14

Rebooting employees: upskilling for artificial

intelligence in multinational corporations
Akanksha Jaiswal , C. Joe Arun and Arup Varma

ABSTRACT
Proponents of artificial intelligence (AI) have envisaged a
scenario wherein intelligent machines would execute rou-
tine tasks performed by humans, thus, relieving them to
engage in creative pursuits. While there is widespread fear
of corresponding job losses, organizational think tanks
vouch for the synergistic culmination of human–machine
competencies. Using the dynamic skill, neo-human capital
and AI job replacement theories, we contend that the
introduction and adoption of AI calls for employees to
upskill themselves. To determine the key skills deemed
critical for the upskilling of employees, we interviewed 20
experienced professionals in multinational corporations
(MNCs) in the information technology sector in India.
Deploying Gioia’s methodology for qualitative analysis, our
investigation revealed five critical skills for employee
upskilling: data analysis, digital, complex cognitive, deci-
sion making and continuous learning skills.

Introduction
The impact of technology on the global economy, businesses and soci-
eties is exponential and has enabled unprecedented advancement, leading
experts to predict that the upcoming decade will witness tremendous
changes in the nature of work owing to artificial intelligence (AI) (Butler,
2016; Davenport & Kirby, 2016). AI systems extend human capabilities
by sensing, comprehending, learning and acting (Daugherty & Wilson,
2018). Not surprisingly, the discourse on the future of work has drawn
contrasting views. While critics of AI firmly believe that machines will
replace human beings in many jobs, proponents of AI envision new
jobs with value creation (Ågerfalk, 2020; Sullivan et al., 2020). Despite

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ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND INTERNATIONAL HRM 115

these opposing views, there is agreement on one insight – this wave of

technological advancement will disrupt the employment equilibrium,
and this disruption of the workforce and displacement of labor is uni-
versally applicable as most industries today are enabled by technology
(Bughin et al., 2017; Østerlund et al., 2021).
Gradually, artificially intelligent machines are taking over tedious,
mechanical and mundane human tasks, such as documenting, scheduling,
inspecting equipment, collecting data and conducting preliminary analyses
(Huang et al., 2019; Huang & Rust, 2018). As Chaudhuri et al. (2020)
note, AI is becoming more commonplace in developing nations such as
China and India. In China, 77% of the workforce has employed AI in
their work in some shape or form while this number is 71% for India.
These technological advances and achievements are possible due to
data science, analytics and machine learning becoming central to the
AI functioning – indeed, a key characteristic of artificially intelligent
machines is that the intelligence is drawn from a constant learning and
adaptation process (Akerkar, 2019; Lecun et al., 2015). AI-powered
technologies collaborate with humans towards improved decision making
and enhancing the quality of life. Today, multinational corporations
(MNCs) are investing heavily in logic and knowledge-based AI-tools
that are driven by huge amounts of data, information and rules (Corea,
2019). Tools such as logic-based programming, robotic process automa-
tion, expert systems, descriptive and predictive analytics, are helping
businesses in transforming the workplace tremendously (Akerkar, 2019;
Corea, 2019; Hancock et al., 2020; Wilson et al., 2017). As an example,
AI-enabled systems depend on internet-of-things and big data as the
main ingredient to facilitate data-driven decision making.1 Further, AI
itself comprises a set of algorithms which depends on data for executing
the responses (Jaiswal & Arun, 2021; Portugal et al., 2018). Thus, in
this paper, we operationalize AI as data-driven systems that extend human
capabilities by enabling faster and better decision making and
problem-solving.
While sophisticated AI-technologies are reducing the need for human
labor in multinationals, linking these technologies to the organizational
needs and deliverables requires an in-depth understanding of organiza-
tional members’ capabilities (Davenport & Kirby, 2016). Clearly, devel-
oping competencies related to AI and its applications is extremely
important to help employees remain employable in the future. In this
study, we operationalize upskilling as learning new skills to sharpen
employee’s abilities to understand and utilize AI-based systems. According
to Hancock et al. (2020), roughly 30–40% of employees would need to
upgrade their skills significantly, within the next decade. In this con-
nection, several MNCs such as Amazon, Infosys, IBM and Walmart are
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116 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND INTERNATIONAL HRM

developing AI-powered products and services, while also investing in

developing the required technical and soft skills of the human capital.
Given the broad applications of AI, and its potential to affect our day-to-
day lives in almost every aspect, it is critical that we study the pros
and cons of AI applications, especially in the workplace, as it can have
a direct effect on the society, since many jobs might become
human-redundant. Accordingly, the present study was designed to
address the research question: ‘What are the skills that will be deemed
critical for the upskilling of employees to remain employable, and thrive,
in the era of AI?’

The Indian context

Given the rapid globalization and technological developments, several

MNCs have set up operations in emerging economies (Thite et al.,
2014). In this connection, India is considered an emerging economic
superpower (see Budhwar et al., 2019), not just due to the low cost of
operations but also because of its demographic dividend, foreign language
skills, intellectual capital and diversity. In 2018, the Indian government
think-tank, National Institution for Transforming India (NITI) Aayog,
launched a nation-wide programme on AI and its tremendous industrial
applications, thus, driving the entire economy towards digitization and
AI. By 2035, AI is projected to add US$957 billion, or 15% of India’s
current gross value (Menon et al., 2017). Recently, the INDIAai website
was launched by the government to demonstrate India’s journey to global
prominence in AI (INDIAai, 2020). Further, since the past three decades,
the Indian Information Technology (IT) industry has gained an immense
global reputation for deploying the global services delivery model.
Indeed, the global reach of this industry has impacted organizations
worldwide as the Indian IT industry powers the digital functioning of
major developed and developing nations by providing services in the
back-office operations (Jain et al., 2019; Malik et al., 2020; Pereira et al.,
2020). Not surprisingly, the practices of the Indian IT industry are
benchmarked to global standards (Budhwar & Varma, 2011; Thite et al.,
2014). The Indian government’s thrust on technology, data and talent
to create and use AI-systems across industries has given an extraordinary
boost to the IT firms in India. Indeed, this has led to a significant
improvement in employment opportunities in India and has led to a
corresponding increase in the return of Indian expatriates to contribute
to the continuing growth of the Indian economy (see, e.g. Varma &
Tung, 2020). Relatedly, the Government of India has issued the National
Education Policy (NEP) in July 2020 which has laid out clear procedures
to disseminate education, especially in Information Technology and
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ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND INTERNATIONAL HRM 117

Computer Science, to all children across different educational levels

(NEP, 2020). Accordingly, we decided to conduct our study in the Indian
IT sector.
Finally, even though the human resource discipline is replete with
studies on the interface between technology and human resources
(Bondarouk & Brewster, 2016; Bondarouk et al., 2017; Marler & Boudreau,
2017), recent developments with respect to AI have received scant atten-
tion from academicians (Meijerink et al., 2018). Some scholarly work
has been initiated towards a better understanding of how, and to what
extent, AI impacts HR (Chaudhuri et al., 2020; Malik et al., 2019). These
explorations are primarily in the areas of recruitment and selection of
applicants and performance management systems (PMS). Further, the
neo-human capital theory (NHCT) highlights the increasing demand
for technology-induced skills and the development of human capital in
times of rapid technological change (Pereira & Malik, 2015). Accordingly,
we believe our study is timely and critical, and it makes four key con-
tributions. First, we use the lens of dynamic skill, neo-human capital
and AI job replacement theories, to contribute to the understanding of
human resource development in the context of AI. Second, we add to
the growing literature on the MNCs operating in India in the IT sector.
Third, we identify those skill sets which can potentially help IT MNCs
and employees prepare themselves for the sustainable design and imple-
mentation of AI. Finally, while identification of key skill sets is the
starting point, we suggest practical tools for leaders in MNCs to advance
employee learning and competencies towards creating value out of
human–machine augmented intelligence.
In the following sections, we briefly review the literature on AI, its
impact on human resources and the need for upskilling for the era of
AI. This is followed by a detailed description of our research design
and method, and a discussion of our analyses and findings. We then
offer practical and theoretical implications, outline the study limitations
and discuss key avenues for further research.

Literature review
In developing the rationale for our study, we employ the theoretical
lenses of dynamic skill theory, NHCT and theory of AI job replacement.
These theories were specifically chosen, as they help advance the role
of skill demand due to technological change in the context of AI.

AI and its impact on human resources (HR)

In present times, technology has proliferated across human lives and
industries, and technological change is unprecedented in its pace, scope
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118 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND INTERNATIONAL HRM

and magnitude of impact. With game-changing innovations juxtaposed

with technological advancements, organizations need to digitally reinvent
themselves at an exponential pace to stay relevant and ahead of com-
petitors. AI-systems have the capability to simulate neural networks that
train and learn through experiences embedded in massive data sets at
a whirlwind speed (Butler, 2016; Jordan & Mitchell, 2015; Mitchell,
2017). In this connection, Tschang and Mezquita (2020) have noted that
some scholars argue that AI may lead to unemployment, while others
believe AI could be used to augment existing jobs. Clearly, both views
have some merit, but both need to be explored further. Not surprisingly,
the understanding of how, and to what extent, AI impacts HR is in its
nascent stages (Malik et al., 2019).
Two areas of HR where AI has important applications are recruitment
and selection of applicants and PMS (Chaudhuri et al., 2020). By using
AI-based bots, organizations have expedited the applicant screening and
selection processes. Cappelli et al. (2020) explain that algorithms for
recruitment are designed based on established predictors and criteria
that satisfy a statistically significant relationship. These algorithms are
trained on existing recruitment and selection datasets. The prospective
candidates are assessed by AI-bots based on the training dataset and
screened for the criterion variables. Likewise, PMS determines the
rewards (or punishment) for each organizational member based on their
competencies, behaviors and task accomplishments. Since the most widely
used metric, that is, the performance appraisal score, is subjective and
not bias-free, AI-based algorithms can be considered as a suitable HR
intervention. With such promising AI applications deployed in organi-
zations, employees need to upskill themselves to understand and appro-
priately use these tools owing to ethical, legal and contextual
considerations that are beyond the scope of this article.

Need for upskilling for AI

The notion that AI will surpass human intelligence is often voiced with
advances in AI creating tipping points triggering significant changes in
organizational operations and outcomes (Butler, 2016). For instance,
there is a shift in demand in the workforce from basic manual and
physical work skills to cognitive competencies. This shift has prompted
organizations to change the talent mix. Since human beings note rates
of change as linear and not exponential, they often find this pace of
technological advancement difficult to align with. Not surprisingly, schol-
ars have cited increased attrition rates and unemployment as AI takes
up mundane tasks previously performed by humans (Bughin et al., 2018;
OECD, 2012). While a technological revolution may eventually be on
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the cards, the scale and time frames are currently unknown. Thus, the
upcoming era necessitates humans to develop appropriate skillsets for
redefined jobs and work closely with AI-technologies to progress well
in their employment.
Work in today’s MNCs is knowledge-intensive and relies heavily on
the interface between AI-enabled technology and employees (Bondarouk
et al., 2017; Pereira & Malik, 2015). While technology enables organi-
zational deliverables, employees are the key drivers of value creation
and source of sustained competitive advantage. Thus, contemporary
MNCs not only focus on developing physical and organizational capital
but also on developing human capital which is of utmost importance
for organizational sustainability and success, more so, in the upcoming
era of AI and the changing nature of work. AI is increasingly reshaping
work by performing various tasks and is becoming a major source of
innovation (Rust & Huang, 2014). Most jobs in MNCs comprise mechan-
ical tasks (such as administering daily routines and tracking attendance),
thinking tasks (such as analyzing customer preferences and scheduling
logistics) and feeling tasks (such as empathizing with customers and
advising therapies to patients). These dimensions of tasks may vary from
one job to another and the intelligence required thereof. As AI deem-
phasized mechanical human labor, humans have to upgrade their focus
on tasks that are difficult for AI to assume, that is, tasks requiring
thinking and feeling skill sets (Huang et al., 2019; Huang & Rust, 2018).

Theories of upskilling

We draw upon the dynamic skill theory (Fischer et al., 2003), NHCT
(Pereira & Malik, 2015) and the theory of AI job replacement (Huang
& Rust, 2018) to explicate the need for upskilling. Dynamic skill theory
views skill development as a web of activities that is context-specific
and outcome-oriented (Kunnen & Bosma, 2003). In a dynamic world,
individuals need to be adept in various skills such as social, emotional,
technological and physical skills to exhibit good performance or demon-
strate appropriate behavior depending upon the context or situation. A
web of skills captures the interconnected complexity of skills in diverse
contexts. Since dynamic skill theory is a theory for adult cognitive
development, we invoked it in the context of skill development for
employees in the era of AI.
Further, the NHCT highlights the increasing demand for
technology-induced skills and the development of human capital in
times of rapid technological change (Pereira & Malik, 2015). Proponents
of NHCT argue that individuals with higher levels of human capital
concentration (higher level-of-education, experience in training, open
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to learning and exploration) are more likely to adopt technological

changes and develop new skills (Bartel & Lichtenberg, 1987; Wozniak,
1984, 1987). We agree with Pereira and Malik (2015, p. 154) that the
need for employee training will not decline with higher levels of tech-
nological knowledge. Rather, we believe that with the proliferation of
AI-technologies across industries in the near future, there will be a
continuous increase in demand for new skillsets and higher levels of
human capital concentration.
While AI’s ability to increasingly perform various tasks is indeed a
major source of innovation and value creation, there is also an increased
threat of job loss. The theory of AI job replacement (Huang & Rust,
2018) posits that replacement by AI is primarily at the task-level, rather
than at the job-level. More specifically, the changing nature of work is
largely for tasks that are easy and repetitive and entail mechanical
intelligence. Once AI has accomplished the lower-level and subsequently
the higher-level mechanical tasks that comprise a job, it will progress
to replace human labor in analytical intelligence, that is, tasks that
require rule-based and logical thinking. Soft skills, thus, will assume
paramount importance for humans. The future workforce would need
to acquire intelligence for higher job complexity including intuitive
intelligence (for complex, chaotic and context-specific tasks) and empa-
thetic intelligence (for tasks requiring high levels of emotions and empa-
thy). While AI domain experts are relentlessly developing and training
machine-learning algorithms to mimic human capabilities, higher levels
of skills such as communication, relationship building, problem-solving,
reasoning, empathy and sense-making, are extremely difficult to be
emulated by AI (Huang & Rust, 2018). Thus, we contend that in the
era of AI, employees need to deconstruct existing skills and cultivate
new ones to remain employable and competitive.

Study design
The present study was designed to address a key research question:
‘What are the skills that will be deemed critical for the upskilling of
employees to remain employable, and thrive, in the era of AI?’ In other
words, in the era driven by AI, the study aims to identify skills that
are considered critical for employees’ upskilling. To address our research
question, we interviewed 20 seasoned MNC executives in the IT sector
in India. These participants were middle to senior-level managers with
at least 10 years of total work experience. Further, all participants had
an adequate experience of AI implementation and experience in working
with AI-enabled services. The IT sector was chosen for our study as
technology-led innovations and growth are tightly linked to each other
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in this industry. Further, among all sectors, IT firms are most likely to
expect a high level of role disruption and skill shortage due to AI
(Agarwal et al., 2020). Despite the acknowledgment that AI-enabled
services are the primary source of innovation in the service industry
(Rust & Huang, 2014), there is limited research on human resource
development of this workforce (Chaudhuri et al., 2020; Malik et al.,
2019; Pereira & Malik, 2015).
In the Indian context, IT firms hold notable significance. From humble
beginnings in the 1970s, the Indian IT industry has come a long way
(Malik & Rowley, 2015). Today, this sector contributes 7.9% to India’s
economic growth and is expected to contribute 10% by 2025 (IBEF,
2019). The IT industry is a result of the rapid world of change and
technological advancement generating revenue of more than US$180
billion and employing 4.1 million professionals, the highest employment
provider in the private sector in India (NASSCOM, 2020).2 With the
Indian government’s budget allocation (2020) of US$1.13 billion (spread
over five years) for developing technologies and AI-based applications
and thrust on deploying AI-powered technologies across other industries,
the Indian IT sector has immense scope to grow.
India has also attracted global visibility and gained prominence in
terms of intellectual capital with several IT MNCs setting up their major
hubs and innovation centres in India (Budhwar, 2012). A key aspect of
the present study is the focus on IT organizations with global footprints.
Technology-based MNCs are heavily investing and engaging in futuristic
AI-powered technologies (Akerkar, 2019; Davenport & Kirby, 2016).
Further, MNCs are deploying AI-based products and services developed
in one location across varied operations in different countries. While
national cultural context plays a crucial role in business decisions,
AI-powered data facilitate problem-solving and decision making.
Table 1a summarizes the participants and their company’s character-
istics. Twenty middle and senior-level employees in both technical and
managerial roles were contacted. The participants were employed in
different MNCs spread across different locations in India, while their
headquarters were based in Canada, the United States of America,
Denmark, Ireland, Switzerland, France and India. In India, these MNCs
operated from Pune, Chennai, Bangalore, Noida, Kochi, among many
other locations. We chose MNCs of varying sizes, determined by the
worldwide employment size, to comprehensively assess the need for
upskilling in the IT sector. The MNCs were categorized as small, medium
and large, based on employee headcount less than 4999, 5000–59,999
and more than 60,000 employees (Lavelle et al., 2012). Thus, five par-
ticipants each from small and medium-size MNCs and 10 participants
from large MNCs comprised the study’s dataset.
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Table 1a. Participant’s and their company’s characteristics.
experience working

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND INTERNATIONAL HRM

Participant company headcount headcount in experience (in experience of aI with aI-enabled
number headquarter worldwide India gender years) Job function implementation services
1 usa 2100 1500 male 13 Technical 7 7
2 usa 27,000 750 male 16 Technical 3 3
3 Denmark 100 50 male 11 managerial 2 3
4 Ireland 505,000 150,000 male 20 managerial 2 2
5 India 243,000 215,000 male 14 managerial 2 3
6 usa 500 450 male 15 Technical 3 3
7 canada 77,000 13,500 female 15 managerial 2 2
8 usa 450,000 140,000 female 19 Technical 2 2
9 usa 23,000 18,000 female 10 managerial 2 3
10 switzerland 147,000 10,000 male 12 Technical 2 1
11 Ireland 505,000 150,000 female 11 managerial 3 3
12 usa 450,000 140,000 male 14 Technical 2 4
13 usa 500 450 male 13 managerial 2 2
14 usa 800 400 female 10 managerial 1 2
15 India 447,000 375,000 male 42 managerial 7 7
16 usa 23,000 18,000 female 20 managerial 6 6
17 usa 23,000 18,000 male 26 managerial 2 2
18 usa 292,000 194,700 male 28 managerial 2 4
19 france 122,000 25,000 female 20 Technical 3 5
20 france 45,000 6,000 female 13 Technical 2 2
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We sought an appointment for conducting the interview after pro-

viding the purpose and setting the context of the study. The participants
were assured of anonymity and post their informed consent to participate
in the study, an in-depth interview was conducted. The interview design
was semi-structured in nature (please see Appendix A), and the inter-
views were guided by an indicative list of questions wherein the inter-
viewees had flexibility in responding, thus, providing deeper insights
into the study phenomenon (Banihani & Syed, 2020). While conducting
the interview, we refrained from including personal questions/preferences,
leading words and kept questions simple to understand. Each interview
lasted for 25–30 minutes. Hand-written notes yielded a transcript of
roughly 8000 words.

Data analysis
Given the inductive nature of the study, we coded the transcripts man-
ually following the methodology proposed by Gioia et al. (2013).3 After
crafting a well-specified research question, we conducted semi-structured
interviews wherein a multitude of informant (participant) terms, codes
and categories emerged within the first few interviews. Gioia and col-
leagues (2013) refer to this stage as 1st-order concepts in which research-
ers strictly adhere to the participants’ terms, phrases and descriptions,
and refrain from drawing specific categories. As we progressed in con-
ducting the interviews, we began recognizing similarities and differences
among the categories. We created meaningful clusters of terms and
phrases and labelled those categories using the participants’ phrases,
thus, emerged the 2nd-order themes. The second-order themes are pri-
marily at the theoretical level and help the researchers in describing
and explaining the study phenomenon. The culmination of themes and
concepts yielded theoretical saturation (Glaser & Strauss, 1967) and then
we proceeded to distill these concepts and themes into aggregate
dimensions.
The 1st order concepts, 2nd order themes and aggregate dimensions
became the basis for building the data structure for the present study
(Figure 1). Data structure not only configures the qualitative data into
a meaningful visual aid but also provides a graphic representation of the
researchers’ progress from 1st order raw participants’ terms to 2nd order
theoretical themes to finally meaningful dimensions that answer the
research question. Authors discussed the participants’ dialogues, reconciled
differing interpretations and finally reached a consensual decision on the
themes and dimensions. Constructing the data structure compels research-
ers to think about the data theoretically and is thus considered as the
key component of demonstrating rigor in qualitative research.
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Figure 1. Data structure.

To validate the accuracy of our concepts, themes and dimensions, we

conducted five post-study interviews with senior-level managers (different
from the dataset participants) working in MNCs in the IT sector in
India. Table 1b describes the profile of the post-study participants.

Findings
As a result of the above data analysis, several themes emerged with
respect to upskilling the workforce for the era of AI. The present study
builds an inductive model grounded in data as exemplified by the data
structure model (Figure 1). The data structure demonstrates 1st order
concepts, 2nd order themes and aggregate dimensions. The change in
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ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND INTERNATIONAL HRM 125

Table 1b. Post-study participants’ profile.

experience experience
of aI working with
Participant company headcount headcount experience Job implemen- aI-enabled
number headquarter worldwide in India gender (in years) function tation services
1 usa 23,000 18,000 male 17 managerial 7 6
2 India 243,000 215,000 female 13 managerial 5 5
3 canada 77,000 13,500 male 15 Technical 3 2
4 usa 450,000 140,000 male 24 Technical 6 6
5 united 80,000 20,000 female 15 managerial 3 3
Kingdom

perceived importance of the skills in the present and future times is

further indicated using asterisks on the 2nd order themes, that is, themes
that need upskilling for the future are categorized as Critical, High and
Moderate. Table 2 encapsulates additional supporting data in the form
of representative quotations for readers to discern and view the evidence
for our findings.

Technological skills essential for upskilling

Skill 1: Data analysis skills

The past decade has witnessed the generation of huge amounts of data
from varied sources such as the Internet, social media, public sources
and interaction with clients. Due to the interconnectedness of technol-
ogies, big data are being added to the existing data repository in real-time
at high velocity. Further, data are available in different formats and
structures such as text, video, audio and image. A participant noted,
‘data is the oil’ while another said, ‘data is gold’. Given the enormous
amount of data at their disposal today, data analysis tools extensively
used in the IT industry including R programming, Python, Power BI,
SAS and Tableau, become highly critical for employee upskilling. Further,
expertise in the Hadoop framework that facilitates the processing of big
data and Full Stack developers for programming languages such as Java
and .Net, are important for upskilling for the future IT workforce. From
the narratives, we found that data analysis skills were described in many
ways. Broadly, data analysis was viewed as a systematic process of under-
standing the data and unearthing useful information to inform decision
making. Participant 2 explained, ‘Data analysis is basically….applying
statistics to describe and evaluate data’.

Skill 2: Digital skills

Most industries and contemporary organizations are increasingly gen-
erating footprints in the digital space. The technology industry aims to
connect the physical and digital worlds by creating a robust and secure
phygital (physical plus digital) ecosystem. As the economy moves towards
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Table 2. Data supporting interpretations of skills identification for upskilling for aI.
Themes representative quotations
Technological skills essential for upskilling
Data analysis skills ‘Through data analysis, we discover useful information…use
it for [data] interpretation and that provides us a concrete
basis for taking decisions’ (Participant 19)
‘Data is the key for any business to be successful today…the
analysis is useful for predictive modeling’ (Participant 3)
‘The current skill needed for professionals is in machine
learning and developing models…but the real application
is in making better predictions using those models…so
data analysis for predictive modeling is the most important
skill for the future’ (Participant 11)
Digital skills ‘The digital skill that is picking up today and will be most
important in the future is cloud automation….cloud
automation empowers developers and managers to deliver
services and meet business demands through end-to-end
automation’ (Participant 12)
‘Digital skills will enable transformation in Industry 4.0…it’s
a combination of multiple skills including front-end skills
like immersive experience [through] augmented reality/
virtual reality…[and] mobility skills across different
devices…and back-end skills like intelligent automation,
machine learning, robotic process automation and so
on….’ (Participant 16).
Cognitive skills essential for upskilling
complex cognitive skills ‘a design thinking mindset provides an innovative approach
to problem-solving….it involves designing, prototyping,
and testing out-of-the-box ideas….basically, it’s like an
ongoing experiment that helps in the decision making
process’ (Participant 15)
‘We use algorithms to transform data through cognitive
computing….our aI-assistant is a smart assistant that runs
on big data and Internet-of-Things…as of now, it is about
80-85% accurate in understanding the user’s demands and
responds accordingly…going forward with improved
accuracy, aI-assistants will be of immense support to us
for complex data processing’ (Participant 4)
‘humans process information at multiple levels including
cognitive, subconscious, and shared cognitive….these also
include biases…in future when aI will handle basic data
well, complex processing skills for meaningful insights will
become very important for humans’ (Participant 11)
Decision making skills ‘Presently aI’s biggest challenge is to overcome biases…data
fed into all aI-systems is based on prior experiences of
humans which are biased…so, despite all advancements
in technology, the aI-based outcomes are also biased…
so this awareness is very important for decision-makers’
(Participant 1)
‘Decision making is highly contextual…data must be
understood in the right context…also there are ethical
aspects and human behaviour….all need to be considered
for good decision making’ (Participant 19)
continuous learning skills ‘as an hr manager, my key role is to identify employees who
are stagnant…it is my responsibility to help them
transform….equipping [them] with new skills and
expertise’ (Participant 11)
‘We encourage horizontal movement in the organization
across domains…picking up things quickly in different
situations or projects shows flexibility and versatility’
(Participant 15)
‘continuous learning was always important and will continue
to remain important…else we cannot survive in this
industry’ (Participant 20)
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Evergreen skills for upskilling

Interpersonal skills ‘aI is making everything data-driven…personal judgments
and feelings will have no place soon….still as humans,
we will continue to understand others and empathize with
them’ (Participant 2)
communication skills ‘Whatever be the case…personal touch, personal
communication is very much needed to maintain a good
culture and work environment…if there is a problem, we
need humans to solve it….moreover, a chat robot
(chatbot) cannot connect with me [psychologically or
emotionally] through text messages’ (Participant 19)
leadership skills ‘let’s say tomorrow a robot is in your team and is reporting
to you….[as a leader] how much of autonomy will you
give to the robot and to the human? how will you
personalize things for human employees? leading a mix
of robots and humans would be a different ball game
altogether’ (Participant 16)
Skills not required for upskilling
Basic statistics skills ‘need for basic skills is there today but diminishing soon…
basic statistics will be handled well by aI in the future…
humans must do things they are better at’ (Participant
11).
‘all routine jobs are being replaced by aI….just knowing
statistics is not enough….what is relevant is the application
of statistics’ (Participant 16)
Project management skills ‘Traditional project management is dying now….it was very
important a few years back but things like scheduling,
resource allocation is being automated now…the only role
of project manager remains in handling any crisis kind of
a situation…like when a resource suddenly leaves the
company…then to find a replacement…scrum master is
replacing project manager as development is happening
in short sprints’ (Participant 5)
‘Two skills that today’s and future managers cannot skip are
agile coach and scrum master….(we sought an explanation
of these skills)….agile coach creates [and] facilitates agile
processes within an organization….scrum master is a type
of agile coach who implements agility at team level…’
(Participant 20)

digitization, processes need to be automated and optimized for efficiency

with enhanced security at a reduced cost. Thus, employees must acquire
digital skills such as intelligent automation (Blueprism, vision plotting),
cloud automation (Slack, Google Cloud Provider), Robotic Process
Automation (Kapow, Selenium), cybersecurity (intrusion detection), and
runtime applications (Angular, JBOSS). Participant 7 shares, ‘The whole
IT industry is enabling a digital transformation…there is a move towards
a smarter world…with digital metrics, digital strategies, digital tools…so
digital will be a core skill…a fundamental skill’.

Cognitive skills essential for upskilling

Skill 1: Complex cognitive skills

With the enormous amount of data in varied formats and structures,
it is becoming challenging to make sense of the data. Complex data
must be processed to derive meaningful information, visualization and
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128 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND INTERNATIONAL HRM

interpretation. Business intelligence needs convergence of data to design

simple solutions and draw relevant insights. Most organizations in the
technology industry conduct internal training to develop thinking and
higher-order skills for employees. Training in skills such as Watson
(Discovery, Studio Dashboard), design thinking, story building and
Apache Spark, are being encouraged by organizations to upskill employ-
ees for complex information processing, cognition development and
critical thinking. Participant 12 quotes, ‘Our chatbot ABC4 is becoming
smarter with data…it breaks each sentence into meaningful information,
replies to our queries and gets intelligent with every new question asked
to her…so humans need to use their higher level of intelligence for much
more complex tasks’.

Skill 2: Decision making skills

Organizations aim to take good decisions for enhancing business per-
formance. Though data are predominantly available for decision making,
most contemporary organizations are unable to leverage the power of
data. ‘Today I have a lot of data and system-generated reports giving me
an overview of the data…I should be able to use these [reports] as inputs
to inform my decisions’, says Participant 14. Decision making skills are
critical for upskilling as decision making is still highly subjective and
not as data-driven as it should be. Human biases unconsciously seep
into the decisions. Dynamic human behavior, ethical and legal consid-
erations must also be accounted for during decision making. Further,
speedy decisions must be taken in real-time such that the decisions
reflect current trends and address critical business disruptions. Thus,
employees must notably be trained in taking unbiased, rational and
evidence-based decisions.

Skill 3: Continuous learning skills

Engaging oneself in an unceasing learning path while responding to the
volatile, uncertain, complex and ambiguous business environment
(VUCA) is the key ingredient for employee success in the era of AI.
Unlike a few decades back when each technology had a lifespan of at
least a few years, in contemporary times, the lifespan of technology has
reduced to a few months or weeks. In such a dynamically changing
technological era, continuous learning is undoubtedly essential for
employees to stay relevant and not become obsolete. As a participant
said, ‘If you don’t learn, you become stale in a day in this industry’.
Continuous Improvement, Continual Learning and Troubleshooting are
some of the continuous learning programs internally organized by
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ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND INTERNATIONAL HRM 129

companies while Full Stack development for Java and .NET are some
of the domain-specific skills recommended for continuous learning.
‘Learning is the DNA of the organization….we have provided access on
all platforms to our employees so that they can learn anytime from any-
where’ (Participant 13).
Thus, we found five critical skills for employee upskilling to sustain
employment and succeed in the era of AI: data analysis skills, digital
skills, complex cognitive skills, decision making skills and continuous
learning skills.

Evergreen skills for upskilling

While upskilling in the above-cited technological and cognitive skills

is critical for IT sector employees to remain employable and thrive
in the era of AI, some other skills were found to be of importance.
Social skills, specifically, leadership skills, interpersonal skills and
communication skills were mentioned by some participants as import-
ant; however, the context will differ. For instance, future leaders must
not only be visionaries but also must understand the intricacies of
AI and associated technologies. As a participant said, ‘the leader should
possess algorithmic thinking and talk in the technical dialect in order
to drive transformation’. Further, the need for building strong rela-
tionships through trust and interpersonal association would remain
essential; however, future employees must also build good virtual
relationships without co-locating physically. Likewise, employees will
have to become comfortable and conversant in not having in-person
communication. A participant notes, ‘employees will have to learn how
to communicate virtually in an inclusive and exhaustive yet unambig-
uous manner’.
Thus, leadership, interpersonal and communication skills were noted
to be of importance by most participants. We refer to these skills as
‘evergreen skills’ because irrespective of time, that is, today or in the
future, these skills are deemed crucial for an individual’s success. In the
present study context of upskilling for AI, the degree to which upskilling
in these evergreen skills is needed is not relatively as high as the need
for upskilling in technological and cognitive skills.

Skills not required for upskilling

While our primary aim was to identify the skills critical for upskilling
in the context of AI, the participants inevitably highlighted skills that
have already or will soon become obsolete. Skills needed for delivering
routine, mundane and rule-based tasks are not needed as AI-solutions
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are already adopted for these tasks. For instance, data entry, scheduling,
coding, basic statistics, database management and project management
are some skills that are gradually losing their lustre. For instance, basic
statistics is an important skill in the present for data analysis; however,
in the future driven by AI, basic statistics will become a ‘default/man-
datory/fundamental’ skill as noted by many participants. Further, with
changing client demands and faster turnaround times, the role of project
management is diminishing exponentially. The Waterfall model for soft-
ware development life cycle is becoming redundant as the technology
industry is moving towards an agile approach. The agile and scrum
master processes have stand-up meetings that ensure higher project
flexibility, parallel processes, quicker reviews, better product quality,
faster delivery, enhanced connectivity with the clients, reduced need for
documentation and an integrated development-operations (DevOps)
framework. ‘SAFe 4.0 is the platform for becoming an Advanced Scrum
Master’ shares a participant. Thus, basic skillsets would be managed
well by AI-systems; whereas, human beings must elevate to higher-order
and complex tasks.

Thus, the key study findings are:

a. Data analysis and digital skills are critical technological skills for
employee upskilling.
b. Complex cognitive, decision making and continuous learning are
critical cognitive skills for employee upskilling.
c. Leadership, interpersonal and communication are evergreen skills
for which the degree of upskilling needed is relatively less than the
technological and cognitive skills.
d. Routine skills such as basic statistics and project management will
diminish in the future, thus, upskilling is not needed.

The data structure model presented in Figure 1 helped visualize the

categorization of the skills into different themes. In the ensuing discus-
sion, the need for upskilling of different skills (2nd order themes) was
briefly classified as critical, high and moderate, whereas, some skills
were found unimportant for upskilling. To present these findings with
more clarity, it is useful to diagrammatically represent the participants’
perceptions of the importance of different skills at two points in time:
at present and in the future (Figure 2). This representation grounded
in data is a dynamic model emerging from the qualitative analysis (Gioia
et al., 2013). The figure helps to visualize how the importance of each
skill is perceived to ‘dynamically’ change from present to future and
underscores the relative need for upskilling.
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ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND INTERNATIONAL HRM 131

Figure 2. relative importance of skills for employee upskilling.

Figure 2 schematically represents the relative importance of different

skillsets for employee upskilling in the IT industry to remain employable
and competitive in the era of AI. The vertical axis is a measure of the
importance of a particular skill today, while the horizontal axis represents
the skills perceived to be important in the future. The extreme bottom
right region in the plot represents the theoretical possibility of a skill that
is of slight importance today but has the highest importance in the future
and thus qualifies as the most critical zone for upskilling. The grayscale
color code (see color bar on the right side of the plot) illustrates the
relative importance of any skill for upskilling: skills depicted in the lightest
background regions of the figure have the highest importance for upskill-
ing whereas; skills marked in the darker background are of diminishing
importance for upskilling. The skills marked on the top left quadrant
have diminishing relevance in the future. The importance of skills such
as basic statistics and project management is diminishing due to AI-enabled
systems, thus, they do not require upskilling. The dotted diagonal line is
an ‘equipotential’ and the skills that hypothetically lie on this line are
those for which no change is expected in their relative importance between
today and in the future. Evergreen skills such as leadership, communica-
tion and interpersonal skills are of importance today and will continue
to be important in the future. However, the future evergreen skills will
be contextualised according to AI and thus, the need for upskilling in
these skills exists albeit not to a large extent.
Upon moving further away from the equipotential line towards the
bottom right zone, the perceived need for upskilling progressively
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132 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND INTERNATIONAL HRM

enhances. The five skills found critical for upskilling in the present study
are depicted in different quadrants of the figure. The top right quadrant
contains one technological skill (i.e. digital) and one cognitive skill (i.e.
continuous learning). Participants were unequivocal about their high
relevance today as well as their relevance in the future AI-era. These
skills are of growing importance for upskilling as we navigate from
present to future. Thus, we approximately positioned these skills on the
top right quadrant of the diagram to the right of the diagonal. Further,
skills including data analysis (technological skills), decision making and
complex cognitive (both cognitive skills) were described by the partic-
ipants to be of moderate importance today but of tremendous importance
in the future. The need for upskilling for AI is the highest for these
skills which are depicted in the bottom right quadrant of the figure.
Thus, Figure 2 represents the skills that are important now, skills that
are important in the future and the skills that need the most attention
for upskilling for AI.

Discussion
Our study provides important insights regarding how the potential
adverse impact of AI in terms of job replacement can be meaningfully
redirected into an employee’s skill development. The demand for skills
due to technological advancement will assume unprecedented importance
in the near future. We can broadly map the skills identified in the
present study to Huang and Rust (2018) model of four intelligences
required for service tasks – mechanical, analytical, intuitive and empa-
thetic. We found that tasks related to mechanical intelligence such as
basic statistics will be easily taken over by AI in the near future.
Analytical tasks such as data analysis and technology-related digital
competence will be difficult to be mimicked by AI. Intuitive tasks such
as complex cognitive processing, decision making and continuous learn-
ing, and empathetic tasks such as communication, interpersonal and
leadership skills will be even more difficult to be emulated by AI. Thus,
the changing nature of work in the IT sector necessitates employees to
perform jobs that require more of analytical, intuitive and empathetic
skills so that they remain employed and create value for the
organization.
Corroborating with the dynamic skill theory and recent Mckinsey
report (Agarwal et al., 2020), our study participants highlighted that
Indian organizations are dynamically engaging employees in building
their skills as a priority activity. With the integration of AI across
industry types, there is a shrinking need for basic cognitive skills such
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as data entry, data processing, scheduling and monitoring. Our findings

indicate that there is a significant need for upskilling in technological
skills including data analysis and digital skills. Concurrently, the demand
for cognitive skills is also on the rise especially for skills such as com-
plex information processing, critical thinking, decision making and
continuous learning. It should also be noted that our findings were
agnostic of the size of the MNC. The participants included managers
from small, medium and large-size MNCs operating in the IT sector in
India. Irrespective of the size of MNC, the participants responded alike
that employees’ skills need to be built to address role disruptions and
skill gaps created due to AI. This demonstrates that the orientation and
understanding of the IT industry are similar with respect to the chal-
lenges, opportunities and avenues that the era of AI will unfold for
individual contributors and for organizations.
The proponents of AI do not champion the mass replacement of
humans by machines. Rather, they indicate organizational think tanks
to nurture the workforce with the right skillsets to augment technological
advancements. In view of the current and forecasted changes, contem-
porary organizations are providing several online and offline learning
platforms and opportunities for employees to enhance their current skills
portfolio. Increasing tech talent requires upskilling in data analysis
including knowledge of advanced statistics, application of predictive
modeling and time series forecasting, data interpretation, writing algo-
rithms and familiarization with concepts related to big data, analytics,
machine learning and deep learning. Advanced digital skills that are
deemed to have strategic importance to the business encompass cloud
automation, intelligent automation, robotic process automation, cyber-
security and internet-of-things.
The rise in demand for complex cognitive and information processing
skills is owing to the rapidly changing market trends, consumer pref-
erences and overall business scenario. Changes in the macro-level indus-
try environment impact internal organizational functioning and its
employees. For instance, employees need to understand the technical
details of products/services and explain to customers. This requires
cognitive skills such as deriving insights from complex data, visualizing
and interpreting it in a meaningful manner. Further, AI-powered tech-
nology needs to be embedded in the employees’ way of thinking.
Developing systems thinking, design thinking, enhancing creativity, and
data-driven decision making comprise sharpening thinking skills. Big
data analytics, decision support systems and contextual sensemaking by
AI-technologies are providing insights to managers, thus, enabling them
to take decisions in a better, faster and more precise way. Finally, there
is an emphasis on enhancing the learning curve in a cross-functional
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134 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND INTERNATIONAL HRM

and team-based work environment as the nature of work will be rede-

fined with a heightened need for agility. Thus, flexibility, continuous
learning and agile ways of working are foreseen as top-priorities by
organizations. Scrum master, agile coach and DevOps are the critical
skills enabling organizational sustenance in the era of disruption and AI.
While there is a major need for upskilling employees in cognitive
and technological skills, the need for upskilling in social skills such as
leadership, communication and interpersonal remains, thus, we refer to
these skills as evergreen skills. Leaders’ crucial role lies in thoughtfully
redesigning existing jobs and encouraging employees to enhance their
skills. Across levels, communication is imperative to inspire employees
in creating a mindset of continuous learning and skill enhancement.
Further, in an era of digitization, there is a threat of treating people as
numbers and dehumanizing them. Thus, developing empathetic and
interpersonal skills is needed to enable employees’ strengths and
capabilities.
We believe that upskilling will reap the requisite benefits only if
organizations collaborate with schools and colleges to develop appropriate
curricula to address the issue of lack of talent and skill mismatches.
Relatedly, educators should redesign the curriculum and develop new
metrics to measure broad-based skillsets in tandem with industry
requirements.
AI has not only impacted organizations but has set the ball rolling
to develop a ‘learning and feeling economy’. A learning economy is
characterized by a workforce that continues to learn, upskill and reskill
based on advances in technology and innovation (Bughin et al., 2018).
A feeling economy is an economy in which the employment attributable
to feeling tasks such as interpersonal and empathy exceeds the employ-
ment generated by thinking and mechanical tasks (Huang et al., 2019).
While AI-systems continuously learn and perform thinking and mechan-
ical tasks, humans can spend more time on empathetic and feeling tasks.
Thus, managers must restructure the jobs to more people-oriented,
feeling-conscious and emotionally intelligent. This requires developing
employees on feeling intelligence and people skills.
Finally, the present skills scenario in the sampled IT firms does not
demand the need for upskilling in routine or rule-based skills such as
data entry, scheduling, coding, basic statistics, database management
and project management. As data are being generated continuously and
voluminously, AI-powered systems are increasingly becoming capable of
analyzing data based on algorithms and making sense of structured data
in real-time. Rule-based cognitive systems have the ability to learn and
improve performance through continuous analysis of real-time data and
user feedback. Thus, AI can automate many repetitive, mundane and
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ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND INTERNATIONAL HRM 135

high-risk tasks giving human beings more scope for engaging in complex
tasks. Further, AI’s greater power lies in collaborating with humans and
complementing human being’s capabilities. In today’s highly dynamic
industry environment, changing decision criteria powered by real-time
data and machine-learning approaches are creating immense business
value, thus, necessitating the workforce to develop skills to work pro-
ficiently alongside AI-enabled machines.

Practical implications
In order to capitalize on the benefits of AI, organizations must proac-
tively re-tool their policies, practices and philosophies to accept
AI-enabled mechanisms as partners in their operations. More specifically,
leaders must raise the capacity of employees in these skills to prepare
and perform well in the era of AI. Advancing the NHCT, we suggest
using a high commitment human resource (HCHR) strategy towards
creating a firm’s competitive advantage by building human capital con-
centration (Collins, 2020). HCHR is a philosophical approach focusing
on investment in employee skill and capability development. HCHR
outlines the employer–employee relationship by creating an organizational
climate that encourages organizational members to build their resources
and human capital. Investment in the intangible human capital presents
strategic leverage points that drive an organization’s competitive advan-
tage (Chadwick & Flinchbaugh, 2020).
The AI job replacement theory necessitates employees to upskill them-
selves in skills deemed critical for the future such as analytics, predictive
modeling, intelligent automation, agility and digital skills. This invest-
ment in human capital will not only preserve the in-house functional
knowledge and expertise but also boost employee motivation, loyalty,
organizational commitment and citizenship. Organizational support
towards upskilling is critical in encouraging employees to develop new
skillsets. Changes in context require cognitive development and hence
the dynamic skill theory helps explain how an individual can adapt to
the changing tasks, needs and environment. Developing a habit of life-
long learning is the most important ingredient to develop oneself for
the future of work. But, such learning must be supported and rewarded
by the organization, so that employees’ learning behavior is reinforced.
The future of work embedded in AI requires a transformational change
in an individual’s previously accepted worldviews and perspectives.
Additionally, leaders should enable agility among organizational mem-
bers, that is, the ability to renew, adapt and change quickly to facilitate
their learning and capacity building while ensuring success in the tur-
bulent business environment. Leaders must help employees understand
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136 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND INTERNATIONAL HRM

lifelong employability, that is, continuous adaptation and upskilling as

the economy evolves. Upskilling should not be considered as an end in
itself, but as a means to grow and remain employable.
As organizations aim to leverage the benefits of AI, a basic under-
standing of technological advancements and their application is binding
across all managerial levels. It is necessary to highlight here that upskill-
ing is not just needed for the large proportion of the workforce but
also for the top management and senior executives. Dynamic managerial
capabilities (DMC) theory (Augier & Teece, 2009; Helfat & Martin,
2015) highlights the impact of varied characteristics and behaviors of
senior leaders on the resource advantages in multinational organizations.
DMC theorizes the processes through which organizational leaders
acquire, develop, deploy and reconfigure capabilities to drive strategic
behavioral change among other organizational members. Organizational
leaders’ acceptance and adoption of technology is critical as it will help
them to orchestrate digital changes in a better manner. This does not
necessarily mean that they should become AI-experts; however, process
redesigning and organizational transformation towards digitalization can
be facilitated by top management only if they equip themselves with
adequate and updated skill sets.
Furthermore, our study demonstrates the need for developing a sym-
biotic relationship between humans and machines. Huang and Rust
(2018) suggest human–machine integration towards building collaborative
intelligence such that AI will enhance human connectivity. Individual
employees have limited intelligence, whereas, collectively employees sup-
port each other. Likewise, human intelligence can be augmented by the
collective intelligence of machines. While AI has the capability to process
large amounts of data, the key to remaining important for humans lies
in the understanding of data, interpreting the results and decision mak-
ing. Since, the human brain processes data in a holistic way and AI
processes data in a logical way, computational methods on which AI is
built will make humans more powerful (Huang & Rust, 2018). Hence,
employee upskilling must emphasize the importance of a collaborative
relationship between man and machine to surf the AI revolution.

Theoretical implications

Our findings offer several theoretical implications for future research.

As we noted earlier, human resource literature is lagging when it comes
to examining the intersection of AI and human resources. While the
published literature is fairly advanced in investigating how technology
has helped speed human resource processes, there is a need to examine
how AI is impacting the practice, process and philosophy of human
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ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND INTERNATIONAL HRM 137

resources. For example, one critical aspect of AI is that individuals will

increasingly deal with robots as colleagues and technological platforms
as managers. This will necessitate re-visiting our understanding, and
revising theories, of supervisor–subordinate relationships and team cohe-
siveness, for example. As we noted earlier, the dynamic skill theory
proposes that individuals would need to be adept in a whole range of
skills including social, emotional, technological and physical skills to
survive and thrive in the new workplace. In addition, individuals would
now also need to become comfortable with human–machine interactions
and be willing to update and/or upgrade their skills in this area, as
AI-enabled machines and processes get upgraded/upskilled.
Similarly, NHCT and AI job replacement theory both address the
issues involved with how AI will impact the ability of human beings
to use their skills for finding gainful employment in the workplace and
retaining that employment. Our findings of the need for upskilling
offer support for these theories while at the same time suggesting that
the theories will need to evolve as AI keeps evolving.
Finally, since AI may eliminate or reduce the need for humans in
numerous jobs, academics would need to re-visit the classical theories
of work and motivation, for example, to better understand how the
growth of AI is impacting how humans see their work. In a recent
examination of how the technological platforms impact employee con-
trol and motivation, Norlander et al. (2021) found that Uber drivers
reported greater intrinsic motivation and enjoyment of work compared
to taxi drivers, even though they were subject to higher levels of
monitoring and control via AI platforms. Clearly, there is a need to
further investigate the AI and human resource intersection from var-
ious angles.

Limitations and future directions

The limitations of our study highlight new avenues for further research.
The preliminary ideas that emerge from the current study prompt fur-
ther data collection, thus, strengthening the qualitative work. Future
researchers may generate hypotheses based on the present study, gather
new data, and test the propositions using quantitative research design
towards generating an explanatory model for skills upgradation in the
context of AI. Further, while AI-systems facilitate problem-solving, it is
critical to account for the national cultural context for business decision
making. AI-based products and solutions are primarily data-driven and
data is highly contextual. As there are cultural differences across coun-
tries, this may be interesting to investigate in more depth. The current
study focused on employee upskilling for AI in a sample of informational
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138 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND INTERNATIONAL HRM

technology multinational corporations in India. Future research could

explore the adequate skill needs across different sectors with different
types of business ownership. MNCs in the IT sector may have a different
orientation as compared to a public limited company in the automobile
sector, for example.
Next, given that India has been in the lead of developing AI appli-
cations and in AI implementation, it is critical that scholars examine
the evolution of AI applications in the Indian context. This is critical
since India presents a paradoxical environment – a country with a large
population with the need for millions of jobs is also in the forefront
of developing AI-enabled applications that can replace human labor – as
in the case of a restaurant in Bengaluru using robots as waiters and a
school using robot as a teacher.
While our focus in the present study was primarily on the upskilling
of employees, future studies may examine other options to build the
workforce for the future, for instance, redeploying some employees with
specific skills within the organization to make better use of their skill-
sets. Alternatively, since redeploying does not upskill employees, recruit-
ing people with the desired skills maybe another worthy option. Several
firms are also using the services of freelancers or contract employees
than hiring a permanent employee. These independent workers not only
bring the necessary expertise but also seamlessly integrate into the
organization due to increased agility. Thus, future work may explore
what works best for organizations – upskilling existing employees or
redeploying existing employees or hiring new employees or outsourcing
the task. Finally, scholars should also examine the social and psycho-
logical impact of AI on those whose employment is made redundant
by these technologies, especially in a developing nation such as India.

Conclusion
The present study aimed to unearth the skills deemed critical for the
upskilling of employees to sustain employment and thrive in the era of
AI. Contemporary organizations do not consider AI as a competitor to
humans, rather they believe in the human–AI complementarity. Technology
complements and augments human capabilities towards enhancing business
growth. The study highlights five critical skills for employee upskilling
including data analysis, digital, complex cognitive, decision making and
continuous learning skills. Thus, the proposed shift in skill sets emphasizing
the development of higher cognitive and technological skills is a pivotal
step towards human–AI collaboration. Completely outsourcing intelligence
to machines will neither be useful nor ethical owing to the complex
socio-economic-political–cultural milieu in which the organizations are
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ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND INTERNATIONAL HRM 139

fabricated. Evolving to a higher collective intelligence with techno-cognitive

skills deems to be the most promising way forward. We are confident that
the present study has provided a roadmap for future research in this
nascent yet promising domain.

Notes
1. We thank an anonymous reviewer for this suggestion.
2. NASSCOM (National Association of Software and Services Companies) is the agen-
cy responsible for IT and ITeS sector in India).
3. We thank the Editors and an anonymous reviewer for this methodology.
4. Name of the chatbot is disguised to maintain organizational anonymity.

Acknowledgements
The lead author thanks Dr. Manu Jaiswal for his support in this research study and
constructive comments on the earlier versions of this paper.

Disclosure statement
The authors have no potential conflict of interest.

Geolocation information
The study was conducted in India (Asia).

ORCID
Akanksha Jaiswal http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8997-0668

Data availability statement

The authors confirm that the data supporting the findings of this study are available
within the article. Further details may not be available as it will compromise the privacy
of the research participants. For further clarifications, please contact the lead author.

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APPENDIX A
Interview schedule
1. Which skills according to you are critical for your upskilling to remain employ-
able and succeed in the AI era? What is the relevance of the skills you men-
tioned today?
2. Within the past 3 years, have you been upskilled/undergoing upskilling to
prepare for changes due to AI? Please provide some details such as the nature
of the upskilling program, module(s), and keywords.
3. Among the skills of relevance today, which skills will not require upskilling for
the AI era?
4. Company’s information: Headquarter, worldwide employee headcount, headcount
in India.
5. Personal information: Gender, job function, total years of work experience,
experience of AI implementation, and experience working with AI-enabled
services.