch claims in North America, including New Amsterdam, fueled trade
networks.
○ Dutch merchants thrived, trading fur, crops, and manufactured goods with
the Netherlands.
4.3 - Columbian Exchange
● Disastrous Impact on Native Peoples:
○ Conquest and colonization devastated indigenous populations with
disease and warfare.
○ New cultures emerged from the interaction of indigenous American,
European, and African traditions.
● Disease and Population Decline:
○ Smallpox, measles, and other diseases from Europe caused catastrophic
population loss.
○ Indigenous American populations declined by over 50%, some by up to
90%.
● Exchange of Foods and Animals:
○ Columbian Exchange introduced new crops and livestock to both
hemispheres.
○ Europeans brought horses and agricultural staples to the Americas;
indigenous crops like maize spread to Europe.
● Cash Crops and Forced Labor:
○ Enslaved Africans brought to the Americas introduced new foods and
cultures.
○ Sugar plantations in Brazil and the Caribbean relied on African labor which
led to demographic shifts.
● African Presence and Cultural Influence:
○ Enslaved Africans retained elements of their cultures, such as music and
food.
○ Creole languages and musical styles like jazz and reggae emerged from
African influences.
● Environmental Impact:
○ Intensive agriculture in the Americas led to deforestation and soil
depletion.
○ European settlements strained water resources and increased pollution.
4.4 - Maritime Empires Link Regions
● European Empire Establishment (1450-1750):
○ European nations established maritime empires driven by political,
religious, and economic motives.
 ○ Asian trade exchanged silver and gold for luxury goods, while American
colonies relied on agriculture.
● Labor Systems in the Americas:
○ Introduced indentured servitude and chattel slavery to American
plantations.
○ The growth of plantations increased demand for enslaved Africans,
leading to social and cultural changes.
● State-Building and Empire Expansion:
○ European explorations laid the foundation for maritime empires.
○ Trading posts were established in Africa and Asia, with some local rulers
participating in the slave trade.
● European Rivalries:
○ France and Britain competed globally, establishing trading posts in India.
○ Seven Years' War (1756-1763) led to Britain's victory in India and France's
expulsion.
● Colonization in the Americas:
○ Spanish and Portuguese conquests devastated the Aztec and Inca
empires, leading to colonization.
○ The Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) divided the Americas between Spain and
Portugal.
● Economic Systems and Labor:
○ Indian Ocean trading networks adapted to European influences.
○ Spanish exploitation of gold and silver in the Americas fueled mercantilism
and labor coercion.
● Transport and Treatment of Enslaved Africans:
○ Enslaved Africans were violently captured, transported in inhumane
conditions, and sold in the Americas.
○ The slave trade caused demographic, social, and cultural changes in
Africa and the Americas.
● Indian Ocean Slave Trade:
○ East Africans were enslaved and transported to the Middle East and India,
contributing to cultural exchange.
4.5 - Maritime Empires Develop
● Dutch East India Company Charter (1602):
○ All residents are allowed to invest, democratizing participation.
● Maritime Empires' Economic Transformation:
○ Shift to large-scale international trade via joint-stock companies.
○ Opened new ocean trade routes, fostering a global economy.
● 17th Century Economic Strategies:
○ Emphasized exporting goods for gold and silver accumulation.
 ○ Capital accumulation increased through long-distance markets.
○ The rise of joint-stock companies reduced investment risks.
● Dutch Dominance in Commerce and Finance:
○ Dutch-led trade routes, banking, and stock exchange.
○ Vryburg and Dutch East India Company drove profits.
● Triangular Trade and Atlantic Slave Trade:
○ European demand was fueled by the Atlantic slave trade.
○ West Africa became a major source of enslaved labor.
○ Sugar, tobacco, and enslaved labor were trade staples.
● Colonial Administration and Cultural Suppression:
○ Colonial administrations replaced Indigenous political structures.
○ Cultural suppression led to the loss of indigenous culture and history.
● Syncretic Belief Systems:
○ African and indigenous religions blended with Christianity.
○ Examples include Santeria, Vodun, and Candomblé.
● Global Interactions and Religious Conflicts:
○ Spread of Islam and syncretic religions due to global interactions.
○ Religious differences fueled conflicts, such as the Sunni-Shi'a split.
4.6 - Internal and External Challenges to State Power
● Resistance to Portugal in Africa:
○ Dutch and English push Portugal out of South Asia.
○ Ana Nzinga allies with the Dutch against Portuguese raids.
● Local Resistance in Russia:
○ Serfs were oppressed by nobility; tied to the land, and sold with it.
○ Cossack rebellion against Catherine the Great's reforms.
● Rebellion in South Asia:
○ Maratha Empire rises against Mughal rule, ending it.
● Revolts in the Spanish Empire:
○ Pueblo Revolt in New Mexico against Spanish colonization.
○ Maroons in the Caribbean fight for freedom.
● Struggles for Power in England and Its Colonies:
○ Maroon wars and slave revolts in Caribbean colonies.
○ Metacom’s War in New England against British Colonization.
○ The Glorious Revolution strengthens Parliament's power in England.
4.7 - Changing Social Hierarchies
● Treatment of Jews in Europe:
○ Expelled from England (1290), France (1394), and Spain (1492).
○ Ottoman Empire provided refuge for fleeing Jews.
● Social Classes Across Civilizations:
 ○ Distinct hierarchies: royalty, nobility, scholars, soldiers, merchants,
artisans, peasants, serfs, enslaved.
○ Policies discriminated based on religion, ethnicity, and class.
● Gunpowder Empires:
○ Ottoman Empire: Warrior aristocracy vs. ulama; Janissaries' rise and
coups.
○ Relative tolerance towards Jews and Christians in the Ottoman Empire.
○ Mughal Empire's religious tolerance under Akbar the Great.
● Women in the Ottoman Empire:
○ Roxelana's rise to power; influence in harem politics.
● Manchu Power in the Qing Dynasty:
○ Ethnic tensions; assimilation policies.
○ Han Chinese massacres for non-compliance.
● European Social Hierarchy:
○ Royalty, aristocracy, middle class, peasants, serfs, enslaved.
○ Nobility's struggle for power against royalty and emerging middle class.
● Growing Acceptance of Jews:
○ Expelled from Spain but resettled; Sephardic and Ashkenazi distinctions.
○ The decline in prejudice with the scientific revolution and Enlightenment.
● Russian Social Structure:
○ Boyars' tensions with rulers; Ivan the Terrible's consolidation of power.
○ Development of serfdom; loss of personal freedom.
● Social Structures in the Americas:
○ New hierarchy based on race and ancestry.
○ Casta system in Latin America: peninsulares, criollos, castas.
○ Indigenous peoples and enslaved Africans are at the bottom.
4.8 - Continuity and Change from c. 1450 to c. 1750
● Transoceanic Travel and Trade:
○ Columbian Exchange facilitated biological exchange.
○ Emergence of Atlantic System: Western Europe, Western Africa,
Americas.
○ Technology advancements enabled transoceanic voyages.
● Economic Changes:
○ Integration of Western Hemisphere into global trade network.
○ Rise of maritime trading empires: Portuguese, Dutch, English.
○ Colonization in the Americas was fueled by the discovery of silver
deposits.
● Mercantilism and Capitalism:
○ Mercantilist policies to ensure ruler's income.
○ Transition to capitalism with joint-stock companies.
● Effects of New Global Economy:
○ Wealth influx into Europe fueled the expansion of the middle class.
○ Inflation is due to an increase in circulating money.
○ Funding for arts increased; art symbolized global trade.
○ Rise of demand for labor: African slave trade, indentured servants.
○ The emergence of new social structures in American colonies based on
racial/ethnic identity.

Unit 5: Revolutions from c. 1750 to c.

1900
5.1 - The Enlightenment
● Enlightenment Thinkers Emphasized Reason and Individualism:
○ Descartes and others prioritized reason over tradition.
○ This period challenged monarchies and church authority.
● Optimism and Progress Defined Enlightenment Thought:
○ Enlightenment ideals promoted individualism, freedom, and progress.
○ Intellectuals believed applying reason would lead to societal
advancement.
● New Ideas Led to Social and Political Change:
○ Schools of thought like socialism and liberalism emerged.
○ These clashed with conservatism, favored by European elites.
● Roots of Enlightenment Thought:
○ Bacon emphasized empirical scientific methods.
○ Hobbes and Locke explored social contract theory.
● Influence of the Philosophes:
○ Enlightenment thinkers like Voltaire advocated for civil liberties.
○ Montesquieu's ideas influenced constitutional systems.
● Contributions of Rousseau and Adam Smith:
○ Rousseau expanded social contract theory and inspired revolutionaries.
○ Adam Smith laid the foundations for capitalism and free trade.
● Deism and Thomas Paine's Advocacy:
○ Deists viewed divinity as setting natural laws in motion.
○ Paine's writings, including "The Age of Reason," defended Deism.
● Intellectual Trends from 1250 to 1789:
○ Thinkers across periods contributed to intellectual evolution.
○ From Aquinas to Rousseau, ideas evolved toward reason and human
rights.
● Social and Political Impact:
○ Enlightenment ideas led to reforms in education, politics, and society.
 ○ Movements like feminism and abolitionism gained momentum.
● The emergence of Zionism:
○ Zionism aimed at establishing a Jewish homeland.
○ The movement grew due to anti-Semitism and the Dreyfus Affair.
5.2 - Nationalism and Revolutions
● American Revolution:
○ Roots in Enlightenment philosophy and economic grievances against
British mercantilism.
○ Declaration of Independence (1776) reflects Enlightenment ideals.
● French Revolution:
○ Influenced by Enlightenment ideas and economic crisis.
○ Formation of National Assembly after Estates-General meeting.
○ Bastille stormed in 1789, leading to the Reign of Terror and the rise of
Napoleon.
● Haitian Revolution:
○ Inspired by the American and French revolutions.
○ Led by Toussaint L'Ouverture, resulting in independence in 1804.
● Latin American Revolutions:
○ Creoles led movements against Spanish rule for economic and political
autonomy.
○ Bolivar played a significant role in Latin American independence.
● Nationalism and Unification in Europe:
○ Italy: Cavour and Garibaldi's efforts led to unification.
○ Germany: Bismarck's realpolitik resulted in the German Empire by 1871.
○ Rise of Italy and Germany as new powers.
○ Increased nationalism led to World War I.
● Balkan and Ottoman Nationalism:
○ Balkan regions sought independence influenced by Enlightenment ideas.
○ Ottomanism intensified nationalist urges, leading to independence
movements.
● Future of Nationalism:
○ Signs of decline in Europe with cooperation and integration.
○ A potential shift towards larger political groupings beyond nationalism.
5.3 - Industrial Revolution Begins
● Agricultural Improvements:
○ Crop rotation, seed drill, and introduction of potatoes increased food
production.
○ Demographic changes fueled by improved agriculture supported the
industrial workforce.
● Preindustrial Societies:
 ○ The rise of cotton demand led to the cottage industry system.
○ The cottage industry transitioned to factory-based production with
technological advancements.
● Growth of Technology:
○ Spinning Jenny, water frame, and division of labor revolutionized the
textile industry.
○ Interchangeable parts system and assembly line increased efficiency.
● Britain’s Industrial Advantages:
○ Geographic advantages, coal resources, and colonies provided raw
materials.
○ Natural river networks and strong fleets facilitated transportation.
○ Legal protection of private property and the growing population supported
industrial growth.
● Urbanization:
○ The enclosure movement displaced farmers, driving rural-to-urban
migration.
○ Urbanization fueled the workforce for burgeoning industries.
5.4 - Industrialization Spreads
● Spread of Industrialization:
○ Britain's cottage industry was supplanted by factory-based cotton
manufacture.
○ Belgium, France, Germany, Russia, Japan, and the United States followed
Britain's lead.
● France and Germany:
○ France: Sparsely populated urban centers, disrupted by the French
Revolution.
○ Germany: Fragmented politically until unification in 1871, then rapidly
industrialized.
● The United States:
○ Leading industrial force by 1900, benefited from human capital influx via
immigration.
● Agricultural Products for Trade (19th Century):
○ Rubber (Britain), Cotton (Britain), Cooking oil (Britain), Refined sugar
(Britain), Textiles (Britain).
● Russia:
○ Industrialization focused on railroads and exports and became fourth
fourth-largest steel producer by 1900.
● Japan:
○ Defensive modernization in the mid-19th century led to the emergence of
a leading world power by the late 19th century.
● Shifts in Manufacturing:
○ The decline of Middle Eastern and Asian manufacturing share in the
global market.
● Impact of British Colonial Rule:
○ Shipbuilding and ironworks declined in India due to mismanagement and
tariffs.
○ Textile production in India and Egypt was undermined by British policies
favoring British mills.
5.5 - Technology in the Industrial Age
● The Coal Revolution:
○ James Watt's steam engine revolutionized by harnessing coal power.
○ Steam power enabled steamships, enhancing mobility and reliability.
○ Coal facilitated the mass production of iron, leading to innovations like the
Bessemer Process.
● A Second Industrial Revolution:
○ United States, Great Britain, and Germany were pivotal in the late
19th-early 20th-century advancements.
○ Steel production surged with the Bessemer Process.
○ Oil drilling commenced in the mid-1800s, leading to innovations in energy
use.
○ Electricity is harnessed through effective generators, leading to
electrification and communication advancements.
● Global Trade and Migration:
○ Railroads, steamships, and telegraphs revolutionized exploration,
development, and communication.
○ Industrialized countries intensified industrialization, increasing demand for
resources.
○ Colonization aimed at securing resource access and markets.
○ Transportation advancements opened interior regions for exploration and
development.
5.6 - Industrialization: Government’s Role
● Ottoman Empire:
○ Failed adoption of Western technology and Enlightenment ideas.
○ Corruption, ethnic nationalism, and internal strife led to decline.
○ Fragmentation post-World War I, was replaced by the Republic of Turkey
and independent states.
● China:
○ Humiliations from Europeans in the 19th century hindered industrialization
efforts.
 ○ A weak central government struggled to promote industrialization
effectively.
● Japan:
○ Active pursuit of Western innovations to achieve parity with Western
countries.
○ The Meiji Restoration was marked by reforms based on Western
institutions and technologies.
● Ottoman Industrialization:
○ Muhammad Ali's reforms in Egypt aimed at modernization and
industrialization.
○ State-sponsored industrialization initiatives in textiles, armaments, and
shipbuilding.
● Japan and the Meiji Restoration:
○ The threat of Western powers prompted the Meiji Restoration in 1868.
○ Reforms included the abolition of feudalism, the establishment of
constitutional monarchy, and military reorganization.
○ Investments in infrastructure, education, and key industries drove rapid
economic growth.
● Role of Private Investments:
○ Zaibatsu played a crucial role in Japan's industrialization, akin to
conglomerates in the West.
○ Private investment incentivized technological innovation and industrial
growth.
5.7 - Economic Developments and Innovations
● Adam Smith and Capitalism:
○ "Wealth of Nations" (1776) advocated capitalism and private
entrepreneurship.
○ Shift from mercantilism to laissez-faire policies promoting minimal
government involvement in commerce.
● Emergence of Transnational Institutions:
○ Banks like HSBC and manufacturers like Unilever supported economic
ideas promoting trade.
○ Trade expansion led to increased availability, affordability, and variety of
consumer goods.
● Effects on Business Organization:
○ Rise of giant corporations to minimize risk during the Industrial Revolution.
○ Corporations facilitated monopolies and transnational operations, leading
to wealth and influence.
● Corporations:
 ○ Flexible structure for large-scale economic activity, replacing sole
proprietorships and partnerships.
○ Four features: Limited Liability, Transferability of Shares, Juridical
Personality, and Indefinite Duration.
● Banking and Finance:
○ Insurance, especially marine insurance, reduces risk for merchants and
entrepreneurs.
○ The rise in the number of banks provided reliable places for deposits and
loans for business ventures.
● Effect on Mass Culture:
○ A culture of consumerism and leisure developed among the working and
middle classes.
○ Increased advertising targeted the middle class with disposable income.
○ Popularization of leisure activities like biking and boating, supported by
corporations.
○ Public culture commercialization is seen in the construction of music halls
and public parks catering to diverse social classes.
5.8 - Reactions to the Industrial Economy
● Resistance and Reform in Industrial Societies:
○ "Mother" Jones and labor activism highlighted harsh industrial conditions.
○ Philosophers like John Stuart Mill and utopian socialists sought social
reforms.
○ Formation of labor unions for better pay and working conditions.
● Labor Unions and Social Reforms:
○ Sadler Report (1833) raised awareness of poor working conditions.
○ Labor unions advocated for bargaining rights, resulting in reforms like
minimum wage laws and limits on working hours.
○ Expansion of voting rights and child labor regulations improved workers'
lives.
● Intellectual Reaction:
○ A shift from individual entrepreneurship to transnational businesses led to
new ideologies.
○ Utilitarianism advocated gradual reforms for the greatest good.
○ Karl Marx's critique of capitalism and advocacy for socialism.
● Reform Efforts in the Ottoman Empire:
○ Mahmud II's reforms modernized Ottoman administration and law.
○ Tanzimat reforms (1839-1876) aimed at centralizing government and
secularizing education.
○ Economic changes and legal reforms reshaped society, but conservative
opposition persisted.
● Reform Efforts in China:
○ Self-Strengthening Movement aimed at modernizing China's military and
economy.
○ Hundred Days of Reform led by Kang Youwei focused on sweeping
changes including the abolition of civil service exams.
○ Conservative opposition, led by Empress Dowager Cixi, halted reforms
and resisted foreign influence.
● Reform Efforts in Japan:
○ End of the samurai system and rapid modernization during the Meiji
Restoration.
○ Liberalization led to improvements in literacy, industrialization, and
democratic traits.
○ The rise of army dominance in government marked a decline in
liberalization efforts.
5.9 - Society and the Industrial Age
● Urbanization and Social Impact:
○ Charles Dickens illustrated contrasts between middle-class comfort and
urban poverty.
○ Rapid urban growth led to inhumane living conditions for the working
class.
○ Municipal reforms improved sanitation, leading to increased living
standards over time.
● Effects on Class Structure:
○ The emergence of the working class, middle class, and industrialist elite
due to industrialization.
○ Industrialists replaced landed aristocracy as societal leaders.
● Effect on Women's Lives:
○ Working-class women labored in factories while middle-class women were
idealized as homemakers.
○ Industrialization also spurred feminism, opening new opportunities for
women's equality.
● Effects on the Environment:
○ The Industrial Revolution relied on fossil fuels, leading to air and water
pollution.
○ Pollution causes respiratory problems and diseases like cholera and
typhoid.
● Legacy of the Industrial Revolution:
○ Mass production made goods more accessible but also led to
environmental degradation.
 ○ Global inequalities increased as industrialized nations sought resources,
leading to colonization.
5.10 - Continuity and Change in the Industrial Age
● Economic Continuities and Changes
○ The Industrial Revolution transformed production, introducing mass
production and automation.
○ The West led industrialization due to natural resources, trade routes, and
financial capital.
● Social Continuities and Changes
○ Industrialization led to urbanization and the emergence of a working class.
○ The middle class expanded, with new occupations like factory managers.
○ Industrialists replaced the landed aristocracy as the wealthiest class.
● Gender and Industrialization
○ Women's roles shifted due to factory work, becoming vital contributors to
family income.
● Political Continuities and Changes
○ Enlightenment ideals influenced political demands, including protests for
voting rights.
○ Revolutions of 1848 reflected calls for press freedom, parliamentary
checks on monarchs, and national independence.

Unit 6: Consequences of
Industrialization from c. 1750 to c.
1900
6.1 - Rationales for Imperialism
● Nationalist Motives for Imperialism:
○ Western European powers asserted authority over other territories to
assert national identity.
○ Britain, France, Spain, Portugal, and the Netherlands possessed overseas
colonies.
● European Nationalism:
○ Britain expanded to Australia and India.
○ France expanded to Algeria, New Caledonia, Senegal, and Indochina.
● Cultural and Religious Motives for Imperialism:
○ Colonial powers justified imperialism through cultural superiority and
religious missions.
○ Pseudoscientific theories like Social Darwinism reinforced racial
ideologies.
● Economic Motives for Imperialism:
○ Companies like the East India Company sought profits through raw
materials and markets.
○ The Industrial Revolution fueled the desire for colonies to provide
resources and markets for manufactured goods.
● East India Company:
○ Granted a monopoly on England's trade with India, expanded to control
regions in India, and engaged in the slave trade.
● Dutch East India Company:
○ Granted monopoly on trade between the Cape of Good Hope and the
Straits of Magellan, concentrated on islands around Java.
● "New Imperialism":
○ Britain's economic lead prompted other nations to expand into Asia, Africa,
and the Pacific for markets and resources.
6.2 - State Expansion
● King Leopold II and Belgian Imperialism:
○ Leopold sought to conquer the Congo Basin for Belgium.
○ Established a private colony due to government ambivalence.
○ Belgian Parliament revoked his rule in 1908 due to abuse.
● Imperialism in Africa:
○ Long-standing European-African relations due to the slave trade.
○ European demand for African resources drove imperialism.
○ European presence expanded beyond trading posts in the 1800s.
● Imperialism in South Asia:
○ England's East India Company expanded into India.
○ French and Portuguese competition for Indian control.
● Imperialism in East Asia:
○ China faced spheres of influence due to internal issues.
○ Japan pursued territorial gains after industrialization.
● Imperialism in Southeast Asia:
○ Dutch, French, and British established control for economic gain.
○ Siam avoided imperialism through diplomacy and modernization.
● Australia and New Zealand:
○ Britain established colonies for penal purposes and resource exploitation.
○ New Zealand faced conflicts with Maori inhabitants.
● U.S. Imperialism:
○ The U.S. acquired territories in Latin America and the Pacific.
○ Expansion is driven by economic, nationalistic, and cultural motives.
● Comparing Imperialism:
 ○ Various types including state-run colonies, settler colonies, and economic
domination.
● Russian Expansion:
○ Catherine II and Alexander I expanded the Russian Empire.
○ Russian-American Company explored Alaska and California.
○ Russian push into Central Asia led to a rivalry with Britain.
6.3 - Indigenous Responses to State Expansion
● Nationalist Movements in Response to European Imperialism:
○ The emergence of nationalist movements in South America, Africa, and
Asia.
○ Leaders educated in European style were influenced by Enlightenment
ideals.
○ Resistance led to the creation of new states.
● Nationalist Movements in the Balkans:
○ Inspired by the French Revolution, ethnic nationalism emerged.
○ Serbia, Greece, Bosnia, Herzegovina, Montenegro, and Bulgaria rebelled
against Ottoman rule.
○ Russo-Turkish War (1877) led to the liberation of certain territories.
● Resistance and Rebellion in the Americas:
○ Indigenous peoples' resistance in North America against British
colonialism.
○ Cherokee Nation assimilated but faced displacement due to U.S.
expansionism.
○ Ghost Dance movement among Native American tribes, culminating in the
Wounded Knee Massacre.
● Tupac Amaru II and French Intervention in Mexico:
○ Tupac Amaru II led the last general Indian revolt against Spain in Peru.
○ French intervention in Mexico led to the establishment of Maximilian as
emperor, which ended with Mexican resistance.
● South Asian Movements:
○ Indian Rebellion of 1857 sparked by greased rifle cartridges, marked the
emergence of Indian nationalism.
○ Formation of the Indian National Congress in 1885 calling for self-rule.
● Southeast Asian Resistance:
○ Vietnam and Philippine resistance against French and Spanish colonial
rule respectively.
○ Vietnamese resistance led by Ham Nghi and Phan Dinh Phung.
○ Philippine Revolution and subsequent Philippine-American War.
● Resistance in Australia and New Zealand:
○ Aboriginal resistance against European settlement in Australia.
 ○ Maori wars against British settlers in New Zealand.
● African Resistance:
○ Sokoto Caliphate resisted British colonialism in West Africa.
○ Xhosa Cattle Killing Movement and wars against the British in South
Africa.
○ Samory Touré's resistance against the French in Guinea.
○ Mahdist Revolt against Egyptian-British rule in Sudan.
○ Yaa Asantewaa War against British in Ghana.
6.4 - Global Economic Development
● Economic Imperialism Driven by Environmental Factors:
○ European industrialization fueled demand for raw materials like cotton,
rubber, and palm oil from Asia and Africa.
○ American agriculture relied on South American guano as fertilizer.
● Technological Developments:
○ Railroads:
■ Lowered transportation costs and facilitated movement of raw
materials and goods.
○ Telegraph:
■ Revolutionized communication, enabling instant transmission of
news.
● Agricultural Products:
○ Shift from subsistence farming to cash crops under colonial rule.
○ Demand for meat led to cattle ranching in South America and sheep
herding in Australia and New Zealand.
○ Guano from Peru and Chile served as a valuable natural fertilizer.
● Raw Materials:
○ Cotton:
■ British textile mills relied heavily on cotton from the United States,
India, and Egypt.
○ Rubber:
■ Demand for rubber led to the exploitation of rubber trees in South
America and Southeast Asia.
○ Palm Oil:
■ Used for lubrication in European factories, palm oil became a
valuable commodity from West Africa to Southeast Asia.
● Global Consequences:
○ Industrialization spurred the need for global trade and investment.
○ Commercial extraction led to monocultures, deforestation, and
environmental degradation in former colonies.
6.5 - Economic Imperialism
● Rise of Economic Imperialism:
○ The shift of economic influence to industrialized states.
○ The exploitation of natural resources and labor beyond borders.
○ Development of export economies in colonies.
● Imperialism in Asia:
○ Opium Trade in China:
■ British profited from opium sales to China despite objections.
■ Opium Wars resulted from Chinese attempts to curtail trade.
○ Impact on India:
■ British flooded the Indian market with cheap textiles.
■ India shifted from a textile producer to a raw cotton supplier for
Britain.
○ Dutch East Indies:
■ Transitioned from spice trade to agricultural production.
■ Imposed Culture System forced cash crop production or unpaid
labor.
● Imperialism in Africa:
○ Exploitation of Resources:
■ Conversion of land to cash crop production for European markets.
■ Vulnerability to droughts and economic decline.
○ Slave Labor and Cash Crops:
■ Enslaved people used to produce cash crops like oil palms, coffee,
and cocoa.
■ Quaker-owned companies opposed slave labor, impacting
production in colonies.
● Imperialism in Latin America:
○ Role of European Powers:
■ Britain, France, and Germany invested heavily in Latin American
economies.
■ British investments transformed Argentina into a major economic
power.
○ Impact of United States:
■ U.S. investments in Mexico and Cuba supported infrastructure and
industry.
■ Monroe Doctrine asserted U.S. influence in Latin America.
○ Foreign Control and Influence:
■ Foreign companies exerted control over Central American
economies.
 ■ The term "banana republics" was coined to describe politically
unstable states under foreign dominance.
● Economic Imperialism in Hawaii:
○ American businesses and sugar planters overthrew the Hawaiian
monarchy in 1893.
○ Hawaii became a territory of the United States in 1898.
● Context of Economic Imperialism:
○ The Industrial Revolution fueled the demand for raw materials and
provided technology for territorial control.
○ Steamships, railroads, and military weapons facilitated economic
expansion beyond national borders.
6.6 - Causes of Migration in an Interconnected World
● Economic Globalization and Urbanization:
○ Industrialization led to urban population growth.
○ Lebanese merchants and Italian laborers relocated for economic reasons.
○ Irish settlers cited permanent resettlement to escape economic and
political difficulties.
● Migration through Labor Systems:
○ Slavery and Coerced Labor:
■ Demand for agricultural goods fueled coerced migration.
■ Indian, Chinese, and Japanese laborers migrated for plantation
work.
○ Asian Contract Laborers:
■ Chinese and Indian workers were forced into servitude as
substitutes for slave labor.
■ The media criticized the system as akin to slavery, leading to its
eventual end.
○ British Penal Colonies:
■ Britain transported convicts to Australia for labor.
■ Convicts performed various tasks and contributed to Australia's
development.
● Migration in the Face of Challenges:
○ Diasporas and Forced Migrations:
■ African slave trade resulted in involuntary emigration.
■ Poverty, political conditions, and famine drove other diasporas.
○ Examples of Diasporas:
■ Indian diaspora due to poverty and British recruitment for labor.
■ Chinese diaspora was influenced by gold rushes and economic
opportunities.
 ■ Irish emigration due to famine, religious discrimination, and political
unrest.
■ Italian diaspora driven by poverty, organized crime, and land
scarcity.
● Migration to Settler Colonies:
○ Role of Settler Colonies:
■ British citizens migrated to settler colonies like Canada, South
Africa, and Australia.
■ Technical experts, engineers, and geologists contributed to colonial
development.
○ Examples of Settler Colonies:
■ Argentina attracted British businessmen and contributed to its
economic growth.
■ Japan's Colonization Society aimed to export surplus population
and goods.
■ Japanese migration to America faced tensions and anti-immigrant
sentiment.
● Impact of Transportation and Urbanization:
○ Improvements in Transportation:
■ Japanese laborers went to Hawaii and the South Pacific under
contract.
■ Italian industrial workers migrated to Argentina with similar
arrangements.
○ Urbanization:
■ Most industries are located in urban areas, attracting internal and
external migrants.
■ Cities globally increased in size and influence due to migration
influx.
6.7 - Effects of Migration
● Patterns of Migration (1750-1900):
○ Demographic Changes and Ethnic Enclaves:
■ Migration led to demographic shifts and the formation of ethnic
enclaves.
■ Migrants maintained their native culture while influencing new
locations.
■ Chinese immigrants formed enclaves globally, spreading their
culture.
■ Indian migrants thrived in Southeast Asia under colonial rule.
○ Racial and Ethnic Prejudice:
 ■ Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 suspended immigration of Chinese
laborers to the U.S.
■ Migrant groups faced racial and ethnic discrimination.
● Impact on Home Societies:
○ Gender Roles and Demographics:
■ Male-dominated migration shifted gender roles and demographics.
■ Women assumed new responsibilities in societies left behind.
■ Remittances from male migrants empowered women in some
societies.
● Impact on Receiving Societies:
○ Formation of Ethnic Enclaves:
■ Immigrants retained cultural traditions in new countries.
■ Ethnic enclaves emerged in major cities, influencing local culture.
■ Chinese immigrants influenced Peruvian cuisine and cultural
diversity.
● Prejudice and Regulation of Immigration:
○ Discriminatory Legislation:
■ Chinese Exclusion Act and discriminatory laws in the U.S.
institutionalized prejudice.
■ Anti-Chinese sentiment led to violent attacks in Australia and
discriminatory legislation.
■ White Australia Policy restricted non-British immigration until the
mid-1970s.
6.8 - Causation in the Imperial Age
● Imperialism Effects (1750-1900):
○ Economic Drivers:
■ Industrial capitalism led to increased demand for resources and
expansion of markets.
■ Industrialized nations sought empire-building to overcome
economic challenges.
○ Overseas Expansion:
■ Industrial economies relied on international trade and sought
control over resources.
■ The expansion of imperialism in the 19th century was driven by the
need for natural resources.
○ Effects on Colonized Regions:
■ Dependent colonial economies often saw little economic
development.
■ Western powers exerted dominance over previously resistant
regions.
 ● Seeds of Revolution:
○ Resistance Movements:
■ Colonized regions resisted Westernization and imperialism.
■ Seeds of rebellion led to the rise of independence movements.
● Migration and Discrimination:
○ Global Migration:
■ Migration from less developed areas to industrial economies
increased.
■ Indentured laborers from various regions settled in host countries.
○ Discrimination and Exploitation:
■ Immigrants faced discrimination based on race, religion, and other
factors.
■ Working classes competed for jobs with immigrants in industrial
economies.

Unit 7: Global Conflict After 1900

7.1 - Shifting Power
● Revolution in Russia:
○ Nicholas II faced intense opposition, leading to his assassination in 1918.
○ Rebellions erupted against authoritarian governments in Russia, China,
and Mexico.
○ Established empires collapsed under internal and external pressures,
shaping a new global order by the end of the century.
● Key Events Leading to Revolution in Russia:
○ Bloody Sunday (1905): Troops fired on peaceful protesters, sparking mass
strikes and unrest.
○ Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905): Russia's defeat marked the first
victory of an East Asian state against a European power.
○ World War I (1914): Exposed Russia's military weaknesses and
exacerbated civilian hardships.
● Upheaval in China:
○ Ethnic tension, famine, and low government revenues weakened Qing
Dynasty support.
○ European industrialization threatened China's position in the global
market.
○ Sun Yat-sen's revolution overthrew the Qing Dynasty, leading to the
establishment of the Chinese Republic.
● Self-Determination in the Ottoman Collapse:
○ The Ottoman Empire faced economic decline and resented foreign
influence.
 ○ The Young Turks advocated for reforms, leading to alliances and later the
Republic of Turkey.
○ Mustafa Kemal Atatürk implemented secular reforms to modernize Turkey.
● Power Shifts in Mexico:
○ Porfirio Diaz's dictatorship led to economic progress but discontent due to
foreign control and land inequality.
○ Francisco Madero's opposition sparked the Mexican Revolution, leading to
political instability and violence.
○ The adoption of a new constitution in 1917 and the formation of the
Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) in 1929 provided stability and
guided Mexican politics until the end of the century.
7.2 - Causes of World War 1
● Causes of World War I:
○ Social and political developments, including shifting powers, contributed to
escalating tensions.
○ European nations competed for resources in Africa and Asia, leading to
mutual alliances and arms races.
○ Rising nationalism sparked conflicts, as seen in the Balkans with the
assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand.
● Immediate Causes:
○ The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand by Serbian nationalists
triggered Austria-Hungary's declaration of war on Serbia.
○ Alliances between European powers led to a chain reaction of
declarations of war, escalating the conflict into a world war.
● Long-Term Causes (MAIN):
○ Militarism: Aggressive military preparedness and competition for
dominance.
○ Alliances: Secret agreements between nations to protect each other,
leading to entanglements.
○ Imperialism: Rivalry for global domination through overseas colonies.
○ Nationalism: Pride in national identity and movements seeking
self-determination.
● Consequences:
○ Downfalls of monarchies and redrawn maps of Europe and the Middle
East.
○ Rise of new technologies and disruption of economies, leading to social
consequences.
○ A shift of power from Europe to the United States.
○ Seeds planted for communism, fascism, colonial revolts, and genocide.
 ○ Terms of the peace treaty, especially the Treaty of Versailles, fueled
resentment in Germany and contributed to the rise of authoritarian
regimes, setting the stage for World War II.
7.3 - Conducting World War 1
● Recruitment and Conscription:
○ Britain initially relied on voluntary enlistment but later implemented
conscription.
○ "Pals Battalions" consisted of men who knew each other.
○ By the war's end, a significant portion of British men served in the military.
● Changes in Warfare:
○ Initial perceptions of war as glorious changed as the reality of modern
warfare set in.
○ Trench warfare became prevalent, characterized by harsh conditions and
disease.
○ The introduction of new weapons like poison gas, machine guns,
submarines, airplanes, and tanks revolutionized warfare.
● Entry of the United States:
○ Economic ties, democratic ideals, and resentment towards German
actions led to U.S. entry.
○ The Zimmermann Telegram, offering Mexico territory in exchange for an
alliance, was a crucial factor.
● Total War:
○ Nations committed all resources to the war effort, involving civilians in
production and rationing.
○ Propaganda was extensively used to influence public opinion and recruit
soldiers.
● Global Conflict:
○ World War I was fought on multiple continents, involving colonial
territories.
○ Imperialism extended the scope of the war, with major battles in Africa and
the Middle East.
● Involvement of Women:
○ Women's roles expanded, replacing men in various sectors and serving as
nurses and support staff.
○ Some countries allowed women to serve in combat roles, like Russia's
Women's Battalion of Death.
● Paris Peace Conference:
○ The Big Four (USA, UK, France, Italy) had differing visions for a peace
settlement.
 ○ Wilson's Fourteen Points aimed for a fair peace, including creating the
League of Nations.
○ The Treaty of Versailles imposed harsh penalties on Germany, leading to
resentment and contributing to future conflicts.
7.4 - Economy in the Interwar Period
● Government Responses to Economic Crises After 1900:
○ The Great Depression:
■ World War I's aftermath led to economic turmoil and the Great
Depression of the 1930s.
■ Governments globally faced increased pressure to intervene in
economies.
○ Keynesian Economics:
■ John Maynard Keynes advocated for government intervention to
stimulate economic growth.
■ His ideas influenced policies like deficit spending to combat
depression.
○ New Deal in the United States:
■ Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal aimed at relief, recovery, and
reform during the Great Depression.
■ It included measures like government spending and social
programs to alleviate economic hardships.
○ Impact on Trade:
■ The global downturn led to increased unemployment and declined
international trade.
■ Nations imposed tariffs to protect domestic jobs, exacerbating the
economic downturn.
● Political Revolutions and Responses:
○ Russia:
■ Lenin's New Economic Plan (NEP) introduced limited economic
liberties after the Russian Civil War.
■ Stalin's Five-Year Plans aimed at rapid industrialization but led to
agricultural collectivization and widespread famine.
○ Mexico:
■ The Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) dominated Mexican
politics, implementing corporatist policies.
■ Successful land reforms and nationalization of industries like oil
characterized this period.
○ Rise of Right-Wing Governments:
■ Fascism emerged in Italy under Mussolini, glorifying militarism and
suppressing opposition.
 ■ Spain saw a civil war between Nationalists and Republicans, with
foreign involvement exacerbating the conflict.
○ Brazil:
■ Getulio Vargas's regime in Brazil adopted pro-industrial policies but
restricted political freedoms.
■ Despite alignment with the Allies in World War II, Brazil's
dictatorship faced scrutiny for its repressive measures.
7.5 - Unresolved Tensions After World War |
● Post-World War I, economic crises continued, while territorial disputes remained
unresolved:
○ European powers and Japan retained or expanded control over colonial
territories.
○ Growing anti-imperial resistance emerged in Asia and Africa, aligning with
global trends like the breakup of European empires and the rise of
communism.
● Effects of World War I varied globally:
○ The US prospered economically due to war-related trade.
○ European nations suffered severe economic devastation.
○ Colonies contributed troops to the Allied war effort, leading to increased
hopes for independence.
● Colonial lands saw rising nationalist movements post-war:
○ Colonial soldiers' war experiences raised expectations for
self-determination.
○ However, the peace conference's Big Three showed little interest in
granting colonies independence, extending colonial control instead.
● Mandate System:
○ League of Nations established mandates for former Ottoman territories.
○ European powers increased their imperial holdings through mandates.
○ Arab resentment led to Pan-Arabism, seeking unification across North
Africa and the Middle East.
● Nationalist Movements in Asia:
○ Korea, China, and Japan experienced nationalist movements.
○ Korea's March First Movement protested Japanese control.
○ China's May Fourth Movement symbolized growing nationalism and
demand for democracy, with some turning to Marxism.
○ The Chinese Civil War erupted between communists and nationalists.
● Japanese Expansion:
○ Japan invaded Manchuria in 1931, creating the puppet state of
Manchukuo.
 ○ Japan continued expansion, seizing territories until the end of World War
II.
○ Japan's Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere claimed liberation but
experienced conquest.
● Resistance in Africa:
○ African intellectuals educated in Europe recognized colonial
discrimination.
○ Africans resisted colonial rule, with strikes and protests in French West
Africa.
○ Strikes protested discriminatory policies and sometimes achieved
concessions.
7.6 - Causes of World War II
● Causes of World War II:
○ Economic instability post-World War I led to civil unrest in Italy and
Germany.
○ Rise of fascism in Italy under Mussolini and the Nazi Party in Germany
due to economic downturn and territorial grievances.
● Path to War:
○ Hitler's extreme views on Aryan superiority and expansionist vision fueled
the persecution of minorities and land seizure.
○ The rise of Nazism in Germany was fueled by economic despair and
resentment towards the Weimar Republic.
■ Hitler's manipulation, anti-Semitic propaganda, and establishment
of a dictatorship.
● Nazi Germany's Aggressive Militarism:
○ Hitler broke the Treaty of Versailles by expanding his military and seizing
the Rhineland in 1936.
○ The British policy of appeasement failed to deter Hitler's expansionist
ambitions.
● Expansion and Annexation:
○ German-Austrian unification (Anschluss) and annexation of Sudetenland
in Czechoslovakia.
○ Conflict over Poland escalated into World War II in Europe, marked by
Germany's invasion in 1939.
● Japan's Expansion in Asia:
○ Japan's aggression in Korea and China, culminated in the invasion of
Manchuria in 1931.
○ The full-scale invasion of China in 1937 marked the start of World War II in
Asia.
7.7 - Conducting World War Il
● Methods Governments Used to Conduct War:
○ Intense nationalism and ideological appeals, as demonstrated by
Churchill's speech, mobilized populations.
○ Utilization of new military technology and tactics, like the atomic bomb and
"total war," disregarded traditional laws of warfare, increasing casualties.
● Japan and Imperialist Policies:
○ Japan's militaristic government pursued imperialist ambitions, leading to
conflict in the Pacific.
○ Ambitions included the creation of a "New Order in East Asia" and
expansion into Southeast Asia to counter Western powers.
● Germany’s Early Victories and Challenges:
○ Hitler's blitzkrieg strategy led to swift conquests of Poland, Denmark,
Norway, Belgium, and France.
○ Britain sought support from the United States, leading to agreements like
the Destroyers-for-Bases and Lend-Lease Act.
● The Battle of Britain:
○ Germany's air campaign against Britain aimed to weaken defenses for a
potential invasion.
○ British resilience and superior air capabilities thwarted German plans,
postponing the invasion indefinitely.
● War on the Soviet Union:
○ Hitler turned eastward, invading the Soviet Union to eliminate Bolshevism
and acquire Lebensraum.
○ Initial successes were hindered by the harsh Russian winter and
determined Soviet defense.
● Japan Overreaches:
○ Japan's surprise attack on Pearl Harbor drew the United States into the
war.
○ Initial victories in the Pacific were met with determined Allied resistance,
shifting momentum.
● Home Fronts:
○ Total war mobilization in countries like the United States involved civilian
populations in war efforts.
○ Contrast in approaches: the U.S. utilized industrial capacity and
encouraged women's participation; Germany relied on forced labor.
● The Tide Turns in the European Theater:
○ Allied victories in North Africa and Stalingrad halted Axis momentum in
Europe.
 ○ D-Day invasion and subsequent campaigns led to the liberation of
Western Europe from German control.
● The Tide Turns in the Pacific Theater:
○ Allied naval victories at Coral Sea and Midway halted the Japanese
advance.
○ Island-hopping strategy and technological advancements shifted
momentum against Japan.
● The Last Years of the War:
○ Allied advances in Europe and the Pacific put Axis powers on the
defensive.
○ The surrender of Germany and Japan marked the end of World War II.
● Consequences of World War II:
○ World War II was the deadliest conflict in history, reshaping global
geopolitics and ideologies.
○ It led to significant changes in international relations and power dynamics,
setting the stage for the Cold War.
7.8 - Mass Atrocities
● Causes and Consequences of Mass Atrocities:
○ Genocide, ethnic violence, and atrocities rose amid extremist power.
○ Mass killings occurred during World War I and II, as well as post-war
conflicts.
● Atrocities in Europe and the Middle East:
○ Ottoman Empire perpetrated the Armenian genocide during World War I.
○ U.S. intervention in World War I tilted the balance, leading to the
Armistice.
● Genocide and Human Rights:
○ Nazis executed the Holocaust, targeting Jews and other groups.
○ Japanese atrocities included the Rape of Nanking and forced labor
programs.
● Bosnia and Rwanda:
○ The ethnic conflict led to genocide in Bosnia and Rwanda.
○ Political instability and ethnic tensions fueled violence in both regions.
● Sudan and International Responses:
○ Darfur genocide perpetrated by the Sudanese government and Janjaweed
militia.
○ The international community's response to genocides highlighted failures
in human rights protection.
7.9 - Causation in Global Conflict
● Significance of Global Conflict (1900-Present):
○ Power shift from Western Europe to the United States due to World Wars.
 ○ Emergence of new states post-colonialism and collapse of empires.
● Political Causes of 20th-Century Conflict:
○ World War I: Total war fueled by nationalism, alliances, and imperial
rivalries.
○ Fascism led to aggression in Germany, Italy, and Japan, triggering World
War II.
● Economic Causes of 20th Century Conflict:
○ Control of markets and resources drove imperialism and territorial
expansion.
○ The Great Depression and economic crises fueled the rise of populist
leaders like Hitler.
● Effects of 20th-Century Global Conflict:
○ Advances in science and technology intensified warfare, resulting in
massive civilian casualties.
○ Political changes included regime changes, the rise of totalitarianism, and
independence movements.
○ The weakening of colonial powers and advocacy for self-determination led
to decolonization.
○ A shift of power from Western Europe to the United States, with the
emergence of the Soviet Union as a superpower.

Unit 8: Cold War and Decolonization

8.1 - Setting the Stage for the Cold War and Decolonization
● Post-World War II Ideological Conflict:
○ Colonies' desire for independence intertwined with a global ideological
conflict between capitalist countries (led by the United States) and
communist countries (led by the Soviet Union).
● Key Post-WWII Conferences:
○ Tehran Conference (1943): Agreed on Soviet focus on Eastern Europe
and British-American focus on Western Europe.
○ Yalta Conference (1945): Discussed plans for reconstructing Eastern
Europe and defeating Japan, with differing views on democracy in Eastern
Europe.
○ Potsdam Conference (1945): Addressed free elections in Eastern Europe,
but Soviet influence prevailed, leading to communist control.
● Shift in Global Power Balance:
○ Devastation in Europe and Asia from WWII resulted in increased power for
the United States and the Soviet Union.
○ The U.S. emerged as the most powerful country with the least wartime
losses and an intact industrial base.
 ○ Soviet Union developed the atomic bomb by 1949, becoming the only
challenger to the U.S. in military might and political influence.
● Technological Advances and Civilian Benefits:
○ Military research during WWII led to significant technological
advancements with civilian applications, such as penicillin and air
pressure systems.
● Emergence of Cold War:
○ U.S.-Soviet tensions led to a cold war characterized by propaganda,
secret operations, and an arms race.
○ Superpowers armed opposing sides in regional conflicts, increasing death
tolls and destruction.
● Breakdown of Empires:
○ Efforts resumed to undermine colonialism post-WWII, with weakened
colonial powers facing anti-colonial movements and pressure for
self-determination.
○ Cold War context and weakened colonial powers contributed to the
dismantling of colonial empires.
8.2 - The Cold War
● Cold War Origins and Ideological Struggle:
○ Democratic USA and the authoritarian Soviet Union emerged as global
powers after WWII.
○ Truman and Stalin's rivalry post-Potsdam Conference marked the start of
a Cold War.
○ Central conflict: capitalism (USA) vs. communism (USSR) over 40 years.
● Cooperation Amidst Tensions: United Nations:
○ Despite ideological differences, the Allies formed the UN in 1945 to
replace the failed League of Nations.
○ The League failed due to a lack of major country support and an inability
to prevent conflicts.
● Rivalry in Economics and Politics:
○ Churchill's 1946 speech symbolized the Cold War, highlighting the "Iron
Curtain" between Eastern and Western Europe.
○ Capitalism (USA) emphasized private ownership and democracy, while
communism (USSR) favored government ownership and authoritarianism.
● Conflicts in International Affairs:
○ Soviets imposed authoritarian control in Eastern Europe, exploiting
nations for their benefit.
○ The Soviet Union promoted world revolution and supported uprisings,
heightening Western suspicions.
 ○ The U.S. advocated a containment policy to halt communism's spread,
exemplified by the Truman Doctrine.
● Marshall Plan and Soviet Response:
○ U.S. enacted the Marshall Plan in 1947 to aid Europe's recovery,
contrasting the Soviet's COMECON.
○ The plan aimed to prevent communist revolutions by stabilizing
economies, and successfully boosting European output.
● Space Race and Arms Race:
○ Soviet launch of Sputnik in 1957 initiated the Space Race, with both
nations competing for space dominance.
○ The development of intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) led to
mutual assured destruction (MAD), deterring nuclear war.
● Non-Aligned Movement:
○ Many African and Asian countries sought to avoid Cold War influence.
○ Bandung Conference in 1955 led to the Non-Aligned Movement in 1961,
advocating independence from superpower control.
○ Challenges included aligning with superpowers during conflicts and
undermining the movement's neutrality.
8.3 - Effects of the Cold War
● Nuclear Deterrence and Proxy Wars:
○ Nuclear weapons deterred direct conflict between the USA and the USSR.
○ Proxy wars, like Korea and Vietnam, highlighted the ideological divide and
resulted in millions of deaths.
● Global Power Struggles:
○ Superpower conflicts extended to Cuba, Central America, and Africa, with
military, economic, and nuclear influences.
● Allied Occupation and Division:
○ Post-WWII Allies debated Germany's occupation and Berlin's division,
leading to the Berlin Airlift.
○ Germany split into two states: West Germany (FRG) and East Germany
(GDR), solidifying Europe's division.
● Military Alliances:
○ NATO was formed 1949 to counter Soviet influence, followed by the
Warsaw Pact in 1955.
○ Other alliances like SEATO and CENTO aimed to halt communism's
spread in Asia and the Middle East.
● Proxy Wars and Interventions:
○ Cold War fueled proxy wars worldwide, like Korea and Vietnam, involving
smaller nations as stand-ins for superpowers.
● Cuban Missile Crisis and Nuclear Treaties:
 ○ The Cuban Missile Crisis brought the USA and USSR to the brink of
nuclear war, resolved through diplomacy and treaties.
○ Test-Ban Treaty (1963) and Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (1968) aimed
to reduce nuclear threats globally.
● Regional Conflicts and Movements:
○ Conflicts in Angola and Nicaragua showcased Cold War rivalries, resulting
in civil wars and interventions.
○ The antinuclear weapons movement emerged worldwide in response to
the nuclear arms race, advocating for disarmament.
8.4 - Spread of Communism after 1900
● Communism and Land Reform:
○ Cold War backdrop influenced land reform in countries facing feudal,
capitalist, and colonial legacies.
○ China, Iran, Vietnam, Ethiopia, India, and Latin American nations like
Mexico, Bolivia, and Venezuela implemented land reforms.
● Communism in China:
○ Mao Zedong's Communist Party won popular support through land
redistribution, leading to the People's Republic of China in 1949.
○ Great Leap Forward (1958) and the Cultural Revolution (1966) aimed to
strengthen communism but resulted in famine and political repression.
○ Hostility between China and the Soviet Union despite both being
communist states, was influenced by border skirmishes and global
influence competition.
● Turmoil in Iran:
○ British and Russian influence shaped Iran's history, including oil discovery
and interventions.
○ Mohammad Mosaddegh's nationalist movement for oil nationalization was
opposed by Western powers, leading to the Shah's return to power.
○ Shah's land reform efforts, part of the White Revolution, aimed to undercut
traditional power structures but faced opposition.
○ 1979 revolution led to a theocratic government, opposing Western policies
and Israel.
● Land Reform in Latin America:
○ Latin American countries addressed land concentration through reforms,
varying in approach and outcomes.
○ Venezuela redistributed land, facing challenges from landowners and
illegal settlers.
○ Guatemala's land reform efforts under Jacob Arbenz led to a U.S.-backed
overthrow in 1954.
● Land Reform in Asia and Africa:
 ○ Vietnam's Communist Party redistributed land, gaining support among
peasants, while Ethiopia and India faced challenges implementing land
reforms post-independence.
○ India's Kerala state implemented successful land reform policies despite
central government interference.

8.5 - Decolonization after 1900

● Challenges to Colonial Rule and Pursuit of Independence:
○ Nationalist movements employed various tactics, including land reform,
political negotiation, and armed struggle.
○ Anticolonial sentiments grew post-World War I, accelerated by World War
II rhetoric and the Cold War context.
● Movements for Autonomy in India and Pakistan:
○ Indian National Congress led by Gandhi employed civil disobedience for
Indian self-rule.
○ Muslim League advocated for a separate nation, leading to the partition of
India and Pakistan in 1947.
● Decolonization in Ghana and Algeria:
○ Ghana gained independence in 1957, influenced by nationalist sentiments
and emulation of Western nationalistic traditions.
○ Algeria faced violence in its struggle for independence from France,
resulting in significant casualties and ongoing political challenges
post-independence.
● Negotiated Independence in French West Africa:
○ France negotiated independence with its colonies in West Africa,
promoting stability through indirect rule.
● Nationalism and Division in Vietnam:
○ Vietnam's struggle against French colonial rule led to division into North
and South, sparking the Vietnam War with U.S. involvement.
● Struggles and Compromise in Egypt:
○ Egypt's autonomy grew under Nasser's leadership, marked by
Pan-Arabism and nationalization of industries.
○ The Suez Crisis highlighted tensions between Egypt and Western powers
but ended with an international compromise.
● Independence and Civil War in Nigeria:
○ Nigeria gained independence from Britain in 1960 but faced civil war due
to tribal and religious tensions.
○ Efforts for national unity included state federation and promotion of
interethnic marriage.
● Canada and the "Silent Revolution" in Quebec:
 ○ Quebec's history of French culture and separatist movements culminated
in the Quiet Revolution of the 1960s.
○ Prime Minister Trudeau preserved Canadian unity despite separatist
desires, as seen in the failed 1995 referendum in Quebec.
8.6 - Newly Independent States
● Territorial and Demographic Changes:
○ Imperialistic powers handed over governmental control to former colonies,
leading to the creation of new states.
○ India was partitioned into Hindu India and Muslim Pakistan, later dividing
again to create Bangladesh.
○ New state boundaries often caused conflicts, population displacement,
and resettlement.
● Israel's Founding and Conflict:
○ The Zionist movement emerged in reaction to the Dreyfus Affair,
advocating for a separate Jewish state.
○ In 1948, Israel declared independence from Palestine, leading to wars
with neighboring Arab countries.
○ The Camp David Accords mediated by President Jimmy Carter led to
peace between Israel and Egypt, but ongoing violence and tensions
persisted.
● Cambodia's Independence and Turmoil:
○ Cambodia gained independence in 1953 but was drawn into the Vietnam
War.
○ The Khmer Rouge, led by Pol Pot, seized power, imposing brutal
communism and resulting in mass killings.
○ Vietnamese troops invaded Cambodia, leading to stability and democratic
reforms in the 1990s.
● India and Pakistan's Partition:
○ The British divided colonial India in 1947 into Hindu-majority India and
Muslim-majority Pakistan.
○ Tensions persist over the Kashmir region, claimed by both India and
Pakistan.
● Women in Politics in South Asia:
○ Women gained political prominence, with figures like Indira Gandhi
becoming prime minister of India.
○ Benazir Bhutto became Pakistan's first female prime minister but faced
challenges including corruption allegations.
● Emigration from Newer to Older Countries:
○ People from newly independent countries often migrated to former colonial
powers for economic opportunities.
 ○ This migration maintained economic and cultural ties between former
colonies and colonizing countries.
8.7 - Global Resistance to Established Power Structures
● Nonviolent Resistance Leaders:
○ Mohandas Gandhi led nonviolent marches and protests against British
colonial rule in India, achieving independence in 1947.
○ Martin Luther King Jr. advocated for civil rights through nonviolent means,
resulting in significant legislative changes in the United States.
○ Nelson Mandela resisted apartheid in South Africa, initially supporting
nonviolent protests before resorting to armed resistance.
● Eastern European Resistance:
○ Poland and Hungary experienced uprisings against Soviet domination in
1956, though Soviet intervention quelled these movements.
○ The Prague Spring in Czechoslovakia in 1968 saw attempts at
democratization, but Soviet forces suppressed the reforms.
● Global Protests in 1968:
○ Mexico, France, the United States, and other countries experienced
significant social unrest, with protests focused on civil rights, the Vietnam
War, and university reforms.
● Terrorism in the 20th Century:
○ The IRA in Northern Ireland, ETA in Spain, and Shining Path in Peru used
violence to achieve political goals.
○ Al-Qaeda and other Islamic extremist groups carried out attacks
worldwide, including the 9/11 attacks in the United States.
○ Domestic terrorism, such as the Oklahoma City bombing, targeted various
groups within the United States.
● Response of Militarized States:
○ Dictators like Francisco Franco in Spain and Idi Amin in Uganda used
brutal repression to maintain power, leading to intensified conflict and
human rights abuses.
● Military-Industrial Complex:
○ The arms trade and defense industries expanded, contributing to global
conflict and making defense spending difficult to reduce.
○ Eisenhower warned about the growing power of the military-industrial
complex, which could threaten democracy.
8.8 - End of the Cold War
● End of the Cold War:
○ Ronald Reagan's call to Mikhail Gorbachev marked a prelude to the fall of
the Berlin Wall in 1989, followed by Gorbachev's ousting and the collapse
of the Soviet Union.
 ○ This ended the U.S.-Soviet rivalry dominating the global stage for nearly
five decades, with only a few countries maintaining communist identities.
● Final Decades of the Cold War:
○ Despite ongoing mistrust, diplomatic relations between the U.S. and the
Soviet Union endured, featuring proxy wars and nuclear arms
agreements.
● Détente and Cold War Escalation:
○ The 1970s saw détente between the superpowers, symbolized by Nixon's
visits to China and the USSR, and the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty
(SALT).
○ Economic challenges and geopolitical tensions, exacerbated by the Soviet
invasion of Afghanistan, led to the end of détente.
● Soviet-Afghan War:
○ The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan led to immense civilian suffering,
strained the Soviet economy, and contributed to internal discontent.
● Reagan and Gorbachev:
○ Reagan's military buildup and Strategic Defense Initiative heightened
tensions, countered by Gorbachev's reform agenda and a new nuclear
arms treaty (INF) in 1987.
● The Thaw and Soviet Reforms:
○ Gorbachev's policies of perestroika and glasnost aimed at restructuring
the Soviet economy and society, leading to improved U.S.-Soviet relations
and the reduction of nuclear weapons.
● End of the Soviet Union:
○ Economic reforms and political liberalization sparked democratic
movements in Eastern Europe, leading to the Berlin Wall's fall and the
Warsaw Pact's dissolution.
○ Gorbachev's reforms ultimately led to the end of the Soviet Union in 1991,
with former republics gaining independence.
● New Challenges:
○ The post-Cold War era brought about political realignments, economic
globalization, and various global challenges, including ethnic conflicts,
terrorism, and environmental degradation.
8.9 - Causation in the Age of the Cold War and
Decolonization
● Cold War's Influence:
○ Post-WWII, the U.S. and Soviet Union emerged as superpowers, shaping
global politics.
○ Western Europe, aided by the Marshall Plan, thrived economically while
maintaining political independence.
 ○ Colonial empires declined amidst anti-imperialist sentiments, sparking
revolutionary movements in Africa, Asia, and Latin America.
● Challenges to Social Orders:
○ Ideological and economic rifts among the Big Three (U.S., USSR, Great
Britain) post-WWII set the stage for Cold War tensions.
○ The division of Europe into Western and Eastern blocs, marked by the Iron
Curtain, reflected ideological differences and sparked a nuclear arms race.
● Arms Race and Alliances:
○ The nuclear arms race escalated tensions, leading to the formation of
NATO and the Warsaw Pact.
○ Proxy conflicts and brinkmanship characterized the Cold War without
direct military confrontation between superpowers.
● Hopes for Self-Government:
○ Global anti-colonial sentiments post-WWII accelerated decolonization
efforts, challenging empires and promoting self-governance.
● Comparing Political Effects:
○ Asia, Africa, and Latin America experienced conflicts and revolutions
fueled by superpower rivalries, shaping regional politics.
○ The Cold War divided Europe politically, with Western nations embracing
democracy and market economies, while the Eastern bloc struggled under
communism.
● Comparing Economic Effects:
○ Western Europe thrived economically with state-sponsored welfare
systems, while the Eastern bloc faced challenges transitioning from
communism.
○ Developing countries faced economic exploitation, striving for resource
control and independence.
● Comparing Social and Cultural Effects:
○ Proxy wars and ideological tensions caused social disruptions and cultural
suppression, especially in Eastern Europe.
○ Migration from former colonies and clashes in regions like Afghanistan
and Yugoslavia highlighted cultural blending and conflicts post-Cold War.
● Development of Global Institutions:
○ The post-Cold War era saw a shift towards global cooperation, with
institutions like the UN and WTO addressing transnational issues and
promoting interdependence.

Unit 9: Globalization after 1900

9.1 - Advances in Technology and Exchange
● Communication and Transportation:
 ○ Advancements in radio, air travel, and shipping containers promoted
global connectivity.
○ Mobile technologies and social networking sites revolutionized
communication.
○ Transportation innovations like airplanes and cargo ships facilitated the
movement of people and goods.
● The Green Revolution:
○ Scientists developed new grain varieties and agricultural techniques to
address hunger.
○ Crossbreeding and genetic engineering were used to enhance crop yields.
○ Increased agricultural production led to social and environmental
challenges.
● Energy Technologies:
○ Coal, petroleum, and natural gas fueled industrialization and nuclear
power.
○ Fossil fuels contribute to pollution and climate change.
○ Renewable energy sources like wind and solar power emerged as
alternatives.
● Medical Innovations:
○ Antibiotics, such as penicillin, revolutionized the treatment of bacterial
infections.
○ Birth control pills transformed sexual practices and fertility rates.
○ Vaccines prevent deadly diseases and save millions of lives globally.
9.2 - Technological Advancements and Limitations —
Disease
● Progress in Disease Control:
○ Science, medicine, and public health measures reduced illnesses and
deaths from diseases like smallpox.
○ Global vaccination campaigns, such as the one against smallpox, helped
eliminate diseases from the planet.
● Persistent Diseases and Poverty:
○ Diseases like malaria, tuberculosis, and cholera persist due to
poverty-related factors.
○ Preventive measures, such as mosquito nets and vaccines, have been
developed to combat these diseases.
● Epidemics and Social Disruption:
○ Major disease outbreaks, such as the 1918 flu pandemic and the
HIV/AIDS epidemic, caused significant social disruption.
○ Ebola outbreaks in Africa and the global response highlighted the
importance of coordinated public health efforts.
 ● Diseases Associated with Longevity:
○ Diseases like heart disease and Alzheimer's became more prevalent with
increased longevity.
○ Medical advancements, including heart transplants and dementia
research, aim to address these age-related conditions.
9.3 - Technology and the Environment
● Environmental Changes Overview:
○ Agricultural, industrial, and commercial activities in the 20th and 21st
centuries led to various environmental changes.
○ Deforestation, desertification, declining air quality, and increased water
consumption are among the key issues observed.
● Causes of Environmental Changes:
○ Population growth, urbanization, globalization, and industrialization
contributed to environmental degradation.
○ These factors led to increased demand for resources, land use changes,
and pollution.
● Effects of Environmental Changes:
○ Resource depletion, water scarcity, and inequalities in access to resources
became prevalent.
○ Environmental awareness grew, leading to the development of renewable
energy sources and global climate change debates.
● Debates About Global Warming:
○ Scientists and activists raised concerns about rising temperatures and
greenhouse gas emissions.
○ Climate activism and international agreements, like the Paris Agreement,
emerged in response to climate change challenges.
● The Anthropocene Era:
○ Some scientists proposed renaming the current geological epoch from
Holocene to Anthropocene.
○ This change reflects humans' significant influence on Earth's climate and
environment.
9.4 - Economics in the Global Age
● Global Economy Overview:
○ Market-oriented policies advocated by leaders like Reagan and Thatcher
led to greater wealth but also hardships for some.
○ Revolutions in information technology fueled the growth of knowledge
economies, while industrial production shifted to Asia and Latin America.
● Acceleration of Free-Market Economies:
○ Globalization increased since the 1970s, with economic liberalization in
Eastern Bloc nations and nonaligned countries like India.
 ○ Free-market advocates like Reagan and Thatcher promoted policies that
led to corporate globalization but also raised concerns about labor
exploitation and environmental damage.
● Knowledge-Economy Development:
○ Information and communication technology revolutions spurred the rise of
knowledge economies, seen notably in Silicon Valley in the United States.
○ Finland transitioned from an agrarian economy to a knowledge economy
through investments in technology and innovation.
● Japanese Economic Growth and Asian Tigers:
○ Japan's post-war economic policies and government-business
partnerships fueled its manufacturing powerhouse status.
○ Asian Tigers like Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea, and Taiwan
prospered through similar strategies, raising millions out of poverty.
● Transnational Free-Trade Organizations:
○ Organizations like the European Economic Community and the WTO
facilitated global trade by reducing tariffs and trade barriers.
● Multinational Corporations' Impact:
○ Multinational corporations capitalized on knowledge economies and
low-wage manufacturing, influencing both developed and developing
countries.
○ Examples like India-based Mahindra & Mahindra showcased the potential
for economic growth and social responsibility.
9.5 - Calls for Reform and Responses
● Era of Rights:
○ Human rights discourse emerged globally, challenging assumptions about
race, class, gender, and religion.
○ Efforts to establish and safeguard human rights opened doors of
opportunity for marginalized groups.
● UN and Human Rights:
○ The Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948 laid foundational
rights, promoted by the United Nations.
○ UN agencies like UNICEF and the International Court of Justice work to
protect human rights and settle disputes.
● Global Feminism:
○ Landmark events like the Women's March on Washington in 2017
highlighted global solidarity for women's rights.
○ Conventions like the 1979 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination Against Women advanced gender equality.
● Cultural and Religious Movements:
 ○ Movements like Negritude in Africa and liberation theology in Latin
America emphasized cultural pride and social justice.
○ Religious ideologies like liberation theology combined socialism with
Catholicism to advocate for economic redistribution and social liberation.
● Steps toward Gender Equality:
○ Women made strides in education, voting rights, and political participation
globally throughout the 20th century.
○ International efforts like the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination Against Women promoted gender equality.
● Steps toward Racial Equality:
○ Civil rights movements in the United States and anti-apartheid struggles in
South Africa challenged racial discrimination.
○ Legislation like the 1965 Civil Rights Act and the end of apartheid in 1994
marked significant milestones in racial equality.
● Minority Rights in China:
○ Ethnic minority groups in China, such as Tibetans and Uighurs, protested
against discrimination and cultural suppression.
○ Instances like the 2011 protests by Mongolian people in Inner Mongolia
highlighted concerns about environmental degradation and cultural
preservation.
● Steps toward Environmental Repair:
○ Organizations like Earth Day Network, Greenpeace, and the Green Belt
Movement advocated for environmental awareness and sustainability.
○ Initiatives like the World Fair Trade Organization promoted economic
fairness and ethical trade practices.
9.6 - Globalized Culture
● Political, Social, and Artistic Changes:
○ Shifts in political dynamics, including imperialism, wars, and the Cold War,
influenced cultural perspectives.
○ International collaborations and rights movements brought diverse
cultures closer.
○ Scientific advancements and technological innovations reshaped art,
literature, and music, reflecting societal changes.
● Global Consumer and Popular Culture:
○ The emergence of consumer culture post-World War II led to the spread of
popular culture through media like radio, movies, and later television.
○ Americanization and the dominance of U.S. culture prompted both
admiration and criticism globally.
○ English became a global language, influencing communication and
commerce worldwide.
 ○ Multinational corporations and global brands reshaped consumer markets
and commerce.
● Global Influences on Popular Culture:
○ Cultural exchanges led to the popularity of diverse cultural expressions
like Bollywood, anime, reggae, and K-pop worldwide.
○ Internet-based platforms like YouTube contributed to the globalization of
music and entertainment.
● Social Media and Censorship:
○ Social media platforms revolutionized communication but also faced
concerns over manipulation and censorship.
○ Governments implemented varying levels of censorship on social media
platforms to control information flow.
● Global Culture in Sports:
○ Sports, particularly soccer and basketball, became global phenomena,
transcending cultural boundaries.
○ Increased participation of women in sports, including adaptations for
religious practices, reflected changing societal norms.
● Global Culture and Religion:
○ Globalization facilitated the spread and adaptation of religious
movements, including New Age religions and traditional practices.
○ Religious movements faced challenges, including government restrictions
and shifts in religious affiliation among younger generations.
9.7 - Resistance to Globalization
● Responses to Globalization:
○ Resistance to Economic Globalization:
■ Concerns were raised about economic inequality and exploitation
by corporations and financial institutions.
■ Opposition against unequal distribution of economic resources.
■ Criticisms of organizations like the IMF and WTO for prioritizing
profit over public welfare.
○ Roots of Globalization and Anti-Globalization:
■ Formation of global economic organizations post-World War II to
facilitate economic growth.
■ The establishment of the WTO in 1995, met with criticism over
perceived disregard for public welfare.
■ The emergence of the anti-globalization movement was notably
highlighted by the "Battle of Seattle" protests in 1999.
● Reasons for Resisting Globalization:
○ Concerns over Working Conditions:
 ■ Examples of exploitative labor practices in industries like chocolate
production, Amazon warehouses, and garment factories.
■ Instances of tragedies like the Rana Plaza collapse in Bangladesh
highlight the human cost of globalization.
○ Environmental Damage:
■ Criticisms of increased greenhouse gas emissions due to
long-distance shipping and deforestation for economic gains.
■ Counterarguments suggest potential environmental benefits
through initiatives like ecotourism.
○ Threats to National Sovereignty:
■ Instances like Brexit reflect concerns over the loss of national
sovereignty and control over immigration and governance.
■ Criticisms of international agreements and institutions like the IMF
and World Bank for favoring richer nations.
● Measures Favored by Anti-Globalists:
○ Focus areas include human rights, fair trade, sustainable development,
and debt relief or restructuring.
● Anti-Globalization and Social Media:
○ Utilization of the internet and social media platforms to spread
anti-globalization ideas globally.
○ Instances of government censorship or control over social media content
to suppress dissent and maintain control.
○ Resistance to participating in an interconnected society due to threats to
autonomy and identity.
9.8 - Institutions Developing in a Globalized World
● Globalization and International Organizations:
○ Formation of International Organizations:
■ Efforts to promote international cooperation and maintain peace led
to the establishment of the United Nations (UN), IMF, World Bank,
WTO, and GATT.
■ The UN primarily focused on preventing conflicts and providing
technical assistance and loans to developing nations.
○ Structure of the United Nations:
■ The UN comprises six main bodies including the General Assembly,
Security Council, Secretariat, International Court of Justice,
Economic and Social Council, and Trusteeship Council.
■ Each body has specific functions ranging from decision-making to
peacekeeping and dispute resolution.
● UN Missions and Achievements:
○ Promotion of Human Rights:
 ■ Adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948
aimed at safeguarding fundamental rights and freedoms globally.
■ UN efforts extended to investigating human rights abuses, such as
genocide and government oppression.
● Other UN Priorities:
○ Refugee Protection and Assistance:
■ UNHCR and NGOs collaborate to provide aid to refugees fleeing
conflicts, disasters, and persecution.
○ Global Goals and Partnerships:
■ The UN's commitment to achieving 17 Sustainable Development
Goals by 2030, in collaboration with NGOs and foundations like the
Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation.
9.9 - Continuity and Change in a Globalized World
● Advances in Science and Technology:
○ Discoveries in cosmology, wave science, medical science, energy
technologies, communication technologies, and agricultural technologies.
● Changes in a Globalized World:
○ Social Changes:
■ Rapid population growth, migration patterns, and shifts in gender
roles and fertility rates.
■ Increased socioeconomic status for women in developed countries,
alongside resistance to change in some societies.
○ Economic Changes:
■ Intensified economic globalization, the emergence of Asian
economies, and economic reforms in China and India.
■ Transition from laissez-faire economics to increased government
intervention in the economy.
○ Political Changes:
■ Rise of mass protest movements, civil rights activism, anti-war
protests, women's rights movements, and democracy movements.
■ Governments are sometimes slow to respond to calls for change,
leading to persecution or violence against protesters.
○ Cultural Changes:
■ Global spread of Western culture, and adoption of foreign cuisines,
music, and art, facilitated by the Internet and cellular technology.
■ Two-way cultural exchanges lead to increased diversity and
globalization of consumer culture.
○ Environmental Changes:
 ■ Overcoming environmental challenges with advancements in
transportation and energy, but also contributing to pollution, climate
change, and ecological damage.
■ Debates and concerns over climate change, pollution, and their
impact on the planet's ecosystems.

People to Know (All Units)

1200-PRESENT:
● Ibn Batutta - Traveled across all of the (old) world and wrote down everything.
● Marco Polo - Italian Traveler (helped bring about the Renaissance).
● Margery Kempe - Christian Mystic.
● A’ishah Al-Bauniyyah - Female sufi poet.
● Genghis Khan - Mongol Leader
● Mansa Musa - wealthy Musa of Mali(pilgrimage to Mecca)
● Tamerlane - Turco-Mongol conqueror
● Prince Henry the Navigator - influenced Portuguese maritime travel
● Sundiata - Founder of Mali
● Zheng He - Chinese Navigator
● Suleiman I - Greatest Ottoman Sultan
● Pugachev - Cossack rebel
● Bartolomeu Dias - Portuguese Navigator
● Martin Luther - 95 Theses, started Protestant Reformation
● Akbar the Great - Mughal leader, very religiously tolerant
● King Louis XIV - French King(absolutism)
● Peter the Great - Russian Czar
● Ferdinand Magellan - Circumnavigator
● Ana Nzinga - Queen of Ndongo, drove British imperialism out.
● Adam Smith - created laissez-faire economics
● James Watt- Inventor (invented the Watt)
● Louverture - leader of the Haitian Revolution
● Robespierre - French Revolutionary leader, also the leader of the Reign of Terror
● Napoleon - French Emperor (short)
● Simon Bolivar - Latin American liberator (Jamaica Letter!!)
● Matthew Perry - Opened Japan’s doors for trade with the U.S.
● Otto Von Bismark - Unified Germany, held the Berlin Conference.
● King Leopold II - Belgian Imperialist of rubber in the Congo
● Cecil Rhodes - created the DeBeers Diamond Company
● Henry Ford - created the Assembly line
● John Locke - enlightenment thinker, life liberty and pursuit of property.
● Elizabeth Cady Stanton - Women’s suffrage in Seneca Falls NY, abolitionist.
● Yaa Asantewaa - Ashanti queen drove British imperialism out.
● Gandhi - nonviolent Indian protestor.
● Michael Sadler - Sadler Report in Britain on Child Labor.
● Karl Marx - created Marxism later known as Communism
● Jose Rizal - Filipino Nationalist (used propaganda)
● Archduke Franz Ferdinand - Heir to the Austrian throne, was assassinated.
● Gavrillo Princip - Assassinated Franz Ferdinand, immediate cause of WWI
● Stalin - Soviet Communist leader responsible for millions of deaths (Holodomor)
● Lenin - Led the Bolsheviks and took over Russia, Communist but used
Capitalistic components in the economy
● Ho Chi Minh - a Vietnamese Nationalist, asked the U.S. to help fight the French
but had to turn to the Soviets (mistakenly called a communist, HE WAS NOT)
● Krushchev - Soviet leader during the Cold War
● Deng Xiaoping - Chinese Communist leader
● Idi Amin - Ugandan military leader(dictator)
● Martin Luther King Jr. - A nonviolent civil rights activist in the U.S., protested
against segregation.
● Osama Bin Laden - Leader of al-Qaeda terrorist group that was responsible for
9/11
● Czar Nicholas II - Last Czar of Russia (bad leader)
● Mao Zedong - China's Communist leader, responsible for the Great Leap
Forward and the Cultural Revolution.
● Kwame Nkrumah - First President of Free Ghana
● Nelson Mandela - nonviolent(at first) protestor against apartheid in South Africa.
● Pol Pot - Communist Cambodian leader
● Sun Yat-Sen - a Chinese Nationalist, created the Republic of China
● Douglas MacArthur - American general for WWI and WWII
● Franklin D. Roosevelt - created the New Deal to pull the United States out of the
Great Depression
● Adolf Hilter - Responsible for WWII, killing millions of Jews in the Holocaust.
● Francisco Franco - Spanish Dictator (authoritarian)
● Indira Gandhi - Prime Minister of India (no relation to Gandhi)
● Fidel Castro - Communist leader in Cuba
● Gorbachev - The last leader of the Soviet Union, created the policies of Glasnost
and Perestroika that led to the fall of the Soviet Union.
● Norman Borlaug - Started the Green Revolution.
● Mary Wollstonecraft - Created modern feminism, and sparked movements
around the world. (e.g. Seneca Falls NY)
● Ataturk - Modernized Turkey using Western traditions.
This is most of the important “People to Know” but if you want to see more go here: AP
WORLD PEOPLE TO KNOW — Freemanpedia (freeman-pedia.com)

Important Events (All Units)

1200- PRESENT:
● Partition of India - The creation of Muslim Pakistan and Hindu India, led to the
biggest migration of people in history but also led to a lot of deaths due to fights
between the religions.
● Arab Spring - Muslim students protested against the dictatorship in the Middle
East
● Prague Spring - Czechoslovakia protested against Soviet Control of Eastern
Europe.
● Reconquista - Reconquering of Spain from the Muslims
● Sepoy Rebellion - The Hindu and Muslim Sepoy soldiers of India rebelled against
the British using pig and cow fat in rifle cartridges. This event led to Britain’s total
control over India.
● Meiji Restoration - The Tokugawa Shogunate is removed and Japan Modernizes
under the control of the Emperor.
● Treaty of Versailles - a treaty formed at the end of WWI, It was decided in the
treaty that Germany take full blame and responsibility for the war and pay for all
damages for all countries. A direct cause of WWII.
● Champa Rice - Came from Vietnam and was brought into China. This helped
China prosper due to a surplus of food and substantial population growth. Also
led to new inventions.
● Gunpowder Empires - Conquered Lands and made warfare much more deadly.
M.O.M.S. (Mughal, Ottomans, Manchu, Safavids)
● Rise of Ottoman Jizya - Tax on non-muslims in the Ottoman Empire forced
Europeans to find a new way to trade in the Indian Ocean Basin. Leads to the
Age of Exploration.
● Tiananmen Square - Chinese Communist leader Deng Xiaoping killed thousands
of student protestors in Tiananmen Square that were advocating for democracy
in China. Cause of the famous “Tank Man” photo.
● Green Revolution - Norman Borlaug's genetically modified food (wheat).
● Rachel Carson - Wrote “Silent Springs” that detailed the harm pesticides caused
to the environment.
● Treaty of Nanking - Ended the Opium Wars in China. Gave Britain control of
Hong Kong, and also allowed for a great amount of European influence in China.
● Communist Manifesto - Written by Karl Marx, the book detailed the evils of
capitalism and how the bourgeoisie(working class) would rise for equality. The
beginning of Communism.
● Treaty of Kanagawa - Opened Japan for trade with the United States and
Europe.