Compulsory Paper

Subject Name -: Research Methodology

Course Code -: 504

1 Introduction to Research 1.1 Research – Meaning, Characteristics & Importance 1.2 Basic Research
Process – An overview & steps involved 1.3 Research Design – Meaning, Characteristics of a good
research design 1.4 Components of Research Design 1.5 Sampling Design – Steps involved & Types of
Samplings

2 Sources of Collection of Data: 2.1 Primary Data: Concept and Definitions 2.2 Respondents: Concept
and Meaning 2.3 Secondary Data: Concept and Definition 2.4 Types of sources of secondary data

3 Methods of Collecting of Data: 3.1 Primary Data: Methods of collecting primary data, 3.1.1 Survey
Method: Types of surveys 3.1.2 Questionnaire Method: Types of questions, Essentials of good
questionnaire 3.1.3 Interview Method: Types of Interviews 3.1.4 Experimentation & Observation
Methods: Types of observations 3.1.5 Focus Group Methods like Panel groups & Group Discussions 3.2
Secondary Data: Methods of collecting secondary data 3.2.1 Evaluating Quality of Data 3.2.2
Advantages and Disadvantages of Secondary Data

4 Data Processing & Analysis 4.1 Data Processing – Editing, Codification, Classification, Tabulation,
Scaling & Measurement (Should be taught with help of computer) 4.2 Data Analysis – Methods of
analyzing data 4.3 Hypothesis - Concept and Types of Errors 4.4 Hypothesis Testing – Chi Square Test,
Z-test & t-test

5 Writing Skills for Business Research: 5.1 Project Report Writing – Selecting and defining topic,
Writing Chapters, Subject Matter, Style and Structure 5.2 Research Paper Writing – Structure of
research paper, referencing styles 5.3 One Research Paper to be written and presented by student
(50 % Weightage in Internal Evaluation to be given for the same)
CHAPTER 1: MEANING AND CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

Meaning of Research

Research is defined as the scientific investigation of phenomena which includes collection,

presentation, analysis and interpretation of facts that lines an individual’s speculation with reality.

“a careful, systematic, patient study and investigation in some field of knowledge, undertaken to
establish facts or principles”

“structured enquiry that utilizes acceptable scientific methodology, to solve problems and create new
knowledge that is generally applicable

Characteristics of Research

 Empirical - based on observations and experimentation on theories.

 Systematic - follows orderly and sequential procedure.
 Controlled - all variables except those that are tested/experimented upon are kept constant.
 Employs hypothesis - guides the investigation process
 Analytical - There is critical analysis of all data used so that there is no error in their
interpretation
 Objective, Unbiased, & Logical - all findings are logically based on empirical
 Employs quantitative or statistical methods - data are transformed into numerical measures
and are treated statistically

1. Empirical. Research is based on direct experience or observation by the researcher.

2. Logical. Research is based on valid procedures and principles.

3. Cyclical. Research is a cyclical process because it starts with a problem and ends with a problem.

4. Analytical. Research utilizes proven analytical procedures in gathering the data, whether
historical, descriptive, experimental and case study.

5. Critical. Research exhibits careful and precise judgment.

6. Methodical. Research is conducted in a methodical manner without bias using systematic

method and procedures.

7. Replicability. The research design and procedures are replicated or repeated to enable the
researcher to arrive at valid and conclusive results.
Characteristics of Research:

The characteristics of research include various points such as:-

1. Research should be controlled-

2. It should be controlled because of the relation between two or more variables are affected by
each other (whether it is internal or external). If the research is not controllable, then it will
not be able to design a particular research report.

2. Research should be rigorous-

It should be rigorous because it helps to follow the procedures to find out the answers related
questions which are relevant and appropriate in nature. The research information consists of two
types of sciences such as physical and social sciences. These two sciences are also varied from each
other.

3. Research should be systematic-

Research should be systematic because if a researcher wants to do a perfect research design or

process then it will have to evaluate or obtained the necessary information from the market in a
systematic manner. It takes various steps to do a perfect or systematic research process and all the
steps of procedures are interlinked to each other.

4. Research should be valid-

It means the information which is collected by the researcher can be the correct and verifiable by
yourself (i.e, researcher himself). If our collected information is fair or valid, then our research will
also be ethical in nature.

5. Research should be empirical-

This means that any conclusion drawn is totally based upon ethical or hard evidence gathered
information collected from observations and real-life experiences.

6. The foundation of knowledge-

Research is the foundation of knowledge for the purpose of knowledge and an important source for
providing guidelines or norms for solving different social, business, or governmental problems. It is a
variety of formal training which enables us to understand the new developments in one’s field in an
efficient way.

 Systematic-this implies that the procedure adopted to undertake an investigation follow a

certain logical sequence. The different steps cannot be taken in a haphazard way. Some
procedures must follow others.
  Controlled- in real life there are many factors that affect an outcome. The concept of control
implies that, in exploring causality in relation to two variables (factors), we set up our study in
a way that minimizes the effects of other factors affecting the relationship. This can be
achieved to a large extent in the physical sciences (cookery, bakery), as most of the research is
done in a laboratory. However, in the social sciences (Hospitality and Tourism) it is extremely
difficult as research is carried out on issues related to human beings living in society, where
such controls are not possible. Therefore in Hospitality and Tourism, as you cannot control
external factors, you attempt to quantify their impact.
 Rigorous-you must be careful in ensuring that the procedures followed to find answers to
questions are relevant, appropriate and justified. Again, the degree of rigor varies markedly
between the physical and social sciences and within the social sciences.
 Valid and verifiable-this concept implies that whatever we conclude on the basis of our
Findings is correct and can be verified by us and others.
 Empirical-this means that any conclusion drawn are based upon hard evidence gathered from
information collected from real life experiences or observations.
 Critical-critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the methods employed is crucial to a
research enquiry. The process of investigation must be foolproof and free from drawbacks.
The process adopted and the procedures used must be able to withstand critical scrutiny.

ü Types of Research

1. Basic Research. This is also called as “fundamental research” or “pure research”. It seeks to
discover basic truths or principles.

Examples:

· Boyle’s Law

· Charles’ Law

· Archimedes’ Principle

· Hooke’s Law

· Newton’s Law

2. Applied Research. This type of research involves seeking new applications of scientific knowledge
to the solution of a problem, such as a development of a new system or procedure, new device, or
new method in order to solve the problem.

3. Developmental Research. This is a decision-oriented research involving the application of the

steps of the scientific method in response to an immediate need to improve existing practices.

ü Classification of Research
1. Library Research. This is done in the library where answers to specific questions or problems of
the study are available.

2. Field Research. Here, research is conducted in a natural setting.

3. Laboratory Research. The research is conducted in artificial or controlled conditions by isolating

the study in a thoroughly specified and equipped area. The purposes are: (1) to test hypotheses
derived from theory, (2) to control variance under research conditions, and (3) to discover the
relations between the dependent and the independent.

IMPORTANCE

1. To find out the real facts-

As we know, every type of research has its own object but the basic aim of the research is always to
find out or obtained the information from the markets and societies and their number of respondents.
A researcher evaluates or finds the real or exact information for our problem-related questions.

2. To achieve the new thoughts-In this objective of the research, anybody can find new thoughts from
the research. Research is the process of finding the exact information through proper observation,
optimization, and experiments.

These are the scientific methods to find out or evaluate the information which is very necessary for
evaluating the problem task.

3. To evaluate the information-

The first aim of the research is to find out the information and then evaluate them in an appropriate
or efficient manner so that they can easily design the research problem and solve them also.

A researcher evaluates the information through various scientific approaches and methods, statistical
analysis and procedures, and another type of tables and graphs.

4. To test a hypothesis-In this objective of the research, the researcher does the causal relationship
between the variables (it can also be said that the hypothesis testing research studies). The
hypothesis testing study represents the number of actions like these terms:

(a) Making a formal statement,

(b) Selecting a significance level,

(c) Deciding the distribution use,

(d) Selecting a random sample and computing an appropriate value,

(e) Calculation of the probability,

(f) Comparing the probability.

5. To design or implement the research-

After the collection of all information, the researcher prepares the structure of a research design for
the company so that they can easily describe or identify the structure of a particular research theme.
The research designs can be broadcasted into two forms such as experimental designs and non-
experimental designs.

After the structure of the research design, the researcher implements them in a problem and find out
the optimum factor to solve them.

6. To improve the understanding-

In this objectives of the research, the researcher helps to improve the understanding of a particular
topic by asking what else needs to be evidenced before the research is purposeful, or what knowledge
could be assembled from a more focused investigation, or scrutiny of the existing findings.

Why Is Research Important?

The main purpose of research is to inform action, to prove a theory, and contribute to developing knowledge in a field or
study. This article will highlight the significance of research with the following points:

1. A Tool for Building Knowledge and for Facilitating Learning

2. Means to Understand Various Issues and Increase Public Awareness
3. An Aid to Business Success
4. A Way to Prove Lies and to Support Truths
5. Means to Find, Gauge, and Seize Opportunities
6. A Seed to Love Reading, Writing, Analyzing, and Sharing Valuable Information
7. Nourishment and Exercise for the Mind

Finding reasons why research is important seems like a no-brainer, but many people avoid getting involved in research. The

1. A Tool for Building Knowledge and for Facilitating Learning

Research is required not just for students and academics, but for all professionals and nonprofessionals alike. It is also
important for budding and veteran writers, both offline and online.

"Knowledge" basically pertains to facts based on objective insights and/or study findings processed by the human brain. It
can be acquired through various ways, such as reading books and online articles, listening to experts, watching
documentaries or investigative shows, conducting scientific experiments, and interacting with other people, among others.

2. Means to Understand Various Issues and Increase Public

Awareness
Television shows and movies ooze with research - both on the part of the writer(s) and the actors. Though there are hosts
who rely on their researchers, there are also those who exert effort to do their own research. This step helps them:

 get information that hired researchers missed,

 build a good rapport with the interviewee, and
 conduct a good interview in the process
3. An Aid to Business Success
Research benefits business. Many successful companies, such as those producing consumer goods or mass-market items,
invest in research and development or R&D. Different business industries with science and engineering processes like
agriculture, food and beverage, manufacturing, healthcare and pharmaceuticals, computer software, semiconductor,
information and communication technology, construction, robotics, aerospace, aviation, and energy have high R&D
expenditure because it is critical to product innovation and to improving services.

4. A Way to Prove Lies and to Support Truths

Scientists also deal with research to test the validity and reliability of their claims or those of other scientists'. Their integrity
and competence depend on the quality - and not just quantity - of their research. Nonetheless, not everything scientists
come up with get accepted or learned by everyone, especially when factors like religion, state suppression, and access to
resources and social services (e.g., education and adequate health programs) either feed the poor majority with lies or deter
them from knowing truths to preserve the status quo.

5. Means to Find, Gauge, and Seize Opportunities

Research helps people nurture their potential and achieve goals through various opportunities. These can be in the form of
securing employment, scholarships, training grants, project funding, business collaboration, and budget traveling, among
others.

For those looking for a job or for greener pastures, research is necessary. Through this process, not only will the
unemployed increase their chances of finding potential employers either through job posting sites or employment agencies,
but it can inform them if work opportunities are legitimate.

6. A Seed FOR Reading, Writing, Analyzing, and Sharing Valuable

Information
Research entails both reading and writing. These two literacy functions help enable computation and comprehension.
Without these skills, it is less likely for anyone to appreciate and get involved in research. Reading opens the mind to a vast
horizon of knowledge, while writing helps a reader use her/his own perspective and transform this into a more concrete idea
that s/he understands.

Apart from reading and writing, listening and speaking are also integral in conducting research. Interviews, attending
knowledge-generating events, and casual talks with anyone certainly aid in formulating research topics. They can also
facilitate the critical thinking process. Listening to experts discuss the merits of their studies helps the listener to analyze a
certain issue and write about such analysis.

7. Nourishment and Exercise for the Mind

doing research can contribute to brain health. In "Educating the Brain to Avoid Dementia: Can Mental Exercise Prevent
Alzheimer Disease?".

, research and doing research encourage people to explore possibilities, to understand existing issues, and to disclose
truths and fabricated ones. Without research, technological advancement and other developments could have remained a
fantasy. Reading, writing, observing, analyzing, and social interaction facilitate an inquisitive mind's quest for knowledge,
learning, and wisdom. Research serves as a bridge to achieve that goal.

Step 1: Identify the Problem

Step 2: Review the Literature
Step 3: Clarify the Problem
Step 4: Clearly Define Terms and Concepts
Step 5: Define the Population
Step 6: Develop the Instrumentation Plan
Step 7: Collect Data
Step 8: Analyze the Data
Step 1: Identify the Problem
The first step in the process is to identify a problem or develop a research question. The
research problem may be something the agency identifies as a problem, some knowledge or
information that is needed by the agency, or the desire to identify a recreation trend
nationally.
Step 2: Review the Literature
Now that the problem has been identified, the researcher must learn more about the topic
under investigation. To do this, the researcher must review the literature related to the
research problem. This step provides foundational knowledge about the problem area. The
review of literature also educates the researcher about what studies have been conducted in
the past, how these studies were conducted, and the conclusions in the problem area. In the
obesity study, the review of literature enables the programmer to discover horrifying
statistics related to the long-term effects of childhood obesity in terms of health issues, death
rates, and projected medical costs. In addition, the programmer finds several articles and
information from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention that describe the benefits of
walking 10,000 steps a day. The information discovered during this step helps the
programmer fully understand the magnitude of the problem, recognize the future
consequences of obesity, and identify a strategy to combat obesity (i.e., walking).
Step 3: Clarify the Problem
Many times the initial problem identified in the first step of the process is too large or broad
in scope. In step 3 of the process, the researcher clarifies the problem and narrows the scope
of the study. This can only be done after the literature has been reviewed. The knowledge
gained through the review of literature guides the researcher in clarifying and narrowing the
research project. In the example, the programmer has identified childhood obesity as the
problem and the purpose of the study. This topic is very broad and could be studied based on
genetics, family environment, diet, exercise, self-confidence, leisure activities, or health
issues. All of these areas cannot be investigated in a single study; therefore, the problem and
purpose of the study must be more clearly defined. The programmer has decided that the
purpose of the study is to determine if walking 10,000 steps a day for three days a week will
improve the individual's health. This purpose is more narrowly focused and researchable than
the original problem.
Step 4: Clearly Define Terms and Concepts
Terms and concepts are words or phrases used in the purpose statement of the study or the
description of the study. These items need to be specifically defined as they apply to the
study. Terms or concepts often have different definitions depending on who is reading the
study. To minimize confusion about what the terms and phrases mean, the researcher must
specifically define them for the study. In the obesity study, the concept of “individual's
health” can be defined in hundreds of ways, such as physical, mental, emotional, or spiritual
health. For this study, the individual's health is defined as physical health. The concept of
physical health may also be defined and measured in many ways. In this case, the
programmer decides to more narrowly define “individual health” to refer to the areas of
weight, percentage of body fat, and cholesterol. By defining the terms or concepts more
narrowly, the scope of the study is more manageable for the programmer, making it easier to
collect the necessary data for the study. This also makes the concepts more understandable to
the reader.
Step 5: Define the Population
Research projects can focus on a specific group of people, facilities, park development,
employee evaluations, programs, financial status, marketing efforts, or the integration of
technology into the operations. For example, if a researcher wants to examine a specific
group of people in the community, the study could examine a specific age group, males or
females, people living in a specific geographic area, or a specific ethnic group. Literally
thousands of options are available to the researcher to specifically identify the group to
study. The research problem and the purpose of the study assist the researcher in identifying
the group to involve in the study. In research terms, the group to involve in the study is
always called the population. Defining the population assists the researcher in several ways.
First, it narrows the scope of the study from a very large population to one that is
manageable. Second, the population identifies the group that the researcher's efforts will be
focused on within the study. This helps ensure that the researcher stays on the right path
during the study. Finally, by defining the population, the researcher identifies the group that
the results will apply to at the conclusion of the study. In the example in table 2.4, the
programmer has identified the population of the study as children ages 10 to 12 years. This
narrower population makes the study more manageable in terms of time and resources.
Step 6: Develop the Instrumentation Plan
The plan for the study is referred to as the instrumentation plan. The instrumentation plan
serves as the road map for the entire study, specifying who will participate in the study; how,
when, and where data will be collected; and the content of the program. This plan is
composed of numerous decisions and considerations that are addressed in chapter 8 of this
text. In the obesity study, the researcher has decided to have the children participate in a
walking program for six months. The group of participants is called the sample, which is a
smaller group selected from the population specified for the study. The study cannot possibly
include every 10- to 12-year-old child in the community, so a smaller group is used to
represent the population. The researcher develops the plan for the walking program,
indicating what data will be collected, when and how the data will be collected, who will
collect the data, and how the data will be analyzed. The instrumentation plan specifies all the
steps that must be completed for the study. This ensures that the programmer has carefully
thought through all these decisions and that she provides a step-by-step plan to be followed
in the study.
Step 7: Collect Data
Once the instrumentation plan is completed, the actual study begins with the collection of
data. The collection of data is a critical step in providing the information needed to answer
the research question. Every study includes the collection of some type of data—whether it is
from the literature or from subjects—to answer the research question. Data can be collected
in the form of words on a survey, with a questionnaire, through observations, or from the
literature. In the obesity study, the programmers will be collecting data on the defined
variables: weight, percentage of body fat, cholesterol levels, and the number of days the
person walked a total of 10,000 steps during the class.
The researcher collects these data at the first session and at the last session of the program.
These two sets of data are necessary to determine the effect of the walking program on
weight, body fat, and cholesterol level. Once the data are collected on the variables, the
researcher is ready to move to the final step of the process, which is the data analysis.
Step 8: Analyze the Data
All the time, effort, and resources dedicated to steps 1 through 7 of the research process
culminate in this final step. The researcher finally has data to analyze so that the research
question can be answered. In the instrumentation plan, the researcher specified how the data
will be analyzed. The researcher now analyzes the data according to the plan. The results of
this analysis are then reviewed and summarized in a manner directly related to the research
questions. In the obesity study, the researcher compares the measurements of weight,
percentage of body fat, and cholesterol that were taken at the first meeting of the subjects to
the measurements of the same variables at the final program session. These two sets of data
will be analyzed to determine if there was a difference between the first measurement and the
second measurement for each individual in the program. Then, the data will be analyzed to
determine if the differences are statistically significant. If the differences are statistically
significant, the study validates the theory that was the focus of the study. The results of the
study also provide valuable information about one strategy to combat childhood obesity in
the community.
As you have probably concluded, conducting studies using the eight steps of the scientific
research process requires you to dedicate time and effort to the planning process. You cannot
conduct a study using the scientific research process when time is limited or the study is
done at the last minute. Researchers who do this conduct studies that result in either false
conclusions or conclusions that are not of any value to the organization.
A research design is a framework or blueprint for conducting the marketing research project. It
details the procedures necessary for obtaining the information needed to structure or solve
marketing research problems. In simple words it is the general plan of how you will go about your
research.

Definitions of Research Design

According to Kerlinger

Research design is the plan, structure and strategy of investigation conceived so as to obtain
answers to research questions and to control variance.

According to Green and Tull

A research is the specification of methods and procedures for acquiring the information needed. It is
the overall operational pattern or framework of the project that stipulates what information is to be
collected from which sources by what procedures.

The function of a research design is to ensure that requisite data in accordance with the problem at
hand is collected accurately and economically. Simply stated, it is the framework, a blueprint for the
research study which guides the collection and analysis of data. The research design, depending
upon the needs of the researcher may be a very detailed statement or only furnish the minimum
information required for planning the research project.
To be effective, a research design should furnish at least the following details.

1. A statement of objectives of the study or the research output.

2. A statement of the data inputs required on the basis of which the research problem is to be
solved.
3. The methods of analysis which shall be used to treat and analyze the data inputs.

More explicitly, the design decisions happen to be in respect of:

 What is the study about?

 Why is the study being made?
 Where will the study be carried out?
 What type of data is required?
 Where can the required data be found?
 What periods of time will the study include?
 What will be the sample design?
 What techniques of data collection will be used?
 How will the data be analyzed?
 In what style will the report be prepared?

Components of Research Design

 Goals: Why is your study worth doing? What issues do you want it to clarify, and what
practices and policies do you want it to influence? Why do you want to conduct this study,
and why should we care about the results?
 Conceptual framework: What do you think is going on with the issues, settings, or people
you plan to study? What theories, beliefs, and prior research findings will guide or inform
your research, and what literature, preliminary studies, and personal experiences will you
draw on for understanding the people or issues you are studying?
 Research questions: What, specifically, do you want to learn or understand by doing this
study? What do you not know about the things you are studying that you want to learn? What
questions will your research attempt to answer, and how are these questions related to one
another?
 Methods: What will you actually do in conducting this study? What approaches and
techniques will you use to collect and analyze your data, and how do these constitute an
integrated strategy?
 Validity: How might your results and conclusions be wrong? What are the plausible
alternative interpretations and validity threats to these, and how will you deal with these?
How can the data that you have, or that you could potentially collect, support or challenge
your ideas about what’s going on? Why should we believe your results?

Major Components of Research Design in Research Methodology

Research study’s questions: This first component suggests the type of the question-in terms of “who,”
“what,” “where,” “how,” and “why”-provides an crucial clue concerning the most relevant research
method to be used. Use three stages: In the first, make use of the literature to narrow your interest to
a key topic or two. In the 2nd, take a look at closely-even dissect-a few key studies on your topic of
interest. Identify the questions in those few studies and whether they conclude with new questions
for future research. In the last phase, examine another group of scientific studies on the same topic.
They might provide support for your potential questions or even suggest means of sharpening them.

Study propositions: Each proposition directs focus on something which needs to be examined within
the scope of study. Only if you are forced to state some propositions will you move in the right
direction. For example, you may think that businesses collaborate as they gain mutual benefits. This
proposition, apart from highlighting a crucial theoretical issue (that other incentives for collaboration
don’t exist or are unimportant), also starts to tell you where you can search for related proof (to
define and determine the extent of certain advantages to each business).

Unit of analysis: It is associated with the fundamental problem of defining what the “case” is-a
problem which has affected many researchers at the beginning of case studies. Take example of
clinical patients. In this situation, an individual is being studied, and the individual is the key unit of
analysis. Information regarding the appropriate individual will be collected, and several such
individuals could be part of a multiple-case study. You would need study questions and propositions
to help find out the appropriate information to be collected relating to this individual or individuals.
Without such questions and propositions, you could be lured to cover “everything” with regards to
the individual(s), which is not possible.

Linking data to propositions: Methods of linking data to propositions are pattern matching,
explanation building, time-series analysis, logic models, and cross-case synthesis. The actual analyses
will demand that you merge or compute your study data as a direct reflection of your initial study
propositions.

Interpreting a study’s findings: A statistical analysis determines if the results of the study support the
hypothesis. A number of statistical tests, for example T-tests (that determine if two groups are
statistically distinct from one another), Chi-square tests (where data are compared to an anticipated
outcome) and one-way analysis of variance (provides for the comparison of multiple groups), are
carried out according to the type of data, number and types of variables and data categories.
Statistical analysis offer some explicit criteria for interpretations. For example, by convention, social
science views a p level of less than .05 to indicate that observed differences were “statistically
important.” On the other hand, much case study analysis is not going to depend on the use of
statistics and so focuses on other methods of thinking about such criteria.

A sample design is the framework, or road map, that serves as the basis for the
selection of a survey sample

Probability Sampling Methods

1. Simple random sampling

In this case each individual is chosen entirely by chance and each member of the
population has an equal chance, or probability, of being selected. One way of
obtaining a random sample is to give each individual in a population a number,
and then use a table of random numbers to decide which individuals to
include.1 For example, if you have a sampling frame of 1000 individuals,
labelled 0 to 999, use groups of three digits from the random number table to
pick your sample. So, if the first three numbers from the random number table
were 094, select the individual labelled “94”, and so on.

As with all probability sampling methods, simple random sampling allows the
sampling error to be calculated and reduces selection bias. A specific advantage
is that it is the most straightforward method of probability sampling. A
disadvantage of simple random sampling is that you may not select enough
individuals with your characteristic of interest, especially if that characteristic is
uncommon. It may also be difficult to define a complete sampling frame and
inconvenient to contact them, especially if different forms of contact are
required (email, phone, post) and your sample units are scattered over a wide
geographical area.

2. Systematic sampling

Individuals are selected at regular intervals from the sampling frame. The
intervals are chosen to ensure an adequate sample size. If you need a sample
size n from a population of size x, you should select every x/nth individual for
the sample. For example, if you wanted a sample size of 100 from a population
of 1000, select every 1000/100 = 10th member of the sampling frame.

Systematic sampling is often more convenient than simple random sampling,

and it is easy to administer. However, it may also lead to bias, for example if
there are underlying patterns in the order of the individuals in the sampling
frame, such that the sampling technique coincides with the periodicity of the
underlying pattern. As a hypothetical example, if a group of students were being
sampled to gain their opinions on college facilities, but the Student Record
Department’s central list of all students was arranged such that the sex of
students alternated between male and female, choosing an even interval (e.g.
every 20th student) would result in a sample of all males or all females. Whilst
in this example the bias is obvious and should be easily corrected, this may not
always be the case.

3. Stratified sampling
In this method, the population is first divided into subgroups (or strata) who all
share a similar characteristic. It is used when we might reasonably expect the
measurement of interest to vary between the different subgroups, and we want
to ensure representation from all the subgroups. For example, in a study of
stroke outcomes, we may stratify the population by sex, to ensure equal
representation of men and women. The study sample is then obtained by taking
equal sample sizes from each stratum. In stratified sampling, it may also be
appropriate to choose non-equal sample sizes from each stratum. For example,
in a study of the health outcomes of nursing staff in a county, if there are three
hospitals each with different numbers of nursing staff (hospital A has 500
nurses, hospital B has 1000 and hospital C has 2000), then it would be
appropriate to choose the sample numbers from each hospital proportionally
(e.g. 10 from hospital A, 20 from hospital B and 40 from hospital C). This ensures
a more realistic and accurate estimation of the health outcomes of nurses
across the county, whereas simple random sampling would over-represent
nurses from hospitals A and B. The fact that the sample was stratified should be
taken into account at the analysis stage.

Stratified sampling improves the accuracy and representativeness of the results

by reducing sampling bias. However, it requires knowledge of the appropriate
characteristics of the sampling frame (the details of which are not always
available), and it can be difficult to decide which characteristic(s) to stratify by.

4. Clustered sampling

In a clustered sample, subgroups of the population are used as the sampling

unit, rather than individuals. The population is divided into subgroups, known
as clusters, which are randomly selected to be included in the study. Clusters
are usually already defined, for example individual GP practices or towns could
be identified as clusters. In single-stage cluster sampling, all members of the
chosen clusters are then included in the study. In two-stage cluster sampling, a
selection of individuals from each cluster is then randomly selected for
inclusion. Clustering should be taken into account in the analysis. The General
Household survey, which is undertaken annually in England, is a good example
of a (one-stage) cluster sample. All members of the selected households
(clusters) are included in the survey.1

Cluster sampling can be more efficient that simple random sampling, especially
where a study takes place over a wide geographical region. For instance, it is
easier to contact lots of individuals in a few GP practices than a few individuals
in many different GP practices. Disadvantages include an increased risk of bias,
if the chosen clusters are not representative of the population, resulting in an
increased sampling error.

Non-Probability Sampling Methods

1. Convenience sampling

Convenience sampling is perhaps the easiest method of sampling, because

participants are selected based on availability and willingness to take part.
Useful results can be obtained, but the results are prone to significant bias,
because those who volunteer to take part may be different from those who
choose not to (volunteer bias), and the sample may not be representative of
other characteristics, such as age or sex. Note: volunteer bias is a risk of all non-
probability sampling methods.
2. Quota sampling

This method of sampling is often used by market researchers. Interviewers are

given a quota of subjects of a specified type to attempt to recruit. For example,
an interviewer might be told to go out and select 20 adult men, 20 adult
women, 10 teenage girls and 10 teenage boys so that they could interview them
about their television viewing. Ideally the quotas chosen would proportionally
represent the characteristics of the underlying population.

Whilst this has the advantage of being relatively straightforward and potentially
representative, the chosen sample may not be representative of other
characteristics that weren’t considered (a consequence of the non-random
nature of sampling). 2

3. Judgement (or Purposive) Sampling

Also known as selective, or subjective, sampling, this technique relies on the

judgement of the researcher when choosing who to ask to participate.
Researchers may implicitly thus choose a “representative” sample to suit their
needs, or specifically approach individuals with certain characteristics. This
approach is often used by the media when canvassing the public for opinions
and in qualitative research.
Judgement sampling has the advantage of being time-and cost-effective to
perform whilst resulting in a range of responses (particularly useful in
qualitative research). However, in addition to volunteer bias, it is also prone to
errors of judgement by the researcher and the findings, whilst being potentially
broad, will not necessarily be representative.

4. Snowball sampling

This method is commonly used in social sciences when investigating hard-to-

reach groups. Existing subjects are asked to nominate further subjects known to
them, so the sample increases in size like a rolling snowball. For example, when
carrying out a survey of risk behaviours amongst intravenous drug users,
participants may be asked to nominate other users to be interviewed.

Snowball sampling can be effective when a sampling frame is difficult to

identify. However, by selecting friends and acquaintances of subjects already
investigated, there is a significant risk of selection bias (choosing a large number
of people with similar characteristics or views to the initial individual identified).

Defining the target population.

Specifying the sampling frame.

Specifying the sampling unit.

Selection of the sampling method.

Determination of sample size.

Specifying the sampling plan.

Selecting the sample.

1. Defining the Target Population:

Defining the population of interest, for business research, is the first step in
sampling process. In general, target population is defined in terms of element,
sampling unit, extent, and time frame. The definition should be in line with the
objectives of the research study. For ex, if a kitchen appliances firm wants to
conduct a survey to ascertain the demand for its micro ovens, it may define the
population as ‘all women above the age of 20 who cook (assuming that very few
men cook)’. However this definition is too broad and will include every
household in the country, in the population that is to be covered by the survey.
Therefore the definition can be further refined and defined at the sampling unit
level, that, all women above the age 20, who cook and whose monthly
household income exceeds Rs.20,000. This reduces the target population size
and makes the research more focused. The population definition can be refined
further by specifying the area from where the researcher has to draw his
sample, that is, households located in Hyderabad.

A well defined population reduces the probability of including the respondents

who do not fit the research objective of the company. For ex, if the population is
defined as all women above the age of 20, the researcher may end up taking the
opinions of a large number of women who cannot afford to buy a micro oven.

2. Specifying the Sampling Frame:

Once the definition of the population is clear a researcher should decide on the
sampling frame. A sampling frame is the list of elements from which the sample
may be drawn. Continuing with the micro oven ex, an ideal sampling frame
would be a database that contains all the households that have a monthly
income above Rs.20,000. However, in practice it is difficult to get an exhaustive
sampling frame that exactly fits the requirements of a particular research. In
general, researchers use easily available sampling frames like telephone
directories and lists of credit card and mobile phone users. Various private
players provide databases developed along various demographic and economic
variables. Sometimes, maps and aerial pictures are also used as sampling
frames. Whatever may be the case, an ideal sampling frame is one that entire
population and lists the names of its elements only once.

A sampling frame error pops up when the sampling frame does not accurately
represent the total population or when some elements of the population are
missing another drawback in the sampling frame is over —representation. A
telephone directory can be over represented by names/household that have
two or more connections.

3. Specifying the Sampling Unit:

A sampling unit is a basic unit that contains a single element or a group of

elements of the population to be sampled. In this case, a household becomes a
sampling unit and all women above the age of 20 years living in that particular
house become the sampling elements. If it is possible to identify the exact
target audience of the business research, every individual element would be a
sampling unit. This would present a case of primary sampling unit. However, a
convenient and better means of sampling would be to select households as the
sampling unit and interview all females above 20 years, who cook. This would
present a case of secondary sampling unit.
4. Selection of the Sampling Method:

The sampling method outlines the way in which the sample units are to be
selected. The choice of the sampling method is influenced by the objectives of
the business research, availability of financial resources, time constraints, and
the nature of the problem to be investigated. All sampling methods can be
grouped under two distinct heads, that is, probability and non-probability
sampling.

5. Determination of Sample Size:

The sample size plays a crucial role in the sampling process. There are various
ways of classifying the techniques used in determining the sample size. A couple
those hold primary importance and are worth mentioning are whether the
technique deals with fixed or sequential sampling and whether its logic is based
on traditional or Bayesian methods. In non-probability sampling procedures, the
allocation of budget, thumb rules and number of sub groups to be analyzed,
importance of the decision, number of variables, nature of analysis, incidence
rates, and completion rates play a major role in sample size determination. In
the case of probability sampling, however, formulas are used to calculate the
sample size after the levels of acceptable error and level of confidence are
specified. The details of the various techniques used to determine the sample
size will be explained at the end of the chapter.

6. Specifying the Sampling Plan:

In this step, the specifications and decisions regarding the implementation of
the research process are outlined. Suppose, blocks in a city are the sampling
units and the households are the sampling elements. This step outlines the
modus operandi of the sampling plan in identifying houses based on specified
characteristics. It includes issues like how is the interviewer going to take a
systematic sample of the houses. What should the interviewer do when a house
is vacant? What is the recontact procedure for respondents who were
unavailable? All these and many other questions need to be answered for the
smooth functioning of the research process. These are guide lines that would
help the researcher in every step of the process. As the interviewers and their
co-workers will be on field duty of most of the time, a proper specification of
the sampling plans would make their work easy and they would not have to
revert to their seniors when faced with operational problems.

7. Selecting the Sample:

This is the final step in the sampling process, where the actual selection of the
sample elements is carried out. At this stage, it is necessary that the
interviewers stick to the rules outlined for the smooth implementation of the
business research. This step involves implementing the sampling plan to select
the sampling plan to select a sample required for the survey.

THE VARIABLE
Meaning of Variable

A variable is defined as a quantity susceptible of fluctuation or change in value or magnitude under

different conditions.
ü Types of Variable

1. Independent Variable. This is the stimulus variable which is chosen by the researcher to
determine the relationship to an observed phenomenon.

2. Dependent Variable. This is the response variable which is observed and measured to determine
the effect of the independent variable.

3. Moderator Variable. This is a secondary or special type of independent variable chosen by the
researcher to determine if it changes or modifies the relationship between the independent and
dependent variables.

4. Control Variable. This is the variable that is controlled by the investigator in which the effects can
be neutralized by eliminating or removing the variable.

5. Intervening Variable. This is a variable which interferes with the independent and dependent
variables, but its effects can either strengthen or weaken the independent and dependent variables.

Components of the research process

1. Problem/ Objectives

2. Hypotheses

3. Theoretical/ Conceptual Framework

4. Assumptions

5. Review of Related Literature

6. Research Design

7. Data Collection

8. Data Processing and Statistical Treatment

9. Analysis and Interpretation

10. Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations