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A review on the lithium-ion battery problems used in electric vehicles

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DOI: 10.1016/j.nxsust.2024.100036

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 Next Sustainability 3 (2024) 100036

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Next Sustainability
journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com/journal/next-sustainability

Review article

A review on the lithium-ion battery problems used in electric vehicles

Mehmet Şen a, *, Muciz Özcan a, Yasin Ramazan Eker b, c
a
Necmettin Erbakan University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Electric Electronic Engineering, Konya, Turkey
b
Necmettin Erbakan University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Basic Science, Konya, Turkey
c
Necmettin Erbakan University, Research and Application Center of Science and Technology (BİTAM), Konya, Turkey

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The reliability and efficiency of the energy storage system used in electric vehicles (EVs) is very important for
Electric vehicle consumers. The use of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) with high energy density is preferred in EVs. However, the
Li-ion battery long range user needs and security issues such as fire and explosion in LIB limit the widespread use of these
Energy storage system
batteries. This review discusses the working principle, performance and failures of LIB. It provides an overview of
Battery failures
LIB with particular emphasis on the factors that affect their performance and the factors that cause failures.
Finally, potential batteries to replace lithium batteries in EVs are evaluated. In addition, the challenges of these
future batteries are discussed. In this paper, we review studies in the field of batteries used in EVs, general
problems and future battery technologies. Methods related to such topics are compared in terms of their ad­
vantages, disadvantages and qualitative factors. The authors believe that EVs will be the transportation vehicle of
the future such that battery systems should be developed and academic studies should be carried out. The au­
thors think this study will contribute to the EV and will provide a perspective to designers, researchers, man­
ufacturers and companies working in the field of batteries.

1. Introduction The biggest challenge for the widespread adoption of EVs is the
development of low-cost and high-range battery systems [8]. Therefore,
Electric vehicles (EVs) completed their journey from research and battery manufacturers are investing heavily in their facilities [5].
development (R&D) centers to prototype workshops in the early 1990’s. However the expected high power and energy density have still not been
About ten years ago, in 2013, EVs were put on the production line for reached [9,10]. The challenge is to manufacture high-performance
mass production [1]. Today, hybrid electric vehicles (HEAs) and EVs batteries by preventing the ageing in order to be economically and
constitute the majority of vehicle production [2]. HEAs are more ecologically attractive. [11].
preferred by users due to their innovative features as well as the Some safety standards have been developed to improve battery
equipment in conventional vehicles [3]. This is due to the fact that HEAs performance [12]. Forcing manufacturer to tighten safety tests espe­
can have similar or greater range distances than conventional vehicles cially those related of the combustion explosions under operating con­
without recharging. In order to increase the range distance efforts to ditions. [13-15]. Thus with the development of technology, it is
reduce battery weight and increase capacity are constantly increasing inevitable that LIB will replaced by the traditional energy storage sys­
[4]. Depending on the technological developments in battery technol­ tems such as Ni-Cd or N-MH which have been used previously in the
ogy, it is expected that EVs will have much longer range than conven­ electric vehicles.
tional vehicles in the coming years [5]. A LIB failure is caused by electrochemical charge-discharge insta­
Today, the production of EVs is rapidly increasing [6]. While the bility [16]. Therefore, understanding the electrochemical reactions and
total number of EVs worldwide was less than 20,000 in 2010, this value the material properties is essential for battery safety assessment.
has increased approximately 55-fold to 11 million in the last 10 years Voltage, temperature and cathode material are the factors that control
with the increase in mass production [7]. With the introduction of EVs battery reactions [17]. When safety accidents are analyzed, it is shown
on the roads, it has also brought about major changes in the automotive that continuous heat causes the battery burning. Therefore, the envi­
industry. ronment in which the battery operates also plays an important role in

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: mehmet.sen@asbu.edu.tr (M. Şen).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nxsust.2024.100036
Received 4 October 2023; Received in revised form 13 March 2024; Accepted 2 April 2024
Available online 12 April 2024
2949-8236/© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
M. Şen et al. Next Sustainability 3 (2024) 100036

battery safety [18]. In this review, the problems of LIB used in electric devices (such as smartphones and laptops). LIB are also used to power
vehicles are analyzed and the novel batteries that will replace these electrical systems in aerospace applications where weight is an impor­
batteries are examined. tant factor. The Nissan Leaf and Tesla Model S, currently the best-selling
In this study, the LIB used in electric vehicles, the failures and ac­ EVs, use LIB as their primary fuel source [25]. Despite these advantages,
cidents experienced in these batteries, and the batteries that are likely to LIB still have some disadvantages, especially in terms of safety. LIB tend
be used in electric vehicles in the coming years are discussed. When the to overheat and can be damaged at high voltages [14]. High heat can
literature is examined, it is seen that a comprehensive study that pro­ lead to thermal runaway and combustion in some cases. A comparison of
vides the reader with a detailed review of these issues has not yet been battery types is given in Table 1.
done. This study, in which performance, safety and economic factors are LIB consist of a combination of various anode and cathode materials.
presented together, will enable researchers and manufacturers who Fig. 1 shows the structure and types of LIB. According to the area where
want to take part in this field to conduct studies on batteries, one of the the battery will be used, a LIBs consisting of these combinations is
main power sources of electric vehicles, and to benefit from these preferred according to parameters such as safety, cost and performance
studies. This study has compiled the qualified studies in the relevant [23]. Commercially widely used lithium-based batteries are classified as
international literature in recent years for researchers, companies and Lithium-Cobalt-Oxide (LCO), Lithium-Manganese-Oxide (LMO), Lithi
manufacturers. In this way, it is thought that the reader will be able to um-Nickel-Cobalt-Aluminum (NCA), Lithium-Nickel-Manganese-Cobalt
access the right source. In addition, it is aimed to eliminate the existing (NMC), Lithium-Titanate (LTO) and Lithium-Iron-Phosphate (LFP)
knowledge gap by presenting results such as the advantages- [26]. Table 2 shows the characteristics of commercially widely used
disadvantages and qualitative comparison of the batteries that are ex­ lithium-based batteries.
pected to be used in EVs in the coming years. A battery is a device that converts chemical energy into electrical
energy when connected to an electrical circuit [32]. A battery cell has
2. Li-ion batteries positive and negative electrodes: when there is no polarization, the
negative electrode has the lower voltage value and the positive electrode
2.1. Working principle of lithium-ion based batteries has the higher voltage value. These electrodes are called anode and
cathode, respectively [33]. The reactions that occur at each electrode is
LIB are an advanced battery technology that utilizes lithium ions as a called half-cell reactions. This reaction results in an electron loss at the
key component of its electrochemistry [19]. During a discharge cycle, anode and an electron gain at the cathode depending on the electron
lithium atoms at the anode are ionized and stripped of their electrons. affinity of the metals [34].
Lithium ions move from the anode and pass through the electrolyte until
they reach the cathode where they recombine with their electrons and 2.1.1. Anode active material
become electrically neutralized [20]. The electrochemical reaction of Lithium metal was preferred as an anode material in the 1970s due to
LIB is given in Eq. 1. Lithium ions are small enough to pass through a its low weight, high electrode potential and capacity of approximately
micro-permeable separator between the anode and cathode [21]. Partly 3700 mAh/g [35]. With the widespread use of batteries, their usage
due to the small size of lithium, LIB have very high voltage and charge areas have also expanded and their use in different environmental
storage per unit mass and per unit volume [22]. conditions has become a necessity. However, lithium metal should be
kept in dry environments for safety reasons [36]. Although this situation
LiCoO2 + C6 →Li1− x CoO2 + Lix C6 (1)
has been solved with good insulation, it has triggered the search for
LIB can use a number of different materials as electrodes. The most different anode materials due to both the cost and the deterioration of
common combination is lithium cobalt oxide (cathode) and graphite the morphology of lithium metal [37]. As a result, carbons that storage
(anode), which is found in portable electronic devices such as mobile lithium ions via intercalation or adsorption have started to be used. The
phones or laptops [20]. lithium storage capacity of carbons is lower than lithium metal, but it is
LIB have a number of benefits over other premium rechargeable safer [35]. The capacities of some carbon anode materials used so far are
battery technologies such as nickel metal hydride or nickel cadmium. graphite (372 mAh/g), carbon nanofiber (450 mAh/g), porous carbon
They have one of the highest energy densities among today’s battery (800–1100 mAh/g), graphene (960 mAh/g), hard carbon
technologies (100–265 Wh/kg or 250–670 Wh/L). In addition, LIB cells (1050 mAh/g) and carbon nanotubes (1100 mAh/g) [38].
can charge-discharge 3 times more than battery technologies such as Ni- In the 1990s, petroleum-based coke was used in commercial cells.
Cd or Ni-Mh [23]. This means that LIB can provide large amounts of Coke anodes have a capacity of 180 mAh/g, which is equivalent to about
current for high power applications with relatively low maintenance half the capacity of graphite. Therefore, graphite was preferred in
compared to other batteries. In addition, LIB have a low self-discharge commercial batteries due to its high conductivity and low capacity loss
rate of about 3%-5% per month. In nickel metal hydride batteries, this and its practical capacity of 300 mAh/g [38]. Graphite is a carbon
rate is around 30% [24]. mineral and the most lithium-rich form of the carbon compound is LiC6.
Due to these advantages, LIB have replaced nickel cadmium and In hard carbons, the capacity value reaches up to 1000 mAh/g, their
nickel metal hydride batteries as the market leader in portable electronic stability is insufficient and their potential is higher than lithium [35].

Table 1
Parameters of commercial batteries [26,27].
Battery type Nominal Specific energy Energy intensity Specific strength Life Self-discharge (% Memory Operating
voltage (V) (Wh/kg− 1) (Wh/L− 1) (W/kg− 1) cycle per month) impact temperature (0C)

Lead acid 2 35 100 180 1000 <5 No -15 / +50

Nickel cadmium 1.2 50–80 300 200 2000 10 Yes -20 / +50
Nickel metal hydride 1.2 70–95 180–220 250 >3000 20 No -20 / +60
Lithium ion 3.6 118–250 200–400 315 2000 <5 No -20 / +60
Lithium nickel cobalt 3.6 200–260 250–400 350 1000 <5 No -20 / +60
aluminum oxide (NCA)
Lithium nickel manganese 3.8 150–220 250–400 320 2000 <5 No -20 / +60
cobalt oxide (NMC)
Lithium titanate (LTO) 2.3 70–85 150–250 150 5000 <5 No -20 / +80

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M. Şen et al. Next Sustainability 3 (2024) 100036

Fig. 1. (a) Schematic diagram of the basic structure of a LIB cell [29]. Cell types: (b) cylindrical cell; (c) prismatic cell; (d) coin cell; (e) pouch cell; (f) battery pack.
[30,31].

Table 2
The characteristics of commercially widely used lithium-based batteries [26,28].
Chemistry LCO LMO NMC LFP NCA LTO LMFP

Nominal voltage 3.6 V 3.7 V 3.7 V 3.3 V 3.6 V 2.4 V 3.7 V

Full charge 4.2 V 4.2 V 4.2 V 3.65 V 4.2 V 2.85 V 4.2 V
Specific energy (Wh/kg) 150–200 100–150 150–220 90–220 200–260 70–80 300–350
Cycle life 500–1000 300–700 1000–2000 1000–2000 500 3000–7000 2000–3000

During the intercalation and de-intercalation of lithium ions, volume The energy density of cells depends on the gravimetric density and
expansion problem arises at the anode and cathode. As a result of these the capacity of both anode and cathode materials. Since the cathode
expansions, fractures and structural distortions occur on the electrode material is the limiting material in energy density, an anode material can
surfaces. To prevent this situation, the surface area is increased by using be selected according to the priority criterion. Anode material research
nano particles. The negative aspect of nanoparticles is that they cause is still ongoing in lithium ion commercial batteries. Studies are being
capacity losses as a result of agglomeration on the surface area [37]. carried out to develop safer materials with higher capacity and power
Fig. 2 shows the volumetric change and fracture of the anode after density to replace the carbon used today. The prominent materials
multiple cycles. within the scope of research are titania (160 mAh/g), some transition
In recent years, commercial products, nano-sized tin-based com­ metal oxides (500/1000 mAh/g), tin (994 mAh/g), silicon oxide (1600
pounds with higher energy density than carbon are preferred as anode mAh/g) and silicon (4200 mAh/g) [41-43].
materials in LIB [39]. The performance evaluation of the components
preferred as anode materials in commercial products is given in Table 3. 2.1.2. Cathode active material
In general, cathode material is an oxide of transition metals and is the
electrode where the reduction reaction takes place. In other words, the
cathode gains electrons from the external circuit and is reduced. Lithium
ions have the ability to diffuse into the crystal structure. When lithium
ions leave the cathode active material during charging, they enter in the
Fig. 2. Structural deformation of the anode after multiple cycles [37]. structure during the discharge process [44,45]. The penetration time of

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M. Şen et al. Next Sustainability 3 (2024) 100036

Table 3
Performance evaluation of some anode materials [40].
Material properties Li C Li4Ti5O12 Si Sn Sb Al Mg
3
Density (g/cm ) 0.53 2.25 3.5 2.33 7.29 6.7 2.7 1.3
Lithium component phase Li LiC6 Li7Ti5O12 Li4.4Si Li4.4Sn Li3Sb LiAl Li3Mg
Theoretical capacity 3862 372 175 4200 994 660 993 3350
Volumetric change (%) 100 12 1 400 260 200 96 100
Li/Li+ potential 0 0.05 1.6 0.4 0.6 0.9 0.3 0.1

lithium ions into the material determines the maximum current to be

Table 5
drawn from the battery. The performance of LIB is also directly related
Comparison of cathode material properties at the R&D stage [47].
to the efficiency of cathode materials. Therefore, a number of studies
have concentrated on the cathode in an effort to lower volume change, Crystal Compound Specific capacity Volumetric Average
structure (theoretical and capacity voltage
increase battery performance and lower cost [46].
experimental) (theoretical and
Different cathode materials used in batteries have advantages and (mAh/g) experimental)
disadvantages compared to each other. Cathode materials include (mAh/cm3)
lithium manganese oxide (used in HEAs and EVs) and lithium iron Stratified LiNiO2 275/150 1280 3.8
phosphate [24]. It is not possible to find a cathode material with only Stratified LiMnO2 285/140 1148 3.3
one advantage [46]. Instead, the most optimum cathode material should Stratified Li2MnO3 458/180 1708 3.8
be determined according to the battery characteristics. Table 4 shows a Spinel LiCo2O4 142/84 704 4
Olivin LiMnPO4 171/168 567 3.8
comparison of the properties of cathode materials used in commercial
Olivin LiCoPO4 167/125 510 4.2
batteries and Table 5 shows a comparison of the properties of cathode Tavorit LiFeSO4F 151/120 487 4.2
materials in the R&D phase. Tavorit LiVPO4F 156/129 484 4.2
The preferred anode and cathode materials have advantages and
disadvantages over each other. Table 6 shows the properties of the
anode and cathode materials and the priority selection criteria. Table 6
Layered crystal material, three-dimensional structure and olivine Preference criteria for anode and cathode materials [24].
crystal structure are the most investigated materials [44,45]. These
Material Price Energy Lifespan Security Power
cathode components are expected to provide high energy density, low
Anode Graphite Si and Sn C and LTO LTO Hard C
volumetric size, long life, low cost, high safety and high potential. LIB
Cathode LMO NCA, NMC LFP LFP, LMO LMO
are used at voltage levels between 2 V and 5 V, but there are currently
no commercial applications at 5 V due to the stability of electrolyte at
this potential [48]. electrolytes.
Table 7 shows that the bifunctional organic group is superior in
2.1.3. Electrolyte solvents. Table 8 shows the properties of some salts used in electrolytes.
In the 1950s, it was determined that an aqueous electrolyte could not Table 8 shows that LiPF6 has been the most preferred electrolyte salt
be used in LIB because the charge and discharge voltage must be below among lithium salts for the last 30 years. When the LIB of Sony brand are
1.23 V [49]. In the 1960s, lithium-based batteries with organic and examined, LiPF6 has been used as the electrolyte salt since 1990 [44,45,
inorganic electrolytes were produced [50]. However, in the following 50]. It has been a constant preference in the commercial products of
years, safety and lifetime problems of these batteries started to emerge. other brands.
During charging and discharging, needle-like lithium crystals (or den­
drites) form on the anode Which involve two major safety drawbacks (i) 2.1.4. Separator
a loss of energy density due to comsumption of lithium (ii) the piercing The separator is an important component of the battery cell that
of separator and short-circuit [44,45]. prevents the physical contact of the positive and negative electrodes and
In the 1980s, studies on LIB batteries focused on producing safer allows free ion transport within the battery. Therefore, safety is closely
batteries by preventing dendrite formation and new electrolytes were related to the thermal stability of the separator ([53]. Separators are
discovered [50]. Electrolytes used with lithium salt and solvent have divided into various types according to their properties; microporous
been reported to be safer [51]. Traditional liquid electrolytes have dis­ films, non-woven types, ion exchange membranes and solid polymer
advantages such as being hazardous to the environment and human electrolytes [54]).
health. Therefore, great efforts have recently been made to replace the During the last years, in order to increase the volumetric capacity of
unsafe liquid organic electrolyte with solvent-free solid electrolyte [44, the commercial batteries, researches have been focused on thin sepa­
45]. Table 7 shows the physical properties of solvents used in rators inducing the utilization of microporous membranes thinner than
30 µm [55]. Separators with non-woven materials have also been
developed for LIB but have not yet been commercialized [53]. Table 9
Table 4
Comparison of cathode material properties used in commercial batteries [47].
shows the requirements for anode, cathode, electrolyte and separator
selection in a LIB.
Crystal Compound Specific capacity Volumetric Average
structure (theoretical and capacity voltage
experimental) (theoretical and 3. Li-ion battery performance
(mAh/g) experimental)
(mAh/cm3) 3.1. Deep discharge effect
Stratified LiTiS2 225/210 697 1.9
Stratified LiCoO2 274/148 1363/550 3.8 The battery depth of discharge (DOD) indicates the percentage of the
Stratified NMC 280/160 1333/600 3.7 battery that is discharged relative to the overall capacity of the battery.
Stratified NMA 279/199 1284/700 3.7
The DOD is complementary to the state of charge (SOC); as one in­
Spinel LiM2O4 148/120 596 4.1
Olivin LiFePO4 170/165 589 3.4 creases, the other decreases. There is a direct relationship between the

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M. Şen et al. Next Sustainability 3 (2024) 100036

Table 7
Physical properties of some solvents [52].
Solvent Molecular weight (g/ Melting point Boiling point Viscosity (cP, Dielectric constant (25 Dipole moment Density (g/
mol) ( C) ( C) 25 C) ( C) (Debye) cm3)
◦ ◦ ◦ ◦

Ethylene carbonate 88 36.4 248 1.90 89.78 4.61 1.321

Propylene carbonate 102 -48.8 242 2.53 64.92 4.81 1.2
Butyrolactone 86 -43.5 204 1.73 39 4.23 1.199
Valerolactone 100 -31 208 2 34 4.29 1.057
N-metal oxolidone 101 15 270 2.5 78 4.52 1.17
Dimethal carbonate 90 4.6 91 0.59 3.107 0.76 1.063
Diethyl carbonate 118 -74.3 126 0.75 2.805 31 0.969
Ethyl methyl 104 -53 110 0.65 2.958 0.89 1.006
carbonate

its life. In this context, batteries should be used in the ideal operating
Table 8
range as given in Fig. 6 without deep discharge. Fig. 3 shows the cycle
Physical properties of some salts used in electrolytes [52].
life variation of a LIB at different discharge depths.
Lithium salts Molecular Melting point Decomposition temperature
weight (g/ ( C) ( C)
◦ ◦

mol) 3.2. Current and discharge C-ratio effect

LiBF4 93.9 293 >100
LiPF6 151.9 200 80
C-ratio is a unit used to measure the rate at which a battery is fully
LiAsF6 195.9 340 >100 charged or discharged. For example, charging at a rate of 1 C means
LiCIO4 106.4 236 >100 charging the battery from 0% to 100% in one hour. C rate higher than
Lithium 155.9 >300 >100 1 C means faster charging; for example, a 3 C rate is three times faster
triflate
and means that a battery charged in one hour will be charged in
Lithium imit 286.9 234 >100
20 minutes. Likewise, a lower C rate means a slower charge, with 0.2 C
being five times slower than 1 C, meaning that a battery charged in one
hour will be charged in five hours [24]. Research shows that charging
Table 9
batteries at lower currents reduces the formation of dendrites in the
Design requirements of lithium ion batteries [56].
battery, making it safer and less stressful on the battery, resulting in a
Anode Cathode Electrolyte Separator longer cycle life [61,62].
High material High material High chemical Low risk of Similarly, the idea that different discharge currents will change the
strength strength stability explosion battery capacity was proposed in 1897 as a result of experiments on lead
Structural Structural Affordable cost Chemical stability
acid batteries [63]. Wilhelm Peukert argued with Eqs. 2–4 that
stability stability
Easy production Easy production Security Affordable cost discharge at high currents will cause capacity losses on batteries.
High electron High electron High ion Thin material
conductivity conductivity conductivity
Cp = I k ⋅t (2)
High lithium High lithium High lithium Environmental
( )k
diffusion rate diffusion rate conductivity sensitivity C
t=H (3)
IH
DOD and the cycle life of the battery [57]. The shallower the DOD, the ( )k− 1
C
higher the number of cycles delivered by a battery. By limiting the DOD It = C (4)
of the battery, the cycle life of the battery can be significantly increased. IH
LIB do not have a memory attachment [58]. Therefore, they do not The reduction in battery capacity as a result of high discharge cur­
require regular full discharge and charge cycles to prolong life. So it’s rents is valid for all battery types. However, in LIB, high discharge
the other way around; the lower the discharge, the longer the battery current causes heating in the battery. This temperature increase in the
will last and the more cycles it can do. Conversely, when fully dis­ battery prevents capacity loss by increasing the movement of lithium
charged (below 2.7 V) a chemical reaction occurs and the electrode ions [19]. Peukert’s law has some limitations. In this law, the effects of
oxidizes [59]. In this case, the battery will age and reach faster the end of temperature on the battery and battery aging are not taken into account
[24]. In this context, Peukert formulas are not valid for LIB. However,
the temperature problem in batteries occurs as the battery
charge-discharge cycle increases and leads to capacity losses, although it
is not directly related to Peukert formulas.

3.3. Temperature effect

The influence of the operating temperature on LIB life is mainly re­

flected in the electrolyte viscosity, ion passage rate and side reactions at
the microscopic level. Theoretically, the viscosity of the electrolyte and
the ion passage rate will improve the performance of LIB as the tem­
perature increases, but excessive temperature will lead to the increase of
side reactions in the battery, which is unfavorable [64]. The lower the
temperature, the slower the ionic lithium transition rate, the more
polarized the battery becomes, and the lower the performance of the LIB
[19]. At the same time, charging at too low temperature can lead to
Fig. 3. Percent capacity retention of a LIB at various discharge depths [60]. lithium plating, which involves safety and performance issues as seen

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M. Şen et al. Next Sustainability 3 (2024) 100036

above. Charging a LIB at temperatures below freezing causes the for­ Table 10
mation of persistent solid electrolyte interfaces (SEI) at the anode, LIB failures in recent years.
causing damage to the battery and capacity reduction. Therefore, History Accident realized Cause of accident Ref.
charging at low temperature will both reduce battery performance and
March 2010 Two iPod nanos caught fire by Overheated Li-ion [42,
lead to safety vulnerability [64]. Fig. 3 shows the discharge voltage of an heating up in Japan battery 43]
18650 LIB at various temperatures. A 3 A discharge of a 2.8Ah capacity April 2010 6 manufacturers recall 2700 Overheating and fire [42,
battery represents a C rate of 1.07 C. The reduced capacity at low laptop batteries hazard 43]
temperature is only valid when the battery is in this state and will be April 2011 An EV burned down in China Short circuit faults [69]
November 6 Tesla EVs on fire Short circuit of [69]
restored at room temperature. However, prolonged use at low or high 2013 batteries due to
temperature will increase the internal resistance of the battery, leading collision
to permanent capacity losses [22] Fig. 4. January 2013- Three Boeing 747 s on fire Short circuit and [69]
Depending on all these factors, batteries complete their life after January battery management
2014 system failure
different charge-discharge cycles. In EV’s, batteries are replaced after
April 2015 An electric bus catches fire Battery overcharging [70]
80% SoH [66]. Old batteries are transferred to remanufacturing, reuse while charging in China
or recycling. In the studies conducted, LIBs that were retired in Nissan May 2016 Explosion at LIB storage Self-ignition of fully [71]
X-Trail hybrid vehicles were put into use in different areas by passing charged batteries
certain test stages. 60% of these batteries were reused in golf carts, 20% August 2016 Samsung Note 7 smartphone Short circuit in the [72]
exploded battery due to design
in motorcycles and 20% in power supply (UPS) systems [67]. Due to the defect
intermittency of renewable energy sources, the use of aging LIBs will May 2017 Panasonic recalls more than Overheating and fire [73]
become widespread in the coming years in order to provide sufficient 270,000 LIB accident
power during peak times. October 2017 EA catches fire in Austria Burning after a vehicle [74]
accident
January 2018 A Tesla EV spontaneously Spontaneous [69]
4. Li-ion battery failures combusted in China combustion of the
battery
4.1. Regular operation July 2018 Energy storage system catches Fire in one LIB spreads [69]
fire in Korea to more than 3500
batteries
The failure rate is estimated to be 1 in 40 million if LIB are stored and
July 2018 Electric scooter catches fire Possible overcharging [69]
operated within the conditions recommended by manufacturers [68]. while charging
However, unforeseen circumstances such as overcharging, external February 2022 A fire broke onboard Felicity The cause of the fire is [75]
heating and poor mechanical handling can significantly increase this Ace, a cargo ship with 4000 not yet clear
cars, including about 300 EV.
failure probability. Although various safety devices have been inte­
July 2023 Cargo ship fire for electric car The cause of the fire is [76]
grated into commercial LIB packs, failures have occurred in many cells transportation not yet clear
used in various fields, leading to accidents [69]. Table 10 lists some of October 2023 A truckload of Tesla Model Ys Battery crushing [77]
recent accidents involving LIB. This list includes a wide range of prod­ caught fire in Turkey during transportation
ucts, from small consumer electronics to EVs and airplanes. November Renault zoe battery explosion Possible overcharging [78]
2023
The main causes of these accidents include overheating, short circuit,
overcharging, self-heating and mechanical damage. Due to the large
number of hazardous accidents involving LIB shown in Table 10, some Therefore, in order to develop safer batteries with higher energy den­
regulations have been made regarding the transportation and storage of sities, it is important to know the factors that trigger failures in LIB.
batteries. For instance, the International Civil Aviation Organization has
banned LIB from being shipped as cargo on passenger aircraft [79]. 4.1.1. Voltage effect
When the batteries are only shipped on cargo planes, their SOC must be LIB cause lithium plating and overheating problems when charged
less than 30%. For both safety and battery health, it is important that the above the charging voltage given in the technical documentation.
charge rate does not exceed 30% during storage. Lessons from fatal Lithium coating is known as the accumulation of lithium ions on the
accidents show that the safety of LIB technology is a serious issue. anode at excessive currents [80]. This causes capacity loss in the battery.
In addition, the deposition on the anode is not homogeneously distrib­
uted, causing dendrites and causing a short circuit in the battery [20]. In
LIB, both lithium coating and overheating reduce the cycle life of the
battery. The charge cut-off voltage of LIB is generally 4.2 V [26]. Charge
voltage above this value reduces the capacity and lifetime of the battery
and causes safety vulnerability. Fig. 5 shows the graph of the change in
the capacity and cycle life of the LIB at 4.2 V and above.
LIB are not only affected by high voltage, but low voltage causes a
gradual degradation of the electrode material. If the voltage drops below
2 V, different effects are seen on the anode and cathode. In such a case,
copper dissolution occurs on the anode and copper precipitation is
encountered when recharging is performed [81]. Copper precipitation
creates a bridge between the anode and the cathode for electrons to
jump, causing a short circuit. At the cathode, it leads to oxygen loss,
resulting in reduced battery capacity [20]. In this context, the operating
range of LIB should be within a certain voltage range as seen in Fig. 6.

4.1.2. Temperature effect

Temperature has a direct impact on cycle life and capacity in all
battery types. During charging and discharging processes, the battery
Fig. 4. Discharge voltage and capacity of LIB at various temperature [65].

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M. Şen et al. Next Sustainability 3 (2024) 100036

Fig. 5. Effect of charge cut-off voltage on capacity and number of cycles in LIB [81].

Fig. 6. Operating range of LIB [82].

heats up and if the temperature is not controlled, battery deteriorates. and cobalt elements in the cathode materials increase the heating effects
There are basically three different heat sources in LIB; ohmic heating [24]. In this context, the cathode material is important to ensure safety
due to resistance increase, exothermic reactions heat and polarization in battery failures. Fig. 8 shows the temperature resistance of cathode
heating [24]. Fig. 7 shows the possibly events, interventions and results materials used in LIB.
that could increase the LIB temperature. In order to prevent the excess of
heating, the coolant obtained in air conditioning systems in EVs is
circulated through specific channels placed inside the battery packs. 4.2. Abnormal operation
These cooling systems cause an additional power consumption from the
batteries in the vehicle. On the other hand, low temperature has also a 4.2.1. Crush
negative effect on the battery performance. Most commercial LIB cells are relatively fragile without the protec­
tion of an EVs structure or battery module and package housing. Traffic
4.1.3. Cathode chemistry accidents are among the adverse factors that EVs, like conventional cars,
The protection of LIB should start at the anode material. Because can face during their lifetime. However, thanks to the modern design of
when there is a failure due to the temperature, the process affect first the LIB and EVs, the vast majority of crashes will not damage the battery
SEI on the anode active material surface [24]. When the process reaches packs [84,85]. LIB packs are usually integrated into highly reinforced
the cathode material, it is too late to recover the battery. However, the areas of the vehicle to eliminate the risk of puncture during crash con­
cathode material accelerates the process since it fuels the great energy in ditions. However, the battery can still be damaged in EV accidents. In
flare and explosion situations [9,10]. Especially the increase of nickel this case, Fig. 9 shows the most important issues that can occur after a
crush in a battery pack in terms of reliability and safety [86-88].

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Fig. 7. Phenomena and consequences that occur in LIB with increasing temperature (Vent stands for ventilation system, CID stands for current cut-off device, PTC
stands for positive temperature coefficient device, BMS stands for battery management system) [83].

Fig. 8. Cathode material temperature resistance of LIB [82].

4.2.2. Rupture determine the risk level criteria by connecting the open cathode and
The quest for fast charging and discharging combined with high anode electrodes to a short resistance. During the test, a large fault
driving performance for EVs has a negative impact in terms of fire risks current is generated in the short circuit and subsequently high joules of
([90,91]). LIB are built to receive and store a predefined amount of heat are generated in the internal resistance of the battery, causing a
energy within a certain period of time. Exceeding these limits, which can rapid rise in battery temperature. The high temperature caused by the
be the result of charging too fast or overcharging, can lead to degrade external short circuit will physically deform the separator of the battery
performance or premature failure. Usually, electrical abuse is accom­ cell between the anode and cathode platforms, causing an internal short
panied by Joule heating and internal chemical reactions. This can cause circuit and a severe thermal reaction. The level of risk in terms of
the cell swelling and eventually rupture [92,93]. external short circuit in the battery is determined by operational and
environmental factors such as SoC, short circuit resistance, pre-
4.2.3. Short circuit treatment temperature and protection devices. The short circuit cur­
In general, the test item for an external short circuit in a LIB is to rent and temperature increase when the SoC of the battery cell is high or

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Fig. 9. Battery failure process in a possible EVs accident [89].

the short circuit resistance is low [94]. This situation shows the short batteries, the risk of explosion or fire is extremely low, so they do not
circuit radiology taken from the battery at the time of overcharge, need additional components for safety. Solid electrolyte batteries have a
overdischarge and short circuit in Fig. 10. very low self-discharge rate and offer a longer lifetime due to less
degradation [99]. Despite these advantages, ion transfer in a solid
5. What’s Next? electrolyte is very difficult. Battery resistance increases with increasing
temperature and the battery cannot be operated efficiently [100]. These
5.1. Solid electrolyte batteries batteries, which are candidates for more widespread use in EVs, are still
under research [99]. Fig. 11 shows the working principle of LIB and solid
These batteries are based on LIB. The reasons for the development of electrolyte batteries.
solid electrolyte batteries are high energy density and safety [98]. By Research companies in the EV market emphasize that the most
using LIB, higher capacity batteries can be placed in the same volume in important reason why the use of LIB has become the leader in the EV
EVs. In addition, since dendrite formation is suppressed in these market is that the range of vehicles using this battery is higher [99].

Fig. 10. (a) Schematic representation of the overcharge and [95] (b) overdischarge process [96] (c) Radiological image taken from the cell during short circuit
test [97].

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Fig. 11. Working principle of LIB and solid state batteries [101].

There are two ways to increase the range of EVs; either by increasing the expected to replace LIB, dates back 61 years [107]. Promising 40%
number of batteries or by increasing the energy density of the batteries higher capacity than LIB, Li-S batteries are expected to be available in
[102]. Directly increasing the number of batteries to be used in vehicles the near future [108]. At the current stage, these batteries are still
creates a disadvantage in terms of both volume and weight. In this limited in terms of commercialization by their very short cycle life. Most
context, scientific studies to increase the energy density of batteries have of the researches have focused on a new electrocatalyst to extend battery
gained weight [103]. life [109]. In this context, a cobalt oxalate layer was added to the
cathode element in the search for a new electrocatalyst and it was found
5.2. Metal air batteries that battery life and performance increased [110]. With the overcoming
of these problems, scientific studies show that the use of Li-S batteries in
Metal-air batteries have a much higher theoretical energy density EVs can be realized in the near future with high energy density, safer and
than LIB [104]. They are proposed as a solution for next generation more ecological [109].
electrochemical energy storage for EVs and grid energy storage. How­
ever, due to production difficulties related to metal at the anode, air at 5.4. Sodium-ion batteries
the cathode and electrolyte material, these batteries have not yet been
commercialized and have been operating in research laboratories [105, Sodium-ion batteries are known to be cheapest alternatives to LIB.
106]. These manufacturing challenges need to be appropriately The fact that sodium reserves are higher than lithium, present even in
addressed before metal-air batteries can become a practical reality and seawater has increased the interest in Na-ion batteries. When sodium
be used on a large scale. The theoretical properties of these batteries and lithium metals are compared in Table 12, it is understood that so­
using various metals are given in Table 11. dium metal has comparable properties to lithium metal [111-113]. In
Table 11 shows that lithium-air (Li-air) batteries offer higher ca­ addition, the fact that aluminum foils used as current collectors do not
pacity and energy density than other metal-air batteries. This increases react with sodium-based anodes is an additional advantage.
the preference rate of Li-air batteries. However, the low power density of
Li-air batteries limits their use in EVs. Since the cycle life of all metal-air 6. Discussion and conclusions
batteries is still not sufficient, they are considered as the batteries of the
future. In this article, a detailed study has been conducted on battery
chemistries that have been used in EVs from the past to the present,
5.3. Lithium sulfur batteries those still in the research stage and those that may be used in future EVs.
The various battery types employed in EVs are explained individually
The development of lithium sulfur (Li-S) batteries, which are and their strengths and weaknesses are determined. The performance
and competitiveness of fully electric vehicles are closely tied to the
Table 11
Design requirements for lithium ion batteries [24]. Table 12
Comparison of sodium and lithium metals [114].
Metal Anode Capacity (Ah/ Theoretical potential Specific energy (kWh/
g) (V) kg) Comparison Type Sodyum (11Na)+ Lityum (3Li)

Lithium 3.86 3.4 13 Cation radius (A) 0.97 0.68

Calcium 1.34 3.4 4.6 Atomic weight (g/mol) 23 6.9
Magnesium 2.2 3.1 6.8 Standard Hydrogen Electrode Potential (E◦ = V) -2.70 -3.04
Aluminum 2.98 2.7 8.1 Melting point (◦ C) 97.7 180.5
Zinc 0.82 1.6 1.3 Cost (Carbonated compounds ($/ton) 120 4000
Iron 0.96 1.3 1.2 Theoretical capacity (mAh/g) 1165 3829

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