Research Methodology (4-0-0-4)

Introduction to Research

Introduction to Research: Meaning, Features, Aims, Motivation in Research, Types(Including

Quantitative and Qualitative Methods), Importance, Process, Approaches, Essentials of
Good Research. Concept of Theory building, Empiricism, Deductive and Inductive
Theory. Introduction to Research and publication Ethics, Ethical Issues in Research-FFP, Software
for Detection of Plagiarism, Problems encountered by researchers in India.

WHAT IS RESEARCH?
Research is undertaken within most professions. More than a set of skills, it is a way of thinking:
examining critically the various aspects of professional work. It is a habit of questioning what you do,
and a systematic examination of the observed information to find answers with a view to instituting
appropriate changes for a more effective professional service.
When you say that you are undertaking a research study, to find answers to a question, you are
implying that the process:
1. Is being undertaken within a framework of a set of philosophies (approaches);
2. Uses procedures, methods and techniques that have been tested for their validity and
reliability;
3. Is designed to be unbiased and objective.
The word research is composed of two syllables, re and search.
 re is a prefix meaning again, anew or over again
 search is a verb meaning to examine closely and carefully, to test and try, or to probe.
Together they form a noun describing a careful, systematic, patient study and investigation in some
field of knowledge, undertaken to establish facts or principles.
Research is a structured enquiry that utilizes acceptable scientific methodology to solve problems and
create new knowledge that is generally applicable. Scientific methods consist of systematic
observation, classification and interpretation of data.

Research means “Search for Knowledge”. It aims at discovering the truth. It is

the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding
solution to problems. It is carried on both for discovering new facts and verification
of old ones. Therefore, research is a process of systematic and in-depth study or
search of any particular topic, subject or area of investigation backed by collection,
computation, presentation and interpretation of relevant data.

Research is, thus, an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making for its
advancement. It is the pursuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison and experiment.
In short, the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding solution to a
problem is research.

Prepared by : Prof Sangeetha S Kumar FOMC

 NATURE OR CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

Research is a process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting information to answer questions. But
to qualify as research, the process must have certain characteristics: it must, as far as possible, be
controlled, rigorous, systematic, valid and verifiable, empirical and critical.
i. Controlled - in real life there are many factors that affect an outcome. The concept of control
implies that, in exploring causality in relation to two variables (factors), you set up your study in a
way that minimizes the effects of other factors affecting the relationship. This can be achieved to
a large extent in the physical sciences (cookery, bakery), as most of the research is done in a
laboratory. However, in the social sciences (Hospitality and Tourism) it is extremely difficult as
research is carried out on issues related to human beings living in society, where such controls are
not possible. Therefore in Hospitality and Tourism, as you cannot control external factors, you
attempt to quantify their impact.
ii. Valid and verifiable - this concept implies that whatever you conclude on the basis of your
findings is correct and can be verified by you and others.
iii. Empirical - this means that any conclusions drawn are based upon hard evidence gathered from
information collected from real life experiences or observations.
iv. Critical - critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the methods employed is crucial to a research
enquiry. The process of investigation must be foolproof and free from drawbacks. The process
adopted and the procedures used must be able to withstand critical scrutiny.
v. Rigorous - you must be scrupulous in ensuring that the procedures followed to find answers to
questions are relevant, appropriate and justified. Again, the degree of rigor varies markedly
between the physical and social sciences and within the social sciences.
vi. Systematic - this implies that the procedure adopted to undertake an investigation follow a certain
logical sequence. The different steps cannot be taken in a haphazard way. Some procedures must
follow others.

AIMS OF RESEARCH
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific
procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been
discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may think of research
objectives as falling into a number of following broad groupings:
a. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (Studies
with this object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies);
b. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a
group (Studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies);
c. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is
associated with something else (Studies with this object in view are known as
diagnostic research studies);
d. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (Such studies are
known as hypothesis-testing research studies)

Prepared by : Prof Sangeetha S Kumar FOMC

 TYPES OF RESEARCH

The basic types of research are as follows:

(i) Descriptive vs. Analytical: Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of
different kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it
exists at present. In social science and business research we quite often use the term ex post facto
research for descriptive research studies. The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher
has no control over the variables; he can only report what has happened or what is happening. Most
ex post facto research projects are used for descriptive studies in which the researcher seeks to measure
such items as, for example, frequency of shopping, preferences of people, or similar data. Ex post
facto studies also include attempts by researchers to discover causes even when they cannot control
the variables. The methods of research utilized in descriptive research are survey methods of all kinds,
including comparative and correlational methods. In analytical research, on the other hand, the
researcher has to use facts or information already available, and analyze these to make a critical
evaluation of the material.
(ii) Applied vs. Fundamental: Research can either be applied (or action) research or fundamental (to
basic or pure) research. Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing
a society or an industrial/business organisation, whereas fundamental research is mainly concerned
with generalisations and with the formulation of a theory. “Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s
sake is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research.” Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating
to pure mathematics are examples of fundamental research. Similarly, research studies, concerning
human behavior carried on with view to make generalizations about human behavior, are also
examples of fundamental research, but research aimed at certain conclusions facing a concrete social
or business problem is an example of applied research. Research to identify social, economic or
political trends that may affect a particular institution or copy research or the marketing research are
examples of applied research. Thus, the central aim of applied research is to discover a solution for
some pressing practical problems. Whereas basic research is directed towards finding information that
has a broad base of applications and thus, adds to the already existing organized body of scientific
knowledge.
(iii) Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or
amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity. Qualitative research,
on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or involving
quality or kind. For instance, when we are interested in investigating the reasons for human behavior,
we quite often talk of ‘Motivation Research’, an important type of qualitative research. This type of
research aims at discovering the underlying motives and desires, using indepth interviews for the
purpose. Other techniques of such research are word association tests, sentence completion tests, story
completion tests and similar other projective techniques. Attitude or opinion research, i.e., research
designed to find out how people feel or what they think about a particular subject or institution is also
qualitative research. Qualitative research is specially important in the behavioral sciences where the
aim is to discover the underlying motives of human behavior. Through such research we can analyse
the various factors which motivate people to behave in a particular manner or which make people like
or dislike a particular thing. It may be stated, however, that to apply qualitative research in practice is
relatively a difficult job and therefore, while doing such research, one should seek guidance from
experimental psychologists.

Prepared by : Prof Sangeetha S Kumar FOMC

(iv) Conceptual vs. Empirical: Conceptual research is related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is
generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones.
On the other hand, empirical research relies an experience or observation alone, often without due
regard for system and theory. It is databased research, coming up with conclusions which are capable
of being verified by observation or experiment. We can also call it as experimental type of research,
in such a research it is necessary to get at facts firsthand, at their source, and actively to go about
doing certain things to stimulate the production of desired information. In such a research, the
researcher must first provide himself with a working hypothesis or guess as to the probable results.
He then works to get enough facts (data) to prove or disprove his hypothesis. He then sets up
experimental designs which he thinks will manipulate the persons or the materials concerned so as to
bring forth the desired information. Such research is thus characterised by the experimenter’s control
over the variables under study and his deliberate manipulation of one of them to study its effects.
Empirical research is appropriate when proof is sought that certain variables affect other variables in
some way. Evidence gathered through experiments or empirical studies is today considered to be the
most powerful support possible for a given hypothesis
(v) Some Other Types of Research: All other types of research are variations of one or more of the
above stated approaches, based on either the purpose of research, or the time required to accomplish
research, on the environment in which research is done, or on the basis of some other similar factor.

(a) One Time Research: From the point of view of time, we can think of research either as one-time
research or longitudinal research. In the former case the research is confined to a single time-period,
whereas in the latter case the research is carried on over several time-periods.
(b) Laboratory Research: Research can be field-setting research or laboratory research or simulation
research, depending upon the environment in which it is to be carried out. Research can as well be
understood as clinical or diagnostic research. Such research follows case-study methods or in-depth
approaches to reach the basic causal relations. Such studies usually go deep into the causes of things
or events that interest us, using very small samples and very deep probing data gathering devices.
(c) Exploratory Research: The research may be exploratory or it may be formalized. The objective of
exploratory research is the development of hypotheses rather than their testing, whereas formalized
research studies are those with substantial structure and with specific hypotheses to be tested.
(d) Historical Research: Historical research is that which utilizes historical sources like documents,
remains, etc., to study events or ideas of the past, including the philosophy of persons and groups at
any remote point of time.
(e) Conclusion-oriented Research: Research can also be classified as conclusion-oriented and decision-
oriented. While doing conclusion-oriented research, a researcher is free to pick up a problem, redesign
the enquiry as he proceeds and is prepared to conceptualize as he wishes. Decision-oriented research
is always for the need of a decision maker and the researcher in this case is not free to embark upon
research
according to his own inclination. Operations research is an example of decision- oriented research
since it is a scientific method of providing executive departments with a quantitative basis for
decisions regarding operations under their control.

Prepared by : Prof Sangeetha S Kumar FOMC

 PROCESS OF RESEARCH
However, the following order concerning various steps provides a useful procedural guideline
regarding the research process:
(1) Formulating the research problem;
(2) Extensive literature survey;
(3) Developing the hypothesis;
(4) Preparing the research design;
(5) Determining sample design;
(6) Collecting the data;
(7) Execution of the project;
(8) Analysis of data;
(9) Hypothesis testing;
(10) Generalizations and interpretation, and
(11) Preparation of the report or presentation of the results, i.e., formal write-up of
conclusions reached.

1. Formulating the Research Problem

There are two types of research problems, viz., those which relate to states of nature and those which
relate to relationships between variables. At the very outset the researcher must single out the problem
he wants to study, i.e., he must decide the general area of interest or aspect of a subject matter that he
would like to inquire into. Initially the problem may be stated in a broad general way and then the
ambiguities, if any, relating to the problem be resolved.
Then, the feasibility of a particular solution has to be considered before a working formulation of the
problem can be set up. The formulation of a general topic into a specific research problem, thus,
constitutes the first step in a scientific enquiry.
Essentially two steps are involved in formulating the research problem, viz., understanding the problem
thoroughly, and rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from an analytical point of view. The best
way of understanding the problem is to discuss it with one’s own colleagues or with those having some
expertise in the matter. In an academic institution the researcher can seek the help from a guide who is
usually an experienced man and has several research problems in mind.
Often, the guide puts forth the problem in general terms and it is up to the researcher to narrow it down
and phrase the problem in operational terms. In private business units or in governmental organisations,
the problem is usually earmarked by the administrative agencies with which the researcher can discuss
as to how the problem originally came about and what considerations are involved in its possible
solutions.
Extensive Literature Survey
Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it should be written down. It is compulsory for a
research worker writing a thesis for a Ph.D. degree to write a synopsis of the topic and submit it to the
necessary Committee or the Research Board for approval.
At this juncture the researcher should undertake extensive literature survey connected with the problem.
For this purpose, the abstracting and indexing journals and published or unpublished bibliographies are
the first place to go to. Academic journals, conference proceedings, government reports, books, etc.,
must be tapped depending on the nature of the problem. In this process, it should be remembered that
one source will lead to another.
The earlier studies, if any, which are similar to the study in hand, should be carefully studied. A good
library will be a great help to the researcher at this stage.
Prepared by : Prof Sangeetha S Kumar FOMC
 2. Development of Working Hypotheses
After extensive literature survey, researcher should state in clear terms the working hypothesis or
hypotheses. Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical
or empirical consequences. As such the manner in which research hypotheses are developed is
particularly important since they provide the focal point for research. They also affect the manner in
which tests must be conducted in the analysis of data and indirectly the quality of data which is required
for the analysis. In most types of research, the development of working hypothesis plays an important
role.
Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the piece of research in hand because it has to be
tested. The role of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher by delimiting the area of research and to
keep him on the right track. It sharpens his thinking and focuses attention on the more important facets
of the problem. It also indicates the type of data required and the type of methods of data analysis to be
used.
How does one go about developing working hypotheses? The answer is by using the following
approach:
(a) Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin and the objectives in seeking a
solution;
(b) Examination of data and records, if available, concerning the problem for possible trends, peculiarities
and other clues;
(c) Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar problems; and
(d) Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field interviews on a limited scale with
interested parties and individuals with a view to secure greater insight into the practical aspects of the
problem.
Thus, working hypotheses arise as a result of a priori thinking about the subject, examination of the
available data and material including related studies and the counsel of experts and interested parties.
Working hypotheses are more useful when stated in precise and clearly defined terms.
It may as well be remembered that occasionally we may encounter a problem where we do not need
working hypotheses, especially in the case of exploratory or formulative researches which do not aim
at testing the hypothesis. But as a general rule, specification of working hypotheses is another basic
step of the research process in most research problems.
3. Preparing the Research Design
The research problem having been formulated in clear-cut terms, the researcher will be required to
prepare a research design, i.e., he will have to state the conceptual structure within which research
would be conducted. The preparation of such a design facilitates research to be as efficient as possible
yielding maximal information. In other words, the function of research design is to provide for the
collection of relevant evidence with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. But how all these
can be achieved depends mainly on the research purpose. Research purposes may be grouped into four
categories, viz.,
(i) Exploration,
(ii) Description,
(iii) Diagnosis,
(iv) Experimentation.
A flexible research design which provides opportunity for considering many different aspects of a
problem is considered appropriate if the purpose of the research study is that of exploration. But when
the purpose happens to be an accurate description of a situation or of an association between variables,
the suitable design will be one that minimises bias and maximises the reliability of the data collected
and analysed.
Prepared by : Prof Sangeetha S Kumar FOMC
4. Determining Sample Design
All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute a ‘universe’ or ‘population’. A
complete enumeration of all the items in the ‘population’ is known as a census inquiry. It can be
presumed that in such an inquiry when all the items are covered no element of chance is left and highest
accuracy is obtained. But in practice this may not be true.
Even the slightest element of bias in such an inquiry will get larger and larger as the number of
observations increases. Moreover, there is no way of checking the element of bias or its extent except
through a resurvey or use of sample checks. Besides, this type of inquiry involves a great deal of time,
money and energy. Not only this, census inquiry is not possible in practice under many circumstances.
For instance, blood testing is done only on sample basis. Hence, quite often we select only a few items
from the universe for our study purposes. The items so selected constitute what is technically called a
sample. The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or what is popularly known as the
sample design.

5. Collecting the Data

In dealing with any real life problem it is often found that data at hand are inadequate, and hence, it
becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate. There are several ways of collecting the
appropriate data which differ considerably in context of money costs, time and other resources at the
disposal of the researcher.
Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey. If the researcher conducts
an experiment, he observes some quantitative measurements, or the data, with the help of which he
examines the truth contained in his hypothesis.
6. Execution of the Project
Execution of the project is a very important step in the research process. If the execution of the
project proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected would be adequate and dependable. The
researcher should see that the project is executed in a systematic manner and in time. If the survey
is to be conducted by means of structured questionnaires, data can be readily machine-processed.
In such a situation, questions as well as the possible answers may be coded. If the data are to be
collected through interviewers, arrangements should be made for proper selection and training of
the interviewers.
The training may be given with the help of instruction manuals which clearly explains the job of
the interviewers at each step. Occasional field checks should be made to ensure that the
interviewers are doing their assigned job sincerely and efficiently. A careful watch should be kept
for unanticipated factors in order to keep the survey as much realistic as possible. This, in other
words, means that steps should be taken to ensure that the survey is under statistical control so that
the collected information is in accordance with the pre-defined standard of accuracy. If some of
the respondents do not cooperate, some suitable methods should be designed to tackle this problem.
One method of dealing with the non-response problem is to make a list of the non-respondents and
take a small sub-sample of them, and then with the help of experts, vigorous efforts can be made
for securing response.

7. Analysis of Data
After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of analysing them. The analysis
of data requires a number of closely related operations such as establishment of categories, the
application of these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation and then drawing statistical
inferences.

Prepared by : Prof Sangeetha S Kumar FOMC

 The unwieldy data should necessarily be condensed into a few manageable groups and tables for
further analysis. Thus, researcher should classify the raw data into some purposeful and usable
categories.
Coding operation is usually done at this stage through which the categories of data are transformed
into symbols that may be tabulated and counted. Editing is the procedure that improves the quality
of the data for coding. With coding the stage is ready for tabulation.
Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure wherein the classified data are put in the form of
tables. The mechanical devices can be made use of at this juncture. A great deal of data, especially
in large inquiries, is tabulated by computers. Computers not only save time but also make it
possible to study large number of variables affecting a problem simultaneously.
Analysis work after tabulation is generally based on the computation of various percentages,
coefficients, etc., by applying various well defined statistical formulae. In the process of analysis,
relationships or differences supporting or conflicting with original or new hypotheses should be
subjected to tests of significance to determine with what validity data can be said to indicate any
conclusion(s).

8. Hypothesis Testing
After analysing the data as stated above, the researcher is in a position to test the hypotheses, if
any, he had formulated earlier. Do the facts support the hypotheses or they happen to be contrary?
This is the usual question which should be answered while testing hypotheses.
Various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test, have been developed by statisticians for the
purpose. The hypotheses may be tested through the use of one or more of such tests, depending
upon the nature and object of research inquiry. Hypothesis testing will result in either accepting
the hypothesis or in rejecting it. If the researcher had no hypotheses to start with, generalisations
established on the basis of data may be stated as hypotheses to be tested by subsequent researches
in times to come.

9. Generalisations and Interpretation

If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for the researcher to arrive at
generalisation, i.e., to build a theory. As a matter of fact, the real value of research lies in its ability
to arrive at certain generalisations. If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might seek
to explain his findings on the basis of some theory. It is known as interpretation. The process of
interpretation may quite often trigger off new questions which in turn may lead to further
researches.

10. Preparation of the Report or the Thesis

Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by him. Writing of report
must be done with great care keeping in view the following:
1. The layout of the report should be as follows:
(i) The preliminary pages;
(ii) The main text,
(iii) The end matter.

Prepared by : Prof Sangeetha S Kumar FOMC

 In its preliminary pages the report should carry title and date followed by acknowledgements and
foreword. Then there should be a table of contents followed by a list of tables and list of graphs
and charts, if any, given in the report.
The main text of the report should have the following parts:
(a) Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the research and an
explanation of the methodology adopted in accomplishing the research. The scope of the study
along with various limitations should as well be stated in this part.
(b) Summary of findings: After introduction there would appear a statement of findings and
recommendations in non-technical language. If the findings are extensive, they should be
summarised.
(c) Main report: The main body of the report should be presented in logical sequence and broken-
down into readily identifiable sections.
(d) Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text, researcher should again put down the results of his
research clearly and precisely. In fact, it is the final summing up.
At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data. Bibliography,
i.e., list of books, journals, reports, etc., consulted, should also be given in the end. Index should
also be given specially in a published research report.
2. Report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple language avoiding vague
expressions such as ‘it seems,’ ‘there may be’, and the like.
3. Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used only if they present the information more
clearly and forcibly.
4. Calculated ‘confidence limits’ must be mentioned and the various constraints experienced in
conducting research operations may as well be stated.

Inductive and deductive reasoning in research

Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill (2007:117) state that researchers can follow a deductive or
inductive approach to research. In deductive research, the researcher develops a hypothesis
and then designs the research in such a way that he or she tests a theory. In inductive research,
the researcher first collects the data and then, from the data analysis, develops a theory.
According to Gay and Airasian (2003:4), ‘an inductive research approach is typically
qualitative in nature, while a deductive research approach is typically quantitative in nature’.

Quantitative methodologies test theory deductively from existing knowledge, by developing

hypothesized relationships and proposed outcomes for study.Cormack ( 1991) states that, in
comparison, qualitative researchers are guided by certain ideas and perspectives regarding
the subject to be investigated and develop theory inductively. Deductive reasoning
commences with generalizations, and seeks to see if these generalizations apply to specific
instances, whereas inductive reasoning commences with the observation of specific facts,
Prepared by : Prof Sangeetha S Kumar FOMC
 and seeks to establish generalizations. Onwuegbuzie and Collins (2005:283) explain that
‘quantitative researchers tend to make statistical generalizations, which involve generalizing
findings and inferences from a representative statistical sample to the population from which
the sample was drawn’. By contrast, qualitative researchers tend to make analytic
generalizations (Miles & Huberman, 1994), which are ‘applied to wider theory

on the basis of how selected cases “fit” with general constructs’ (Curtis, Gesler, Smith &
Washburn, 2000:1002).

The difference between qualitative and qualitative research towards scientific reasoning,
theory building, the acquisition of new knowledge and testing is depicted in Figure 4.1. In
the current study, both an inductive and a deductive reasoning process were followed to
acquire new knowledge.

INDUCTIVE DEDUCTIVE Process

Process
Preliminary Theory (THEORY TESTING)

Personal
Observation

Forming
Defining and Testing
Hypotheses or
Measuring Hypotheses
research questions
Constructs or research

Source: (McShane, 2003:604 cited in Du Plessis, 2003)

Figure 4.1: The theory-building process

Research Ethics

Research is the pillar of knowledge, and it constitutes an integral part of progress. In the fast-
expanding field of biomedical research, this has improved the quality and quantity of life.
Historically, medical doctors have been in the privileged position to carry out research, especially
in clinical research which involves people. They are able to control “life and death” of patients and
Prepared by : Prof Sangeetha S Kumar FOMC
have free access to their confidential information. Moreover, medical researchers have also
enjoyed immunity from accountability due to high public regard for science and medicine. This
has resulted in some researchers conducting unethical researches. For instance, in World War II,
medical doctors had conducted unethical experiments on human in the name of science, resulting
in harm and even death in some cases. More recently, the involvement of pharmaceutical industry
in clinical trials have raised issues about how to safeguard patient’s care and to ensure the published
research findings are objective.
In the light of these ethical controversies, the Declaration of Helsinki was established to inform
biomedical researchers the principles of clinical research. This declaration highlighted a tripartite
guidelines for good clinical practice which include respect for the dignity of the person; research
should not override the health, well-being and care of subjects; principles of justice. Committee on
Publication Ethics (COPE) was also founded in 1997 to address the breaches of research and
publication ethics.
How do we apply all these principles in our daily conduct of research? This paper will discuss
different ethical issues in research, including study design and ethical approval, data analysis,
authorship, conflict of interest and redundant publication and plagiarism. I have also included two
case scenarios in this paper to illustrate common ethical issues in research and publication.

ETHICAL ISSUES IN RESEARCH

1. Study design and ethics approval

According to COPE, “good research should be well adjusted, well-planned, appropriately
designed, and ethically approved. To conduct research to a lower standard may constitute
misconduct.” This may appear to be a stringent criterion, but it highlights the basic requirement of
a researcher is to conduct a research responsibly. To achieve this, a research protocol should be
developed and adhered to. It must be carefully agreed to by all contributors and collaborators, and
the precise roles of each team member should be spelled out early, including matters of authorship
and publications. Research should seek to answer specific questions, rather than just collect data.
It is essential to obtain approval from the Institutional Review Board, or Ethics Committee, of the
respective organisations for studies involving people, medical records, and anonymised human
tissues. The research proposal should discuss potential ethical issues pertaining to the research.
The researchers should pay special attention to vulnerable subjects to avoid breech of ethical codes
(e.g. children, prisoners, pregnant women, mentally challenged, educationally and economically
disadvantaged). Patient information sheet should be given to the subjects during recruitment,
detailing the objectives, procedures, potential benefits and harms, as well as rights to refuse
participation in the research. Consent should be explained and obtained from the subjects or
guardians, and steps should be taken to ensure confidentiality of information provided by the
subjects.
2. Data analysis
It is the responsibility of the researcher to analyse the data appropriately. Although inappropriate
analysis does not necessarily amount to misconduct, intentional omission of result may cause

Prepared by : Prof Sangeetha S Kumar FOMC

misinterpretation and mislead the readers. Fabrication and falsification of data do constitute
misconduct. For example, in a clinical trial, if a drug is found to be ineffective, this study should
be reported. There is a tendency for the researchers to under-report negative research findings, and
this is partly contributed by pressure from the pharmaceutical industry which funds the clinical
trial.
To ensure appropriate data analysis, all sources and methods used to obtain and analyse data should
be fully disclosed. Failure to do so may lead the readers to misinterpret the results without
considering possibility of the study being underpowered. The discussion section of a paper should
mention any issues of bias, and explain how they have been dealt with in the design and
interpretation of the study.
3. Authorship
There is no universally agreed definition of authorship. It is generally agreed that an author should
have made substantial contribution to the intellectual content, including conceptualising and
designing the study; acquiring, analysing and interpreting the data. The author should also take
responsibility to certify that the manuscript represents valid work and take public responsibility for
the work. Finally, an author is usually involved in drafting or revising the manuscript, as well as
approving the submitted manuscript. Data collection, editing of grammar and language, and other
routine works by itself, do not deserve an authorship.
It is crucial to decide early on in the planning of a research who will be credited as authors, as
contributors, and who will be acknowledged. It is also advisable to read carefully the “Advice to
Authors” of the target journal which may serve as a guide to the issue of authorship.
4. Conflicts of interest
This happens when researchers have interests that are not fully apparent and that may influence
their judgments on what is published. These conflicts include personal, commercial, political,
academic or financial interest. Financial interests may include employment, research funding,
stock or share ownership, payment for lecture or travel, consultancies and company support for
staff. This issue is especially pertinent in biomedical research where a substantial number of
clinical trials are funded by pharmaceutical company.
Such interests, where relevant, should be discussed in the early stage of research. The researchers
need to take extra effort to ensure that their conflicts of interest do not influence the methodology
and outcome of the research. It would be useful to consult an independent researcher, or Ethics
Committee, on this issue if in doubt. When publishing, these conflicts of interest should be declared
to editors, and readers will judge for themselves whether the research findings are trustworthy.
5. Redundant publication and plagiarism
Redundant publication occurs when two or more papers, without full cross reference, share the
same hypothesis, data, discussion points, or conclusions. However, previous publication of an
abstract during the proceedings of meetings does not preclude subsequent submission for
publication, but full disclosure should be made at the time of submission. This is also known as
self-plagiarism. In the increasing competitive environment where appointments, promotions and
grant applications are strongly influenced by publication record, researchers are under intense
pressure to publish, and a growing minority is seeking to bump up their CV through dishonest
means.

Prepared by : Prof Sangeetha S Kumar FOMC

On the other hand, plagiarism ranges from unreferenced use of others’ published and unpublished
ideas, including research grant applications to submission under “new” authorship of a complete
paper, sometimes in different language.
Therefore, it is important to disclose all sources of information, and if large amount of other
people’s written or illustrative materials is to be used, permission must be sought.

Many people think of plagiarism as copying another’s work, or borrowing someone else’s
original ideas. But terms like “copying” and “borrowing” can disguise the seriousness of the
offense:

According to the Merriam-Webster OnLine Dictionary, to “plagiarize” means

1) to steal and pass off (the ideas or words of

another) as one's own
2) to use (another's production) without crediting the source
3) to commit literary theft
4) to present as new and original an idea or product
derived from an existing source.

In other words, plagiarism is an act of fraud. It involves both stealing someone else’s work
and lying about it afterward.
But can words and ideas really be stolen?
According to U.S. law, the answer is yes. In the United States and many other countries, the
expression of original ideas is considered intellectual property, and is protected by copyright
laws, just like original inventions. Almost all forms of expression fall under copyright
protection as long as they are recorded in some media (such as a book or a computer file).

All the following are considered plagiarism:

 turning in someone else’s work as your own

 copying words or ideas from someone else without giving credit
 failing to put a quotation in quotation marks
 giving incorrect information about the source of a quotation
 changing words but copying the sentence structure of a source without
giving credit
 copying so many words or ideas from a source that it makes up the
majority of your work, whether you give credit or not (see our section on
“fair use” rules)

Prepared by : Prof Sangeetha S Kumar FOMC

 What is Citation?

A “citation” is the way you tell your readers that certain material in your work came from
another source. It also gives your readers the information necessary to find that source
again, including:

 information about the author

 the title of the work
 the name and location of the company that published your copy of the source
 the date your copy was published
 the page numbers of the material you are borrowing

Why should I cite sources?

Giving credit to the original author by citing sources is the only way to use other people’s
work without plagiarizing. But there are a number of other reasons to cite sources:
 Citations are extremely helpful to anyone who wants to find out more about
your ideas and where they came from.
 Not all sources are good or right – your own ideas may often be more accurate
or interesting than those of your sources. Proper citation will keep you from
taking the rap for someone else’s bad ideas.
 Citing sources shows the amount of research you’ve done.
 Citing sources strengthens your work by lending outside support to your ideas.

Doesn’t citing sources make my work seem less original?

Not at all. On the contrary, citing sources actually helps your reader distinguish your ideas
from those of your sources. This will actually emphasize the originality of your own work.

When do I need to cite?

Whenever you borrow words or ideas, you need to acknowledge their source. The following
situations almost always require citation:

 Whenever you use quotes

 Whenever you paraphrase
 Whenever you use an idea that someone else has already expressed
 Whenever you make specific reference to the work of another
 Whenever someone else’s work has been critical in developing your own ideas.

How do I cite sources?

This depends on what type of work you are writing, how you are using the borrowed
material, and the expectations of your instructor.
First, you have to think about how you want to identify your sources. If your sources are
very important to your ideas, you should mention the author and work in a sentence that
introduces your citation. If, however, you are only citing the source to make a minor
point, you may consider using parenthetical references, footnotes, or endnotes.

Prepared by : Prof Sangeetha S Kumar FOMC

 There are also different forms of citation for different disciplines. For example, when you
cite sources in a psychology paper you would probably use a different form of citation than
you might in a paper for an English class.

Finally, you should always consult your instructor to determine the form of citation
appropriate for your paper. You can save a lot of time and energy simply by asking “How
should I cite my sources,” or “What style of citation should I use?” before you begin writing.

In the following sections, we will take you step-by-step through some general guidelines
for citing sources.

Problems encountered by researchers in India

Research requires several ingredients; some difficult to manage, while others are difficult to
arrange. It is done by a single individual, but requires the acceptance/approval of several others;
guides, supervisors, defense committee members, interviewees, focus group members, etc.

In developing nations, research is in its incessant stage. Researchers face challenges in choosing
a research topic, statement etc. In addition, researchers are faced with challenges associated with
growth, infrastructural deficiencies, financial crunches, etc. Here’s a list of top 10 challenges
that we found intimidating for budding researchers:

Lack of Scientific Training: The research methodology is not systematic. Many researchers
undertake research work without having actual knowledge of the research methods. Even the
guides do not have a thorough knowledge of the various methodologies. Before undertaking
research projects, researchers should be well equipped with all the methodological aspects.
Lack of communication with the supervisor: A university professor is a busy person. It is
important to have guidance on a research project. Poor communication gets on the way of the
progress of the research. It is important to communicate with the supervisor to clarify the doubts
regarding the research topic, to know what the supervisor expects from you and to learn more
about your research topic.
Time management: Spending ample time in learning the skills and practical implementation
consumes a lot of time. In such a scenario, taking out time for intense research and to draft a top-
notch research paper becomes impossible.
Not having a definite deadline: Deadlines are stressful. But not having a deadline can be
troublesome during the Ph.D. journey. Deadlines help you get closer to your goals. Many times,
Universities fail to implement a due date to submit the research paper, leading to confusion and
improper time management among the scholars.
A quantity of literature: It can be difficult to deal with the quantity of literature that one might
have accessed. The literature review is iterative. This involves managing the literature, accessing
data that supports the framework of the research, identifying keywords and alternative keywords,
as well as constantly looking for new sources.
Implementing quality of writing within the literature review: A literature review has to go
beyond being a series of references and citations. You need to interpret the literature and be able

Prepared by : Prof Sangeetha S Kumar FOMC

to position it within the context of your study. This requires careful and measured interpretation
and writing in which you synthesize and bring together the materials that you have read.
Insufficient data: Insufficiency of data is a potential problem. Most of the business
establishments are of the opinion that researchers may misuse the data provided by them. This
affects the purpose of research studies for which that particular data may be of utmost
importance.
Lack of confidence: Lack of confidence is one of the most common problems among
researchers. Researchers with low self-esteem feel less motivated thereby affecting the quality
of the work.
Concern that your focus is either still too broad or too narrow: This concern is inevitable.
Be prepared to adapt your research as you look through the literature. This might require you to
either increase its focus or narrow down so that the research is manageable. A broad focus for
research might be narrowed down by adding an appropriate context or by looking for another
variable within the research question or by focusing upon a theoretical viewpoint.
Library management: Library management and functioning is not satisfactory in many
Universities; A lot of time and energy is spent on tracing appropriate books, journals, reports
etc. Also, many of the libraries are not able to get copies of new reports and other publications
on time.
Research demands immediate action on the part pf the concerned authorities or personnel at
national levels, so as to transform these challenges into major opportunities.

Prepared by : Prof Sangeetha S Kumar FOMC