IFY2-06 Introduction to Built Environment 2021

Chapter - 3
Engineering Divisions and Rules in Built Environment

Contents :
a) Structural Engineering –
 Takes care of analysis and design of various structural systems
(such as Buildings, Bridges, and other infrastructure)
 Stability and strength aspects
 Earthquake resistant design aspect

b) Geotechnical Engineering –
 Takes care of soils types and their responses under loads
 Effects of varying moisture conditions
 Foundation types and support behaviours

c) Transportation Engineering –
 Takes care of various types of transportation systems,
 Role of transportation with respect to socio-economic conditions
 Various road traffic signs
 Accidents prevention and Road Safety measures
 Traffic calming

d) Hydraulic and Water Resource Engineering –

 Takes care of ground water occurrences,

Department of Engineering, ACERC, Ajmer Page 1

 IFY2-06 Introduction to Built Environment 2021

 Ground water management,

 Water Resources Planning (elaborate purposes and objectives)
 Field-water storage structures
 Rain water harvesting,
 Water Pollution
 Water quality standards
 Introduction to treatment and discharge of waste water
 Reuse and saving of water

e) Environmental and Energy Engineering –

 Deals with Environmental Pollution
 Environmental Acts and Regulations
 Functional concepts of Ecology
 Hydrological Cycle
 Chemical Cycles
 Energy Flow in Eco-systems

Department of Engineering, ACERC, Ajmer Page 2

 IFY2-06 Introduction to Built Environment 2021

a) Structural Engineering :
Structural engineering is the field of engineering that deals with the structural integrity and
strength of a building or structure. Structural engineering is a specialty of civil engineering that
ensures the structures are safe, stable and don't collapse under applied loads.

Takes care of analysis and design of various structural systems (such as Buildings, Bridges,
and other infrastructure) :
Structural analysis is the process of identifying the repercussions and consequences of applied
load to the physical structure of the building. In other words it is the process of finding out the
reaction of the structure when it suddenly confronts with high force, heavy load and sudden
pressure etc.
Structural design is the methodical investigation of the stability, strength and rigidity of
structures. Basically, structural design decides the dimension (shape and size) of the structural
members on the basis of calculated load from structural analysis.

The process of structural design for various structural systems (such as buildings, bridges,
and other infrastructure) involve the following stages -
I. Structural Planning
II. Estimation of Loads
III. Analysis of Structures
IV. Member Design
V. Drawing, Detailing and Preparation of Schedules

Structural Planning - This involves determination of the structure, the material for the same, the
structural system and the layout of the components, the method of analysis and the philosophy of
structural design.

Estimation of Loads - Dead loads are permanent or stationary loads which are transferred to the
structure throughout their life span. Live loads or imposed loads include loads due to the people
occupying the floor, weight of the movable partitions, weight of furniture and materials.

Department of Engineering, ACERC, Ajmer Page 3

 IFY2-06 Introduction to Built Environment 2021

Analysis of Structures - Method of analysis of statistically indeterminate portal frames used

methods are :
a) Slope deflection method
b) Moment distribution method

Member Design - The aim of design is to decide the size of the member not amount of
reinforcement required, so that the structure will perform satisfactory during its life period with
minimum cost. The following three methods have been developed for the design of reinforced
concrete structures.

Working stress method - Working stress method is based on elastic theory assuming reinforced
concrete as elastic material. The stress strain curve of concrete is assumed as linear from zero at
the neutral axis to a maximum value at the extreme fiber.

Ultimate load method - In ultimate load method, structural elements are designed for ultimate
load which are obtained by multiplying the working loads with factor known as load factor.
Hence, the designer can able to predict the excess load the structure can carry beyond the working
loads without collapse.

Limit state method - In the limit state method, the structural elements are designed for ultimate
loads and checked for serviceability (deflection, cracking etc.) at working loads so that the
structure is fit for used for throughout its life period.

Drawing, Detailing and Preparation of Schedules - Construction drawings provide the

graphical representation, indicating the arrangement of components, detailing, dimensions, and so
on. A Schedule of Work is therefore best suited to a Standard Building,
if the work required is covered in detail on the contract drawings.

Stability and Strength Aspect :

Stability is the capability of a structural system to transmit various loadings safely to the ground.
Strength is the capacity of the individual elements, which together make up a structural system, to
withstand the loads that are applied to them.

Department of Engineering, ACERC, Ajmer Page 4

 IFY2-06 Introduction to Built Environment 2021

Earthquake Resistant Design Aspect :

Earthquake resistant design consists of an evaluation of the earthquake excitation and the structure
response to this excitation at a particular site in order to provide a structural system that will not
collapse, that may prevent loss of life and will limit economic loss during an earthquake.

Earthquake-resistant building designs consider the following characteristics that influence their
structural integrity: stiffness and strength, regularity, redundancy, foundations, and load paths.
The major aspects involved in Earthquake or seismic resistant building design and construction is
typically incorporate ductility (the ability of a building to bend, sway, and deform without
collapsing) within the structure and its structural members. A ductile building is able to bend and
flex when exposed to the horizontal or vertical shear forces of an earthquake.

Earthquake-resistant construction requires that the building be properly grounded and connected
through its foundation to the earth. The Dampers, Rollers, Shock Absorbers can be used to
minimise the intensity of seismic wave etc. in foundation of such kind of building structures.

Under normal conditions, a building’s walls, columns, and beams primarily experience only
vertical loads of compression. However, during an earthquake, lateral and shear loading occurs,
which results in tensile and torsional forces on structural elements. Those forces result in high
stresses at the building’s corners and throughout various joints.

Strong construction joints (Shear Moment Connections) are critical in building a structure that
will withstand the shear loading of an earthquake. Since stress is concentrated at the joints
between the walls, it is important that all the joints be properly prepared and reinforced. Concrete
joints must also be properly compacted and anchored in order to achieve optimum strength. In the
case of unreinforced masonry joints (mortar joints, such as those found in brick buildings), the
anchoring between adjacent walls is especially important. When all the joints are tied together
well, the building will act as a single integrated unit, enabling the forces of an earthquake to be
transferred from one section to the next without catastrophic failure.

Department of Engineering, ACERC, Ajmer Page 5

 IFY2-06 Introduction to Built Environment 2021

b) Geotechnical Engineering :
Geotechnical engineering is the study of the behavior of soils under the influence of loading
forces and soil-water interactions. This knowledge is applied to the design of foundations,
retaining walls, earth dams, clay liners, and geo-synthetics for waste containment.

Takes care of soils types and their responses under loads :

Soil can be defined in many ways. In civil engineering, soil is a naturally occurring, having
loose/un-cemented/weakly cemented/relatively unconsolidated mineral particles, organic or
inorganic in character, lying over the bed rock which is formed by weathering of rocks. Soil is
formed by different particles such as gravel, rock, sand, silt, clay, loam and humus.
Basically Soil is classified into four types:
 Sandy soil.
 Silt Soil.
 Clay Soil.
 Loamy Soil.

Sand - It is most extensively used construction material. It consists of particles of rock and hard
minerals, such as silicon dioxide. They are the largest type of soil particles, where each particle is
visible to naked eye. The large, relatively stable sand-particle size increases soil aeration,
improves drainage in tight soils. The particle size of course sand ranges from 2 – 4.75mm,
Medium sand ranges from 0.425 – 2 mm and fine sand ranges from 0.075 – 0.425 mm. The
particle shape is angular, sub angular, rounded, flat or elongated. The texture is rough, smooth, or
polished.

Silt - Silt is a sediment material with an intermediate size between sand and clay. Carried by water
during flood it forms a fertile deposit on valleys floor. The particle size of silt ranges from 0.002
and 0.06 mm. Silt is a non-plastic or low plasticity material due to its fineness.

Clay - Clay particles are the finest of all the soil particles, measuring fewer than 0.002 mm in size.
It consists of microscopic and sub-microscopic particles derived from the chemical decomposition
of rocks. Clay is a fine grained cohesive soil. They stick together readily and form a sticky or
gluey texture when they are wet or dry. Because of the spaces found between clay particles, it
hold a high amount of water. Clay expand when comes in contact with water and shrink when

Department of Engineering, ACERC, Ajmer Page 6

 IFY2-06 Introduction to Built Environment 2021

getting dry. Organic clay is highly compressible and its strength is very high when dry, which is
used in construction as mud mortar.

Loam - Loam is a mixture of clay, sand and silt and benefits from the qualities of these 3 different
textures, favouring water retention, air circulation, drainage and fertility. These soils are fertile,
easy to work with and provide good drainage. Depending on their predominant composition they
can be either sandy or clay loam.

The responses under loads of different soils :

The responses under loads of different soils are defined by their safe bearing capacity itself.

The capacity of the soil to allow the loads coming from the foundation is called bearing capacity
of the soil. The gross pressure at the base of the foundation at which soil fails is called ultimate
bearing capacity. By considering different failure conditions, the ultimate bearing capacity is
divided by certain factor of safety and the resultant is called safe bearing capacity of the soil.
It is essential to know the bearing capacity of the soil before designing the foundation. It can be
determined by different field tests.

Following table gives the values of safe bearing capacity of different types of soils.

S.No Type of Soil Safe Bearing Capacity

( kN/m2)
Cohesive Soils
1. Soft shale, hard or stiff clay in a deep bed, dry state 440
2. Medium clay readily indented with a thumbnail 245
3. Moist clay and Sand clay mixture which can be indented by 150
thumb pressure
4. Black cotton soil/expansive clay ( 50% saturated) in dry 130 to 160
state
5. Soft clay indented with moderate thumb pressure 100
6. Very soft clay which can be penetrated with the thump up 50
to few centimetres
Cohesionless Soil
7. Compact gravel/sand and gravel mixture with good 440
resistance against penetration of tools
8. Compact and dry coarse sand 440
9. Compact and dry medium sand 245
10. Loose gravel or sandy gravel mixture, dry state 245
11. Fine sand and silt ( consists of dry lumps) 150
12. Loose and dry fine sand 100

Department of Engineering, ACERC, Ajmer Page 7

 IFY2-06 Introduction to Built Environment 2021

Effects of varying moisture conditions :

The moisture content is defined as the mass of water which can be removed from the soil, usually
by heating at 105-110oC, expressed as a percentage of the dry mass of soil. The moisture content
test is described in BS:1377 part-2 (1990). There are three main types of soil water - gravitational
water, capillary water, and hygroscopic water - and these terms are defined based on the function
of the water in the soil. Moisture content is defined as quantity of water that exists in the soil
mass. It can represent either the naturally present or water which is manually added. The term
moisture content is otherwise known as water content. It influences the physical properties of a
substance, including weight, density, viscosity, conductivity, and others. It is generally
determined by weight loss upon drying.

Effects - At low water content, the soil is stiff and offers more resistance to compaction. As the
water content is increased, the soil particles get lubricated. The soil mass becomes more workable
and the particles have closer packing. The dry density of the soil increases with an increase in the
water content till the optimum water content in reached. At that stage, the air voids attain
approximately a constant volume. With further increase in water content, the air voids do not
decrease, but the total voids (air plus water) increase and the dry density decreases. Thus the
higher dry density is achieved upto the optimum water content due to forcing air voids out from
the soil voids. At low water content, the forces of attraction in the adsorbed water layer are large,
and there is more resistance to movement of the particles. As the water content is increased, the
electrical double layer expands and the inter-particle repulsive forces increase. The particles easily
slide over one another and are closely packed. This results in higher dry density. The compaction
of soil depends upon the type of soil. The maximum dry density and the optimum water content
for different soils are shown in figure.

Department of Engineering, ACERC, Ajmer Page 8

 IFY2-06 Introduction to Built Environment 2021

Foundation types and support behaviours :

In general, all building/structure foundations are divided into two categories, - shallow and deep
foundations. The terms Shallow and Deep Foundation refer to the depth of the soil at which it is
placed. Generally, if the width of the foundation is greater than the depth, it is called as the
“Shallow Foundation” and if the width of foundation is lesser than the depth it is called as the
“Deep Foundation”.

Following are different types of foundations used in construction -

1. Shallow foundation
o Simple wall footing
o Individual footing or isolated footing
o Combined footing
o Strip foundation
o Raft or mat foundation
o Grillage foundation
2. Deep Foundation
o Pile foundation
o Well foundation
o Drilled Shafts or caissons

Types of Shallow or Open Foundations -

i) Simple Wall Footing

Simple wall footing is a type of shallow foundation. Shallow foundations are those foundations
whose depth is smaller the width of the foundation. The wall footings support the structural and
non-structural walls. Wall footings are also known as strip footing and it is continuous over the
entire wall. The construction of wall footing is done as either masonry wall footing or as RCC
wall footing.

Department of Engineering, ACERC, Ajmer Page 9

 IFY2-06 Introduction to Built Environment 2021

ii) Individual Footing or Isolated Footing

Individual footing or an isolated footing is the most common type of foundation used for
building construction. This foundation is constructed for single column and also called as pad
foundation. The shape of individual footing is square or rectangle and is used when loads from
structure is carried by the columns.

iii) Combined Footing

Combined footing is constructed when two or more columns are close enough and their isolated
footings overlap each other. It is a combination of isolated footings. The shape of this footing is
rectangle and is used when loads from structure is carried by the columns.

Department of Engineering, ACERC, Ajmer Page 10

 IFY2-06 Introduction to Built Environment 2021

iv) Spread footings or Strip foundations

Spread or strip footings/foundations are those whose base is more wider than a typical load
bearing wall foundations. The wider base of this footing type spreads the weight from the
building structure over more area and provides better stability. Spread footings are used for
individual columns, walls and bridge piers where the bearing soil layer is within 3m (10 feet)
from the ground surface.

v) Raft or Mat Foundations

Raft or mat foundations are the types of foundation which are spread across the entire area of
the building to support heavy structural loads from columns and walls. This is used to prevent
differential settlement of individual footings, thus designed as a single mat (or combined
footing) of all the load bearing elements of the structure. It is suitable for expansive soils whose
bearing capacity is less.

Department of Engineering, ACERC, Ajmer Page 11

 IFY2-06 Introduction to Built Environment 2021

vi) Grillage Foundations

Grillage Foundation is a type of foundation often used at the base of a column. It consists of
one, two or more tiers of steel beams superimposed on a layer of concrete, adjacent tiers
being placed at right angles to each other, while all tiers are encased in concrete. Grillage
foundation is used when heavy structural loads from columns, piers or stanchions are required
to be transferred to a soil of low bearing capacity or in desert soils.

Types of Deep or Close Foundations -

i) Pile Foundation

Pile foundation is a type of deep foundation which is used to transfer heavy loads from the
structure to a hard rock strata much deep below the ground level. Pile foundations are used to
transfer heavy loads of structures through columns to hard soil strata which is much below
ground level.

Department of Engineering, ACERC, Ajmer Page 12

 IFY2-06 Introduction to Built Environment 2021

ii) Well Foundation

Well foundation is a type of deep foundation which is generally provided below the water level
for bridges. Well foundations are quite appropriate foundation for alluvial soils in rivers and
creeks where maximum scour depth can be quite large.

iii) Drilled Shafts or Caisson Foundation

Drilled shafts also called as caissons, is a type of deep foundation and has action similar to pile
foundations, but are high capacity cast-in-situ foundations. It resists loads from structure
through shaft resistance, toe resistance and / or combination of both of these.

Department of Engineering, ACERC, Ajmer Page 13

 IFY2-06 Introduction to Built Environment 2021

c) Transportation Engineering :
Transportation engineering is a type of civil engineering which focuses on the infrastructure of
transportation : all the elements which support the movement of goods and people.
Transportation fulfils these basic needs of humanity. Transportation plays a major role in the
development of the human civilization.

Takes care of various types of transportation Systems :

Transport modes are the means by which people and freight achieve mobility. They fall into one
of three basic types, depending on over what surface they travel – land (road, rail and
pipelines), water (shipping), and air. Each mode is characterized by a set of technical,
operational and commercialcharacteristics.

Road transportation -

Road transport or road transportation is a type of transport by using roads. Transport on roads
can be roughly grouped into the transportation of goods and transportation of people. Cargo may
be transported by trucking companies, while passengers may be transported via mass transit.

Characteristics of road transport

1) Road transport offers complete freedom to road user to transfer the vehicle from one lane to
other.
2) It gives quick and easy transportation of men, machineries, materials etc.
3) Road transport serves the agricultural area by transporting of goods.
4) Roads are used by various categories of vehicles.
5) Construction and maintenance of road transport is cheaper
6) Road transport is a basic need in case of fire and police protections.
7) It gives door step connectivity even in case of rural area or villages.
8) It is important access to reach railways, waterways and airways.

Rail transportation :

Rail transport or train transport is a means of transferring passengers and goods on wheeled
vehicles running on rails, which are located on tracks. Rail vehicles (Trains/rolling stock) are
directionally guided by the tracks on which they run.

Department of Engineering, ACERC, Ajmer Page 14

 IFY2-06 Introduction to Built Environment 2021

Characteristics
The rail transport has the following characteristics -

Public Utility Service -

Railways provide an essential service to the public.
Monopoly -
Railways have monopoly in India. The rail transport is managed by the Railways Department
of theCentral Government. No private operator is allowed to enter this transport sector.
Huge Investments -
The railways require huge investments for purchase of land, laying of tracks, constructing
railwaystations and sheds, buying automobiles, etc.
Privileges -
The railways require special privileges to provide efficient transport service. Railways’ require
specialproperty rights for purchase of land, construction of bridges and railway lines.
Special Rate Fixation -
The railways fix separate rate for passengers and goods traffic. The same rates are
applicable to allpersons and all areas of the country.
Non-transferability -
Once the railway lines are laid down then these tracks cannot be used for any other purpose. So
railwayservices are non- transferable.

Pipelines :
Pipeline routes are practically unlimited as they can be laid on land or under water. These are
used totransport oil and natural gases from one place to another.

Maritime transportation :Maritime transportation is the most effective mode to move large
quantities of cargo over long distances. Main maritime routes are composed of oceans, coasts,
seas, lakes, rivers and channels.

Air transportation :
Air transportation is the movement of passengers and freight by air planes that can sustain
controlled flight.

Department of Engineering, ACERC, Ajmer Page 15

 IFY2-06 Introduction to Built Environment 2021

Characteristics
Air transport has the following characteristics -

Unbroken Journey –
Air transport provides unbroken journey over land and sea. It is the fastest and quickest
means oftransport.
Rapidity -
Air transport had the highest speed among all the modes of transport.
Expensive -
Air transport is the most expensive means of transport. There is huge investment in purchasing
aero planes and constructing of aerodromes.
Special Preparations -
Air transport requires special preparations like wheelers links, meteorological stations, flood
lights, searchlights etc.

Role of transportation with respect to socio-economic conditions :

Transport system extends the range of sources of supply of goods to be consumed in an area,
making it possible for user to get resources at cheap price and high quality. The use of more
efficient systems of supply results in an increase in the total amount of goods available for
consumption.

The functional role of transport in socio-economic conditions -

 Extensive Market
 Mobility of Labour and Capital
 Specialization and Division of Labour
 Economies of Large Scale Production
 Stability in Prices
 Benefits to Consumers
 Employment Opportunities and Increase in the National Income
 Discouragement to Monopoly
In a macro-economic sense, transportation activities form a portion of a nation’s total economic
product and play a role in building or strengthening a national or regional economy and as an
influence in the development of land and other resources. In a micro-economic sense,

Department of Engineering, ACERC, Ajmer Page 16

 IFY2-06 Introduction to Built Environment 2021

transportation involves relations between firms and individual consumers. Government’s

involvement in transportation has both a macro- and a microeconomic significance.

Various Road Traffic Signs :

Traffic control device is the medium used for communicating between traffic engineer and road
users. Unlike other modes of transportation, there is no control on the drivers using the road.
Hence, traffic control devices are used to control the traffic on roads etc. The major types of
traffic control devices used are-traffic signs, road markings, traffic signals and parking control.

Traffic signs can be classified into three main categories –

 Regulatory signs :
These signs require the driver to obey the signs for the safety of other road users.

 Warning signs:
These signs are for the safety of oneself who is driving and advice the drivers to obey
these signs.

 Informative signs:
These signs provide information to the driver about the facilities available ahead, and
the routeand distance to reach the specific destinations.

Regulatory signs :

These signs are also called mandatory signs because it is mandatory that the drivers must obey
these signs. If the driver fails to obey them, the control agency has the right to take legal action
against the driver. These signs are primarily meant for the safety of other road users. These signs
have generally black legend on a white background. They are circular in shape with red borders.

Department of Engineering, ACERC, Ajmer Page 17

 IFY2-06 Introduction to Built Environment 2021

The regulatory signs can be further classified into following –

Right of way signs -

These include two unique signs that assign the right of way to the selected approaches of an
intersection. They are the STOP sign and GIVE WAY sign.

Department of Engineering, ACERC, Ajmer Page 18

 IFY2-06 Introduction to Built Environment 2021

Speed signs -

Number of speed signs may be used to limit the speed of the vehicle on the road. They include
typical speed limit signs, truck speed, minimum speed signs etc. Speed limit signs are placed to
limit the speedof the vehicle to a particular speed for many reasons.

Movement signs -

They contain a number of signs that aspect specific vehicle maneuvers. These include turn signs,
alignment signs, exclusion signs, one way signs etc. Turn signs include turn prohibitions and
lane use control signs. Lane use signs make use of arrows to specify the movements which all
vehicles in the lane must take. Turn signs are used to safely accommodate turns in un-signalized
intersections.

Parking signs -

They include parking signs which indicate not only parking prohibitions or restrictions, but also
indicate places where parking is permitted, the type of vehicle to be parked, duration for parking
etc.

Pedestrian signs -

They include both legend and symbol signs. These signs are meant for the safety of pedestrians
and include signs indicating pedestrian only roads, pedestrian crossing sites etc.

Miscellaneous -
Wide variety of signs that are included in this category are - a "KEEP OF MEDIAN" sign, signs
indicating road closures, signs restricting vehicles carrying hazardous cargo or substances, signs
indicating vehicle weight limitations etc. They include a stop sign, give way sign, signs for no
entry, sign indicating prohibition for right turn, vehicle width limit sign, speed limit sign etc.

Department of Engineering, ACERC, Ajmer Page 19

 IFY2-06 Introduction to Built Environment 2021

Warning signs :

Warning signs or cautionary signs give information to the driver about the impending road
condition. They advice to the driver for obey the rules. These signs are meant for the own safety
of drivers. The color convention used for this type of signs is that the legend will be black in
color with a white background. The shape used is upward triangular or diamond shape with red
borders. Some examples for this type of signs includes right hand curve sign board, signs for
narrow road, sign indicating railway track ahead etc.

Warning Signs

Informative signs :

Informative signs also called guide signs are provided to assist the drivers to reach their desired
destinations. These are predominantly meant for the drivers who are unfamiliar to the place. The
guide signs are redundant for the users who are accustomed to the location.

Department of Engineering, ACERC, Ajmer Page 20

 IFY2-06 Introduction to Built Environment 2021

Accident prevention and Road Safety measures :

Causes of road accidents :

The various causes of road accidents are -

1. Road Users - Excessive speed and rash driving, violation of traffic rules, failure to
perceive traffic situation or sign or signal in adequate time,
carelessness, fatigue, alcohol, sleep etc.
2. Vehicle Defects - Such as failure of brakes, steering system, tyre burst, lighting system.
3. Road Condition - Skidding road surface, pot holes, ruts.
4. Road design- Dfective geometric design like inadequate sight distance, inadequate
width of shoulders, improper curve design, improper traffic control
devices and improper lighting,.
5. Environmental factors - Unfavorable weather conditions like mist, snow, smoke and
heavy rainfall which restrict normal visibility and makes driving
unsafe.
6. Other causes - Improper location of advertisement boards, gate of level crossing not
closed whenrequired etc.

Department of Engineering, ACERC, Ajmer Page 21

 IFY2-06 Introduction to Built Environment 2021

Road Safety Measures :

 Keep To Your Left – Always drive or ride on the left side of the road and let other
vehicles
 overtake you from the right side.
 Stay Left When You Turn Left – When turning towards left, start with approaching

the curb from the left-most lane and ensure there’s enough distance for oncoming
vehicles to pass.
 Turn Right – Come to the centre of the road before you start turning right but when

going around the curb, try to stay towards the left-most part of your lane to avoid
contact withoncoming traffic.
 Always Overtake from the right side.
 When being overtaken by another vehicle, never increase your speed to prevent the

other driver from overtaking you.

 Be extra careful on intersections. Also, when passing through them, ensure your

vehicle doesn’t cause inconvenience to other road users.

 Right of Way - Always give a right of way to vehicles on intersections by letting them

continuewithout stopping in that particular direction in which you are about to proceed.
 Emergency Vehicles – It is your responsibility to give way to emergency services

vehicles suchas fire engines and ambulances.

 Pedestrians have the right of way at pedestrian crossings or zebra crossings.
 “U” Turns - U-turns can only be taken when there is no warning sign nearby you give a

proper indication to other vehicle drivers that you are going to take a U turn
 Indicators – Always use indicators to let other road users know about the planned

change in the direction of travel. If your vehicle indicators get damaged without any
warning, use hand signals
 Parking – Make sure you don’t park your vehicle in a way it causes any hurdle or

disturbance to any other road users.

 Registration – Your vehicle’s registration plate should be visible at all times. In case it

is broken or damaged, you need to get it replaced at the earliest. Driving a vehicle with
its registration number not being visible is a serious offence.
 One way Roads – Always drive only in the permissible direction on a one-way road.

Also, never park your vehicle in reverse on a one way street.

Department of Engineering, ACERC, Ajmer Page 22

 IFY2-06 Introduction to Built Environment 2021

Traffic Calming :
Traffic calming is a road design strategy that promotes attentive and responsible driving. It uses
sensory-rich environments to reduce vehicle speeds and foster safe habits among all road users. It
consists of measures designed to make roads safer. Traffic calming design, mandate drivers to pay
attention to their overall driving environment in respect to determine their driving behavior.
Factors such as road conditions, obstructions, sight distance, and the presence of pedestrians can
seriously impact road safety. Traffic calming strategies are used to create environments where the
most convenient driving behaviors are also the safest.

d) Hydraulic and Water Resource Engineering :

Hydraulic engineering consists of the application of fluid mechanics to water flowing in an
isolated environment (pipe, pump) or an open channel (river, lake, ocean). An example of a
hydraulic structure would be a dam, which slows the normal flow rate of the river to power
turbines. A hydraulic structure can be built in rivers, a sea, or any body of water where there is a
need for a change in the natural flow of water. Hydraulics is an important field in Civil
Engineering that has to do with the mechanical properties of fluids/liquids.

Water Resource Engineering is a specific kind of civil engineering that involves the design of new
systems and equipment that help manage human water resources. Water resources engineering is
the quantitative study of the hydrologic cycle -- the distribution and circulation of water linking
the earth's atmosphere, land and oceans. Surface runoff is measured as the difference between
precipitation and abstractions, such as infiltration (which replenishes groundwater flow), surface
storage and evaporation. Applications include the management of the urban water supply, the
design of urban storm-sewer systems, and flood forecasting.

Takes care of groundwater occurrence :

Water below the ground is available in four zones, viz., soil zone, intermediate zone, capillary
zone, and saturation zone. The zone where water is available is called the zone of aeration. The
availability of groundwater as a water source depends largely upon surface and subsurface
geology as well as climate. The porosity and permeability of a geologic formation control its
ability to hold and transmit water. When precipitation falls, the water percolates into the rock
layer of the ground, and then through flow occurs, leading the water back to underground
reservoirs. Humans have disturbed this through urbanization and deforestation. The main source

Department of Engineering, ACERC, Ajmer Page 23

 IFY2-06 Introduction to Built Environment 2021

of groundwater is rain. The rainwater and water from other sources such as rivers, lakes, and
ponds, seeps through the ground and fills the empty spaces between the soil and the rocks below
the earth. Unconsolidated to poorly cemented alluvial materials that have accumulated as valley-
filling sediments in major river valleys and geologically subsiding structural basins are included
among the most productive sources of groundwater.

Groundwater management :
Groundwater management is a process that aims at the sustainability of groundwater to benefit
each and every stakeholder involved in the usage of groundwater. These stakeholders are farmers,
administrators, scientists, environmentalists, and individual consumers of a society. The rate of
groundwater flow is controlled by two properties of the rock: porosity and permeability. Porosity
is the percentage of the volume of the rock that is open space (pore space). This determines the
amount of water that a rock can contain.

Different Types of Underground Water Sources -

 Infiltration Galleries.
 Infiltration Wells.
 Springs.
 Gravity Springs.
 Surface Springs.
 Artesian Springs.
 Wells.

Among the management strategies are the following points -

 Adjustment of the annual rates of pumping, generally, based on monthly rates,
 Adjustment of the well configuration,
 Augmentation of water supply from other sources or groundwater recharge enhancement,
 Awareness of groundwater beneficiaries,
Groundwater is a vital water supply for humanity. Groundwater provides drinking water entirely
or in part for as much as 50% of the global population and accounts for 43% of all of water used
for irrigation. Worldwide, 2.5 billion people depend solely on groundwater resources to satisfy

Department of Engineering, ACERC, Ajmer Page 24

 IFY2-06 Introduction to Built Environment 2021

their basic daily water needs. Groundwater is a vital resource for drinking water, and for
industrial, commercial, and agricultural uses.

The advantages of ground water are -

 Ground water does not evaporate.

 It is helpful in maintaining the water levels of wells.
 Ground water provides moisture to large amount of vegetation.
 There is relatively few chances of contamination of ground water by human and animal
waste.

The Importance of Groundwater Management and Protection –

Best practices in groundwater management and its use are critical to keeping water supplies
available and safe for future generations.

Water Resources Planning, it’s purposes and objectives :

Water resources planning is a specialized discipline of planning that deals with planning for and
managing natural and man-made systems that are typically contained within watersheds and
which include hydrologic, biological, economic, and political systems.
Water resource management is the activity of planning, developing, distributing and managing the
optimum use of water resources. It is an aspect of water cycle management .

Purpose -
Water Resources Planning & management seeks to harness the benefits of water by ensuring there
is sufficient water of adequate quality for drinking water and sanitation services, food production,
energy generation, inland water transport, and water-based recreational, as well as sustaining
healthy.

Objectives –
 Respect hydrological equilibrium between water availability and demand
 Ensure that water’s relative scarcity will not delay optimal development of other natural
resources
 Establish rational, equitable and justified water distribution

Department of Engineering, ACERC, Ajmer Page 25

 IFY2-06 Introduction to Built Environment 2021

 Establish long term water resources management : future demand=>population growth

 Ensure defence to harmful effects of water
 Water quality control
 Establish flexible priorities for all water use in the future.

Field-water storage structures :

Water storage refers to holding water in a contained area for a period of time. Water storage can
be natural or artificial. Natural water storage occurs in all parts of the hydrologic cycle in which
water is stored in the atmosphere, on the surface of the Earth, and below ground. Artificial water
storage is done for a variety of reasons and is done on small and large scales. Water storage
locations are commonly referred to as reservoirs.

Natural Water Storage and the Hydrologic Cycle -

Each stage of the hydrologic cycle involves the storage of water. Water can be stored in the
atmosphere, on the surface of the Earth, or underground. These water storage areas are most
commonly known as reservoirs. Natural reservoirs include oceans, glaciers and ice sheets,
groundwater, lakes, soil moisture, wetlands, living organisms, the atmosphere, and rivers.

Department of Engineering, ACERC, Ajmer Page 26

 IFY2-06 Introduction to Built Environment 2021

Water moves from reservoir to reservoir through different hydrologic fluxes such as evaporation,
condensation, the flow of rivers, precipitation, and anthropogenic diversion. Oceans, rivers, ice
caps, the atmosphere, aquifers, and lakes are all examples of reservoirs with varying residence
times. The residence time describes how long the water stays in a reservoir before leaving.

Artificial Water Storage -

Artificial water reservoirs range in size from rain barrels and household water tanks to urban
infrastructure and industrial reservoirs. Some of the smaller types of artificial storage include
water towers, tanks, and rain barrels for use by people in times of drought or in areas that do not
have easy access to water sources. Commercial uses for artificial water storage tend to be larger in
scale, such as holding ponds and dam reservoirs. Some examples of industries that use water
storage include mining, agriculture (for irrigation and livestock), and energy generation i.e.
hydroelectricity.

Rain Water Harvesting :

Rain water harvesting is one of the most effective methods of water management and water
conservation. It is the term used to indicate the collection and storage of rain water used for
human, animals and plant needs. It involves collection and storage of rain water at surface or in
sub-surface aquifer, before it is lost as surface runoff. The augmented resource can be harvested
in the time of need.

Artificial recharge to ground water is a process by which the ground water reservoir is
augmented at a rate exceeding that under natural conditions of replenishment. The collected
water is stored and pumped in a separate pipe distribution.

Rainwater harvesting systems consists of the following components -

 Catchment - Used to collect and store the captured Rainwater.

 Conveyance system – It is used to transport the harvested water from the
catchment to therecharge zone.
 Flush - It is used to flush out the first spell of rain.
 Filter – Used for filtering the collected Rainwater and remove pollutants.
 Tanks and the recharge structures: Used to store the filtered water which is ready to use.

Department of Engineering, ACERC, Ajmer Page 27

 IFY2-06 Introduction to Built Environment 2021

The process of rainwater harvesting involves the collection and the storage of rainwater with
the help of artificially designed systems that run off naturally or man-made catchment areas
like- the rooftop, compounds, rock surface, hill slopes, artificially repaired impervious or
semi-pervious land surface.

Rain Water Harvesting

Water Pollution : Water Quality Standards :

Water is considered polluted if some substances or condition is present to such a degree that
the water cannot be used for a specific purpose. Water pollution is to be the presence of
excessive amounts of a hazard (pollutants) in water in such a way that it is no long suitable for
drinking, bathing, cooking or other uses. It is created by industrial and commercial waster,
agricultural practices, everyday human activities and most notably, models of transportation.
Water pollution is generally induced by humans.

Sources of water pollution -

(i) Sewage leakages
(ii) High population density
(iii) Oil spillage
(iv) Industrial waste dumped into our waters
(v) Pollution of ground water through drilling activities
(vi) Flooding during rainy season which carries waste deposits into our waters.

Department of Engineering, ACERC, Ajmer Page 28

 IFY2-06 Introduction to Built Environment 2021

(vii) Building lavatories and visionaries over running water or even the sea as it the
practice in some riverine areas
(viii) Radioisotopes
(ix) Heavy metal
(x) Combustion
(xi) Toxic waste disposal at sea
(xii) Mineral processing plant (e.g. coal production)
(xiii) Eroded sediments
(xiv) Deforestation
(xv) Mining
(xvi) Littering
(xvii) Pesticides
(xviii) herbicides and fertilizers
(xix) Failing septic system
(xx) House hold chemicals
(xxi) Animal wastes

Water Quality Standards in India :

Water quality criteria -

Designated-Best-Use Class of Criteria

water
Drinking Water Source without A  Total Coliforms Organism MPN/100ml
conventional treatment but after shall be 50 or less
disinfection  pH between 6.5 and 8.5
 Dissolved Oxygen 6mg/l or more
 Biochemical Oxygen Demand 5 days 20°C
2mg/l or less

Outdoor bathing (Organised) B  Total Coliforms Organism MPN/100ml

shall be 500 or less pH between 6.5 and 8.5
Dissolved Oxygen 5mg/l or more
 Biochemical Oxygen Demand 5 days 20°C
3mg/l or less

Drinking water source after C  Total Coliforms Organism MPN/100ml

conventional treatment and shall be 5000 or less pH between 6 to 9
disinfection Dissolved Oxygen 4mg/l or more

Department of Engineering, ACERC, Ajmer Page 29

 IFY2-06 Introduction to Built Environment 2021

 Biochemical Oxygen Demand 5 days 20°C

3mg/l or less

Propagation of Wild life and D  pH between 6.5 to 8.5 Dissolved Oxygen

Fisheries 4mg/l or more
 Free Ammonia (as N) 1.2 mg/l or less

Irrigation, Industrial Cooling, E  pH between 6.0 to 8.5

Controlled Waste disposal  Electrical Conductivity at 25°C micro
mhos/cm Max.2250
 Sodium absorption Ratio Max. 26
 Boron Max. 2mg/l

Below-E Not Meeting A, B, C, D & E Criteria

Drinking Water quality -

Drinking water is water intended for human consumption for drinking and cooking purposes from
any source. It includes water (treated or untreated) supplied by any means for human
consumption. The quality standards for drinking water in India is prescribed by Bureau of Indian
Standards laid down IS 10500 : 2012.

Ground water quality scenario in India -

The natural chemical content of ground water is influenced by depth of the soils and sub-surface
geological formations through which ground water remains in contact. In general, greater part of
the country, ground water is of good quality and suitable for drinking, agricultural or industrial
purposes. Ground water in shallow aquifers is generally suitable for use for different purposes and
is mainly of Calcium Bicarbonate and Mixed type. However, other types of water are also
available including Sodium-Chloride water. The quality in deeper aquifers also varies from place
to place and is generally found suitable for common uses. There is salinity problem in the coastal
tracts and high incidence of Fluoride, Arsenic, Iron and heavy metals etc in isolated pockets have
also been reported.

Introduction to treatment and disposal of waste water :

Wastewater can be defined as the flow of used water discharged from homes, businesses,
industries, commercial activities and institutions which is directed to treatment plants by a
carefully designed and engineered network of pipes. This wastewater is further categorized and
defined according to its sources of origin such as -

Department of Engineering, ACERC, Ajmer Page 30

 IFY2-06 Introduction to Built Environment 2021

The term domestic wastewater refers to flows discharged principally from residential sources
generated by such activities as food preparation, laundry, cleaning and personal hygiene.

Industrial/commercial wastewater is flow generated and discharged from manufacturing and

commercial activities such as printing, food and beverage processing and production to name a
few.

One of the most common forms of pollution control is waste water treatment. The basic
function ofwastewater treatment is to speed up the natural processes by which water is purified.

There are two basic stages in the treatment of wastes, primary and secondary -

In the primary stage, solids are allowed to settle and removed from wastewater. The
secondary stage uses biological processes to further purify wastewater. Sometimes, these
stages are combined into one operation.

Primary Treatment -
As sewage enters a plant for treatment, it flows through a screen, which removes large floating
objects such as rags and sticks that might clog pipes or damage equipment. After sewage has
been screened, it passes into a grit chamber, where cinders, sand, and small stones settle to the
bottom. A grit chamber is particularly important in communities with combined sewer systems
where sand or gravel may wash into sewers along with storm water. After screening is
completed and grit has been removed, sewage still contains organic and inorganic matter along
with other suspended solids.

These solids are minute particles that can be removed from sewage in a sedimentation tank.
When the speed of the flow through one of these tanks is reduced, the suspended solids will
gradually sink to the bottom, where they form a mass of solids called sludge. Bio solids are
usually removed from tanks by pumping, after which it may be further treated for use as a
fertilizer, or disposed of in a land fill or incinerated.

Secondary Treatment -

The secondary stage of treatment removes about 85 percent of the organic matter in sewage by
making use of the bacteria in it. The principal secondary treatment techniques used in
secondary treatment are the trickling filter and the activated sludge process. After effluent
leaves the sedimentation tank in the primary stage it flows or is pumped to a facility using one

Department of Engineering, ACERC, Ajmer Page 31

 IFY2-06 Introduction to Built Environment 2021

or the other of these processes. A trickling filter is simply a bed of stones from three to six feet
deep through which sewage passes. Activated Bio solids Process More recently, interlocking
pieces of corrugated plastic or other synthetic media have also been used in trickling beds.
Bacteria gather and multi-ply on these stones until they can consume most of the organic
matter. The cleaner water trickles out through pipes for further treatment. From a trickling
filter, the partially treated sewage flows to another sedimentation tank to remove excess
bacteria. The activated sludge process speeds up the work of the bacteria by bringing air and
sludge heavily laden with bacteria into close contact with sewage. After the sewage leaves the
settling tank in the primary stage, it is pumped into an aeration tank, where it is mixed with air
and sludge loaded with bacteria and allowed to remain for several hours. During this time, the
bacteria break down the organic matter into harmless by-products. The sludge, now activated
with additional billions of bacteria and other tiny organisms, can be used again by returning it
to the aeration tank for mixing with air and new sewage. From the aeration tank, the partially
treated sewage flows to another sedimentation tank for removal of excess bacteria. To complete
secondary treatment, effluent from the sedimentation tank is usually disinfected with chlorine
before being discharged into receiving waters.

Primary and Secondary Treatment

Department of Engineering, ACERC, Ajmer Page 32

 IFY2-06 Introduction to Built Environment 2021

Reuse and Saving of Water :

Reuse of water -
Water reuse is the use of water which is generated from wastewater and that achieves, after
treatment as necessary, a quality that is appropriate for its intended use. Direct reuse refers to
the introduction of treated waste water via pipelines, storage tanks, and other necessary
infrastructure directly from a water treatment plant to a distribution system. The treated water is
reuse for irrigation purposes.

Saving of water :

In The Bathroom –

1. While waiting for hot water to come down the pipes, catch the cool water in a bucket or
a watering can. You can use it later to water plants, run your garbage disposer, or pour into
the toilet bowl to flush. (Saves 50 gallons a week per person).
2. Replace your regular showerheads with low–flow showerheads. (Saves 230 gallons a week).
3. Keep your showers down to 5 minutes or less using a low-flow showerhead. (Saves 75
gallons a week per person).
4. Turn the water off while lathering-up in the shower. Then turn the water back on to
quickly rinse. (Saves 75 gallons a week per person).
5. Take shallow baths, no more than 3 inches of water (Saves 100 gallons a week per person).
6. Replace your older model toilets with new ultra-low-flush models. (Saves 350 gallons a
week).
7. Check your toilets for leaks. Drop a dye tablet or a teaspoon of food coloring in the tank. If
color appears in the bowl after 15 minutes, replace the “flapper” valve or report the leak.
(Saves 100 gallons a week for each toilet repaired).
8. Flush the toilet only when necessary. Never use the toilet as an ashtray or wastebasket.
(Saves 150 gallons a week).
9. Never let the water run while brushing your teeth or shaving. (Saves 35 gallons a week per
person).

In The Kitchen -

10. Hand wash dishes just once a day using the least amount of detergent possible. This will cut

Department of Engineering, ACERC, Ajmer Page 33

 IFY2-06 Introduction to Built Environment 2021

downon rinsing. Use a sprayer or short blasts of water to rinse. (Saves 100 gallons a week).
11. If you have a dishwasher, run it only when you have a full load. (Saves 30 gallons a week).
12. Scrape food scraps off dishes in the garbage can or rinse them off with very short blasts of
hot water. (Saves 60 gallons a week).
13. Never use hot running water to defrost frozen foods. Plan ahead and place frozen
items in therefrigerator overnight or use the microwave oven. (Saves 50 gallons a week).
14. Rinse vegetables and fruits in a sink or a pan filled with water instead of under running
water.(Saves 30 gallons a week).
15. Run your garbage disposer on alternate days. (Saves 25 gallons a week).

Around The House -

16. Repair or report all leaky faucets, fixtures and pipes both inside and outside your home.
(Saves150 gallons for each leak).
17. When doing the laundry, never wash less than a full load. (Saves 100 gallons a week).
18. Collect washing machine rinse water in utility sink. You can use it later to water indoor
plants, run your garbage disposer, or pour into the toilet bowl to flush. (Saves 50 gallons a
week).

Outdoors -

19. Set lawn mower blades one notch higher since longer grass reduces evaporation. Use
chunks of bark, peat moss, or gravel to cover bare ground in gardens and around trees. (Saves
200 gallons or more a week).
20. Never hose down your patio or balcony–use a broom or blower. (Saves 100 gallons a week).
21. Donʼt allow children to play with the hose. (Saves 10 gallons a minute).
22. If you have a pool, use a cover to cut down evaporation. This will also keep your pool
cleaner andreduce the need to add chemicals. (Saves 250 gallons a week).
23. Take your car to a car wash that recycles its wash water. If home car washing is permitted
in your area, use a bucket of water and sponge to wash your car. Rinse quickly at the end.
Never allow the hose to run continuously. (Saves 150 gallons a week).
24. Water your lawn and landscaping early in the morning or after the sun sets when thereʼs
less evaporation. Adjust your sprinklers so they donʼt spray on sidewalks, driveway or street.
(Saves 250 gallons a week).

Department of Engineering, ACERC, Ajmer Page 34

 IFY2-06 Introduction to Built Environment 2021

Environmental and Energy Engineering :

Environmental and Energy engineering is a branch of energy engineering which seeks to
efficiently use energy and to maintain the environment such as the built environment, renewable
and traditional energy industries.
Environmental engineering can be branched into two main areas: internal environments and
outdoor environments.
Energy engineering requires at least an understanding of mechanics, thermodynamics,
mathematics, materials, stoichiometry, electrical machines, manufacturing processes and energy
systems.

Environmental Pollution :
Environmental pollution has existed for centuries. Pollution occurs when the natural
environment cannot destroy an element without creating harm or damage to itself. In other
words, pollution takes place when nature does not know how to decompose an element that has
been brought to it in an unnatural way.

Pollution must be taken seriously, as it has a negative effect on natural elements that are an
absolute need for life to exist on earth, such as water and air. If they were present on less
quantities, animals – including humans – and plants could not survive. We can identify several
types of pollution on Earth: air pollution, water pollution and soil pollution.

Environmental Acts and Regulations :

The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 -

The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 authorizes the central government to protect and
improve environmental quality, control and reduce pollution from all sources, and prohibit or
restrict the setting and /or operation of any industrial facility on environmental grounds.

The Biological Diversity Act 2002 and Biological Diversity Rules -

The Biological Diversity Act 2002 and Biological Diversity Rules provide for the conservation
of biological diversity, sustainable use of its components, and fair and equitable sharing of the
benefits arising out of the use of biological resources and knowledge associated with it.

Department of Engineering, ACERC, Ajmer Page 35

 IFY2-06 Introduction to Built Environment 2021

The Public Liability Insurance Act and Rules 1991 and Amendment, 1992 -
The Public Liability Insurance Act and Rules 1991 and Amendment, 1992 were drawn up to
provide for public liability insurance for the purpose of providing immediate relief to the
persons affected by accident while handling any hazardous substance

The National Environmental Tribunal Act,1995, Amendment 2010C -

The Act has been created to award compensation for damages to persons, property, and the
environment arising from any activity involving hazardous substances.

National Green Tribunal Act, 2010 -

Under the National Green Tribunal Act 2010 for effective and expeditious disposal of cases
relating to environmental protection and conservation of forests and other natural resources
including enforcement of any legal right relating to environment and giving relief and
compensation for damages to persons and property and for matters connected therewith or
incidental thereto.

The National Environment Appellate Authority Act,1997 -

The National Environment Appellate Authority Act has been created to hear appeals with
respect to restrictions of areas in which classes of industries etc. are carried out or prescribed
subject to certain safeguards under the EPA.

The Biomedical waste (Management and Handling) Rules,1998 -

The Biomedical waste (Management and Handling) Rules,1998 is a legal binding on the health
care institutions to streamline the process of proper handling of hospital waste such as
segregation, disposal, collection, and treatment.

The Environment (Siting for Industrial Projects) Rules, 1999 -

The Environment (Siting for Industrial Projects) Rules, 1999 lay down detailed provisions
relating to areas to be avoided for siting of industries, precautionary measures to be taken for
site selecting as also the aspects of environmental protection which should have been
incorporated during the implementation of the industrial development projects.

Department of Engineering, ACERC, Ajmer Page 36

 IFY2-06 Introduction to Built Environment 2021

The Municipal Solid Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, 2000 -

The Rules apply to every municipal authority responsible for the collection, segregation,
storage, transportation, processing, and disposal of municipal solid wastes.

The Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation and Control) Rules, 2000 -

The Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation and Control) Rules,2000 have been laid down for
the regulation of production and consumption of ozone depleting substances.

The Batteries (Management and Handling) Rules, 2001 -

These rules shall apply to every manufacturer, importer, re-conditioner, assembler, dealer,
auctioneer, consumer, and bulk consumer involved in the manufacture, processing, sale,
purchase, and use of batteries or components so as to regulate and ensure the environmentally
safe disposal of used batteries.

The Noise Pollution (Regulation and control) (Amendment) Rules, 2010 -

These rules lay down such terms and conditions as are necessary to reduce noise pollution,
permit use of loud speakers or public address systems during night hours (between 10:00 p.m.
to 12:00 midnight) on or during any cultural or religious festive occasion.

Functional Concepts of Ecology :

Ecology is a specific field of biology that focuses on how living organisms interact with each
another and with their surrounding environment. Together, the living organisms and the
physical environment make up an ecosystem. Ecology is the science that deals with the
relationships between living organisms with their physical environment and with each other.
Ecology can be approached from the viewpoints of (1) the environment and the demands it
places on the organisms in it or (2) organisms and how they adapt to their environmental
conditions.

Functional ecology is a sub-field of ecology that focuses on the unique roles, or functions,
each species, population, or community provides in its home ecosystem.

Department of Engineering, ACERC, Ajmer Page 37

 IFY2-06 Introduction to Built Environment 2021

Ecosystem :
An ecosystem consists of an assembly of mutually interacting organisms and their environment
in which materials are interchanged in a largely cyclical manner. An ecosystem has physical,
chemical, and biological components along with energy sources and pathways of energy and
materials interchange.

Ecosystems are broadly divided into natural and artificial -

Natural ecosystems are those that are existing in nature; they are further classified into
terrestrial andaquatic.

Terrestrial includes hot desert, grass land, tropical and temperate rainforest.

Aquatic includes ponds, river, streams, lakes, estuaries, oceans, mangroves, swamps and bays etc.

Artificial ecosystems are simple, human-made, unstable and subjected to human intervention
and manipulation.

Hydrological Cycle :
Hydrological cycle is also known as the “water cycle”; it is the normal water recycling system
on Earth. Due to solar radiation, water evaporates, generally from the sea, lakes, etc. Water
also evaporates from plant leaves through the mechanism of transpiration. As the steam rises in
the atmosphere, it is being cooled, condensed, and returned to the land and the sea as
precipitation. Precipitation falls on the earth as surface water and shapes the surface, creating
thus streams of water that result in lakes and rivers. A part of the water precipitating penetrates
the ground and moves downward through the incisions, forming aquifers. Finally, a part of the
surface and underground water leads to sea. During this trip, water is converted in all phases -
gas, liquid, and solid.

Department of Engineering, ACERC, Ajmer Page 38

 IFY2-06 Introduction to Built Environment 2021

Hydrological Cycle

Chemical Cycles :

Carbon Cycle :
Carbon, the basic building block of life molecules, is circulated through the carbon cycle. This
cycle shows that carbon may be present as gaseous atmospheric CO2, dissolved in groundwater
as HCO3or molecular CO2 (aq), in underlying rock strata as limestone (CaCO3), and as organic
matter, represented in a simplified manner as (CH2O). Photosynthesis fixes inorganic carbon as
biological carbon, which is a constituent of all life molecules. An important aspect of the
carbon cycle is that it is the cycle by which energy is transferred to biological systems. Organic
or biological carbon, (CH2O), is an energy-rich molecule that can react biochemically with
molecular oxygen, O2, to regenerate carbon dioxide and produce energy. This can occur in an
organism as shown by the “decay” reaction or it may take place as combustion, such as when
wood is burned.

Department of Engineering, ACERC, Ajmer Page 39

 IFY2-06 Introduction to Built Environment 2021

Carbon Cycle

Nitrogen Cycle :
Nitrogen Cycle is a biogeochemical process through which nitrogen is converted into many
forms, consecutively passing from the atmosphere to the soil to organism and back into the
atmosphere. It involves several processes such as nitrogen fixation, nitrification, de-
nitrification, decay and putrefaction. The nitrogen gas exists in both organic and inorganic
forms. Organic nitrogen exists in living organisms, and they get passed through the food chain
by the consumption of other living organisms. Inorganic forms of nitrogen are found in
abundance in the atmosphere. This nitrogen is made available to plants by symbiotic bacteria
which can convert the inert nitrogen into a usable form – such as nitrites and nitrates. Nitrogen
undergoes various types of transformation to maintain a balance in the ecosystem.

Department of Engineering, ACERC, Ajmer Page 40

 IFY2-06 Introduction to Built Environment 2021

Nitrogen Cycle

Phosphorus Cycle :

Phosphorus is a chemical element found on Earth in numerous compound forms, such as the
phosphate ion (PO43-), located in water, soil and sediments. The quantities of phosphorus in soil
are generally small, and this often limits plant growth. That is why people often apply phosphate
fertilisers on farmland. Animals absorb phosphates by eating plants or plant-eating animals. The
role of phosphorus in animals and plants. Phosphorus is an essential nutrient for animals and
plants. It plays a critical role in cell development and is a key component of molecules that store
energy, such as ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate), DNA and lipids (fats and oils). Insufficient
phosphorous in the soil can result in a decreased crop yield. Phosphorus moves in a cycle through
rocks, water, soil andsediments and organisms. Here are the key steps of the phosphorus cycle

Department of Engineering, ACERC, Ajmer Page 41

 IFY2-06 Introduction to Built Environment 2021

Phosphorus Cycle

Energy Flow in Ecosystem :

The source of energy required by all living organisms is the chemical energy of their food. The
chemical energy is obtained by the conversion of the radiant energy of sun. The radiant energy
is in the form of electromagnetic waves which are released from the sun during the
transmutation of hydrogen to helium. The chemical energy stored in the food of living
organisms is converted into potential energy by the arrangement of the constituent atoms of
food in a particular manner. In any ecosystem there should be unidirectional flow of energy.

Living organisms can use energy in two forms radiant and fixed energy. Radiant energy is in
the form of electromagnetic waves, such as light. Fixed energy is potential chemical energy
bound in various organic substances which can be broken down in order to release their energy
content. Organisms that can fix radiant energy utilizing inorganic substances to produce organic
molecules are called autotrophs. Organisms that cannot obtain energy from abiotic source but
depend on energy-rich organic molecules synthesized by autotrophs are called heterotrophs.
Those which obtain energy from living organisms are called consumers and those which obtain
energy from dead organisms are called decomposers (Fig. 3.7). When the light energy falls on
the green surfaces of plants, a part of it is transformed into chemical energy which is stored in
various organic products in the plants.

Department of Engineering, ACERC, Ajmer Page 42

 IFY2-06 Introduction to Built Environment 2021

Department of Engineering, ACERC, Ajmer Page 43