Lesson 2 Formation of The Heavy Elements

FORMATION OF THE
HEAVY ELEMENTS
Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:
1. Briefly discuss stellar nucleosynthesis or fusion.

2. Discuss other processes that led to other elements.
3. Write out fusion reactions involved.
3
Cosmic Ray Spallation
when particles in cosmic rays collide with

heavier elements, they generate Li, Be and B
– among other elements – through nuclear
fission.
4
Cosmic Rays/
Cosmic Radiation
➢ Consists of very high-energy particles.
These particles comes from outer space
(cosmos) and form our own solar
system.
➢ Comes from variety of sources like solar flares, explosions of the

stars (novas or supernovas), or from galaxies.
5
6
➢ As primary cosmic
rays travels in a
speed of light strikes
or interacts with
matter; neutrons
(secondary cosmic
rays) are formed.
➢ Neutron Collision –
target nucleus
collides with neutrons
sharing kinetic energy
7
➢ When a neutron strikes
the nuclei of an
element (ex.
Hydrogen), the protons
began ionizing. That is
because their energy
level and charge
enables them to
interact with the
electrons in matter.
➢ In this case, the nucleus captures the neutron and a new

nucleus is produced. This is called nucleosynthesis.
8
Matter Era
Matter
is anything that has mass
and occupies space.
It is composed of tiny
particles called atoms.
Five States
of Matter
SOLID
⋆ Composed of tightly packed particles.
⋆ At a given temperature, has a definite volume
and shape which may be affected by changes
in temperature.
⋆ Solids usually increase slightly in size when
heated (expansion) and usually decrease in
size if cooled (contraction).
LIQUID
⋆ Made up of more loosely packed particles.
⋆ At a given temperature, has a fixed volume
and will take up the shape of any container
into which it is poured.
⋆ Like a solid, a liquid’s volume is slightly
affected by changes in temperature.
GAS
⋆ Composed of particles packed so loosely that
it has neither a defined shape nor a defined
volume.
⋆ At a given temperature, has neither a definite
shape nor a definite volume.
⋆ Unlike those of solids and liquids, the
volumes of gases are affected quite markedly
by changes in temperature
PLASMA
⋆ like gas has no definite shape and
volume
⋆ It is abundant in the outer space
⋆ It consists of highly charged particles
with extremely high kinetic energy that
makes them glow.
⋆ This can be formed when noble or inert
gases like helium, neon, argon, krypton,
xenon and radon are ionizing using
electricity.
BOSE-EINSTEIN
CONDENSATE (BEC)
⋆ Is the newest state of matter introduced in
1955 by two physicists, Eric Cornell and Carl
Weiman.
⋆ Using a combination of laser and magnet, they
cooled a sample of the element rubidium to
below 1 micro-Kelvin. At extremely low
temperature, movement of molecules in the
element almost stopped causing the clumping
of the thousand of individual atom.
BOSE-EINSTEIN
CONDENSATE (BEC)
⋆ The atoms, instead separated from each
other, appeared to be a single “super atom”
called BEC, which has all the properties of
a superfluid – flows freely without friction.
When light passes through a BEC, it
appears to slow down, which allows for the
study of the particle-wave paradox.
In extreme environments, other states
may be present, such as neutron stars
and quark-gluons plasmas are possible.
19
ATOMS
Building blocks of matter.
Made up of subatomic
particles protons(positively
charged), electrons
(negatively charged) and
neutrons (neutral).
HISTORY
of ATOMS
21
❑ Aristotle believes that the world is
composed of four elements: water,
earth, air and fire.
❑ Democritus
thought that these
elements were
composed of atoms,
minute particles moving
Timeline: 400 BC in a vacuum.
Timeline: 1800’s
❑ John Dalton
was the first to adopt Democritus’
theory concluding that the behavior
of matter could be explained only if
matter was composed of atoms.
23
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
Three postulates:
1. All matter is composed of

exceedingly small indivisible
particles called atoms.
2. No two elements or atoms of different kinds
have exactly the same properties.
3. Atoms combine in simple, fixed whole
number ratios to form compounds.
Timeline: 1890’s
❑ Joseph John Thomson

used the CRT (cathode ray tube) to
show that the cathode ray were
particles smaller and lighter than
atoms.
28
❑ J.J Thomson was an excellent physicist and thus did not stop
when he had found this negative charge. Through a series of
clever experiments he was able to predict the mass of this
charge.
❑ He then found out that this charge was 1000 times lighter
that a hydrogen atom. He made a bold statement saying that
this negative charge must be inside an atom. This negative
charge (he called corpuscles)
❑ The name “electron” was suggested by G. Johnstone Stoney
in 1874.
29
Thomson’s Atomic Model
Using what he had discovered, Thomson predicted what
an atom should look like. These are the key points:
1. Each atom is a sphere filled with positively

charged ‘fluid’. This resembles the sticky jam
part of a pudding.
2. Corpuscles (later called electrons), are the
negatively charged particles suspended in this
‘fluid’.
Plum pudding model

Timeline: 1910
❑ Ernest Rutherford
was not convinced about the
model of the atom proposed by
Thomson. He thus set up his
now famous Gold Foil
Experiment.
31
1. He fired alpha particles
(positively charged) at a gold
foil.
2. He measured the deflection
as the particles came out the
other side.
3. Most of the particles did not
deflect at all. Every now and
then a particle would deflect
all the way back.
4. He said that there must be a
positive center of the foil. He
called this center the
nucleus.
32
Rutherford’s Atomic Model
Also known as Planetary Model
1. The nucleus of the atom is a

dense mass of positively charged
particles.
2. The electrons orbit the nucleus
3. Rutherford stated that the atom
was like a mini solar system and
that the electrons orbited the
nucleus in a wide orbit. That is
why it is known as the planetary
model.
Timeline: 1915
❑ Niels Bohr
agreed with the planetary model of the atom,
but also knew that it had a few flaws. Using his
knowledge of energy and quantum physics he
was able to perfect Rutherford’s model. He was
able to answer why the electrons did not
collapse into the nucleus.
34
Bohr’s Atomic Model
1. Electrons orbit the nucleus in
orbits that have a set size and
energy.
2. The lower the energy of the
electron, the lower the orbit.
This means that as electrons
fill up the orbitals, they will fill
the lower energy level first.
3. If that energy level is fill (or at
capacity), a new energy level
will begin.
4. Radiation is when an electron
moves from one level to
another.
Timeline: 1920
❑ Erwin Schrödinger
was a revolutionary physicist who
used Heisenberg’s uncertainty
principle to come up with the
atomic model that we still use
today.
36
Schrodinger’s Atomic Model
Also known as Cloud Model
1. An electron does not travel in an exact

orbit
2. We can predict where it will probably
be.
3. We cannot say for certain where it is,
but only where it ought to be.
4. The type of probability orbit is
dependent on the energy level
described by Bohr
Timeline: 1930
❑ James Chadwick
experiments revealed that there were
neutral particles in an atom with a
mass almost the same as that of the
proton, the latter being only slightly
greater. He named them neutrons.
38
Chadwick’s Atomic Model
THANKS!
Do you have any question?
Mark C. Alderite, LPT

SCIENCE TEACHER

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FORMATION OF THE

1. Briefly discuss stellar nucleosynthesis or fusion.

when particles in cosmic rays collide with

➢ Comes from variety of sources like solar flares, explosions of the

➢ In this case, the nucleus captures the neutron and a new

1. All matter is composed of

❑ Joseph John Thomson

1. Each atom is a sphere filled with positively

Plum pudding model

1. The nucleus of the atom is a

1. An electron does not travel in an exact

Mark C. Alderite, LPT

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