Year 8 Revision Summer Term 2021

Coral Reefs

http://www.slideshare.net/kevinrchapman/coral-reefs-
4069825

Look at the first 24 slides about coral reefs to help you

understand what they are.

Food webs: Here is one example of a food web in the coral reef
ecosystem.

First of all, the arrows indicate what is being eaten by what.

The organism at the head of the arrow eats the organism at the
other end of the arrow.

This particular food web starts with Phytoplankton, a

photosynthetic primary producer that receives its energy from
the sun and does not need to consume any organism.
The Phytoplankton is consumed by Zooplankton, a primary
consumer.
The Zooplankton is then consumed by some secondary
consumers: the Fan Worm, the Blue Chromis, the Sea Sponge,
the Coral Polyps.
The Fan Worm is eaten by the tertiary consumer, the puffer
fish.
The Coral Polyps are eaten by a tertiary consumer, the Sea
Slug.
The Sea Sponge is eaten by the angelfish.
Finally, the Angelfish, the Blue Chromis and the Butterfly Fish
are all consumed by the tertiary consumer, the reef shark also
known as a top predator.

Food chain terms

word meaning

producers Green plants and algae. They make food by

photosynthesis.

primary Usually eat plant material - they are herbivores.

consumers For example rabbits, caterpillars, cows and
sheep.

secondary Usually eat animal material - they are carnivores.

consumers For example cats, dogs and lions.

predators Kill for food. They are either secondary or

tertiary consumers
word meaning

prey The animals that predators feed on.

scavengers Feed on dead animals. For example, crows,

vultures and hyenas are scavengers.

decomposers Feed on dead and decaying organisms, and on the

undigested parts of plant and animal matter in
faeces.

Be aware of the problems affecting the coral reef ecosystem:

Crown-of-thorns starfish. Crown-of-thorns starfish are one of

the most damaging creatures of tropical coral reefs,
particularly Australia's Great Barrier Reef. They are voracious
predators that release the contents of their stomach onto the
coral. Digestive juices then liquify the coral ready for
consumption.

Lionfish

https://lionfish.co/why-are-lionfish-a-problem/

They invade areas they are not native to and create problems
by eating species which are now in decline.

Lionfish can eat prey over half the size of their own body as
long as it will fit into their mouths. Their stomach can expand up
to 30 times the normal volume and a lionfish will fill up to
capacity as soon as it is able. Lionfish are not picky eaters and
feed indiscriminately. Scientists have cataloged over 70
different species that lionfish will eat through stomach content
analysis. In addition to the fish they eat, they also eat
invertebrates and mollusks – shrimp, crabs, juvenile octopus,
squid, juvenile lobster, sea horses, etc.

The native species that invasive lionfish are feeding upon do not
recognize lionfish as a predator and flee. In fact, just the
opposite has been shown to be true. Small fish will often
congregate around a lionfish, most likely believing that the
lionfish’s long spines, fin rays and feathery pectoral fins offer
them shelter and protection from predators. However, when the
lionfish is ready to eat, these fish are herded into alcoves
where they cannot escape. Lionfish use lightning fast strikes
and gulp down dozens of whole fish at a time. Science has
demonstrated that a single lionfish can reduce native marine
creatures by 80% to 90% in its range within just 5 weeks.

Coral Bleaching in the sea

Coral bleaching occurs when coral polyps expel algae that lives
inside their tissues. Normally, coral polyps live in an
endosymbiotic relationship with the algae and that relationship
is crucial for the coral and hence for the health of the whole
reef. Bleached corals continue to live. But as the algae provide
the coral with up to 90% of its energy, after expelling the algae
the coral begins to starve. Above-average sea water
temperatures caused by global warming have been identified as
a leading cause for coral bleaching worldwide. Between 2014 and
2016, the longest global bleaching events ever were recorded.
According to the United Nations Environment Programme, these
bleaching events killed coral on an unprecedented scale. In
2016, bleaching hit 90 percent of coral on the Great Barrier
Reef and killed between 29 and 50 percent of the reef's coral.
In 2017, the bleaching further expanded to areas of the reef
that were previously spared, such as the central one.
Tourism

Consider ways that tourism has caused a problem for coral

reefs and how we can sustainably manage them to protect them.

Recreational activities can harm coral reefs through:

● Breakage of coral colonies and tissue damage from direct

contact such as walking, touching, kicking, standing, or gear
contact
● Breakage or overturning of coral colonies and tissue damage
from boat anchors
● Changes in marine life behavior from feeding or harassment
by humans
● Water pollution
● Invasive species
● Trash and debris deposited in the marine environment

Snorkel, Scuba and Trampling

Top: Careless diver damaging corals in Manado, Indonesia. Photo
© Shen Collazo/Marine Photobank
Bottom: Tourists trample over the reef in Ras Mohammed
National Park, Egypt. Photo © Howard Peters/Marine Photobank
2011
A number of studies document impacts to coral reefs from
divers and snorkelers. They can be caused by damage from fin
kicks, pushing or holding coral, dragging gear, and
kneeling/standing on coral. Not all divers cause the same amount
of damage.
SCUBA divers typically have more impacts on corals than
snorkelers, particularly divers wearing gloves and photographers
with equipment. ref This is because snorkelers mainly float
above the corals on the surface of the water, and damage to
corals is usually limited to shallow water areas where snorkelers
can either stand directly on or kick corals. ref
Studies suggest inexperienced divers cause greater damage
than more experienced divers, and only a small percentage of
divers are responsible for a majority of the impacts. ref Other
social factors have been identified which can influence damage
to reefs. For example, a recent study showed that the
nationality of visitors can have a greater impact on incidences
of reef damage than other factors such as dive experience and
ability. ref This suggests that user attitudes, perceptions, and
beliefs are just as important as the actual impacts that
recreational activities can have on reefs. It also suggests that
in some places, management strategies may need to be targeted
to specific user groups to reduce damage to reefs.

Brain coral showing damage from careless anchoring; photo was

taken five years after the event and shows little or no healing.
Photo © Joe Bartoszek 2010/Marine Photobank
Trampling of corals is also common on shallow, near-shore reef
flats and has led to extensive damage in areas with high levels
of human use.ref Shoreline access points where people stand or
wade to enter or exit the water can be particularly vulnerable
to trampling; in such areas coral mortality from substrate
contact can reach levels as high as 100%. ref Even in cases
where high mortality does not occur, trampling can result in
lower reproductive output for corals.ref
The incidences of coral damage from diver contact inspired the
concept of diver carrying capacity. ref While this approach has
been applied to numerous reefs throughout the tropics, some
conservation organizations suggest assessing carrying capacity
may have limited practical value. ref Quantifying carrying
capacity (pdf, 78k) can be challenging; it varies widely based on
ecological conditions of a reef, potential resilience of a reef,
and visitor behavior.

Anchor Damage
Boat anchors can cause considerable damage to coral reefs,
including coral breakage and fragmentation. Larger ship anchors
and heavy chains can break or dislodge corals, resulting in
damaging vast areas of coral reef. While smaller ships cause
less damage, areas of heavy recreational boating may also have
serious consequences for coral reefs. Anchoring impacts have
been partially alleviated due to the installation of mooring buoys
in many locations, but anchoring of small vessels on reefs
remains a chronic problem over reefs in many developing
countries. ref
Anchor damage on coral reefs can persist for many years. For
example, anchor damage on a reef in the Virgin Islands resulted
in a decrease in live coral cover, compared to coral cover on
adjacent undamaged reefs which remained ten years after the
damage occurred.ref Anchoring also damages reef-associated
habitats such as seagrasses, which provide important nursery
and juvenile habitats for many coral reef species.

Vessel Groundings
Vessel groundings can result in catastrophic effects on coral
reefs, not only smashing and dislodging corals, but shattering
the reef framework (e.g., in Florida and Bermuda ref). While
much of the large-scale damage to reefs has been caused by
freighters, similar damage is feasible from cruise ships. For
example, in the Virgin Islands, a 200 ft. long cruise ship
anchored in 4 meters depth had damaged coral communities
over an area of 5,300 square meters. ref
Impacts from vessel groundings can range from a few hundred
square meters to several hundred thousand square meters of
coral reef. ref Such impacts are magnified when combined with
associated impacts including fuel spills, leaching of toxins, and
even sinking when the vessel cannot be salvaged. Factors that
affect the extent of impact include the size of the vessel, the
coral cover in the collision area, the socioeconomic capacity of
the region to address the collision, weather conditions following
the grounding, and ecological conditions affecting recovery (e.g.,
presence of factors that support coral settlement and growth).
ref

Changes in the Behavior of Aqua Marine Life

Top: Tourists feeding native coral reef fish in Hawaii.

Bottom: A snorkeling tourist reaches to touch a sea turtle in
Hawaii.
Photos © Ziggy Livnat, For the Sea Productions/Marine
Photobank
Marine life interactions, such as fish feedings and encounters
with charismatic or rare species, are increasingly popular
activities for divers and snorkelers. Recreational impacts on
marine ecosystems and species may be caused by diver presence
or harassment, or from the feeding of marine life. In some
cases, diving has been shown to reduce fish abundance at high-
use sites (e.g., Kaneohe Bay, Oahu),ref while in other areas, no
significant effects on reef fish communities have been
observed (e.g., Bonaire). ref
Fish feeding has been shown to result in a number of negative
changes in fish behavior, including changes in time spent
obtaining food, the size of the animal’s home range,
reproductive activity, population density, migration patterns,
and species composition due to an increase in the larger, more
aggressive species. ref Fish feeding has also been shown to
greatly increase the aggressive behavior of the larger species
and may result in divers being bitten.

Water Pollution
Research demonstrates the adverse effects of pollution from
sediment and chemicals on coral reefs, but limited studies
address the role of recreational activities in exacerbating these
effects. Tour boats can release human waste and gray-water
discharge which can damage reefs, particularly in enclosed bays
with limited water circulation. Antifouling agents may also cause
damage to marine ecosystems. For example, tributyltin (TBT) is
used as a paint additive on boat hulls, docks, and fishnets to
discourage growth of marine organisms and is extremely toxic
to some marine organisms. Sunscreen can also cause significant
damage to corals in areas prone to high levels of recreational
use by humans. ref

Invasive Species
Invasive species can be spread through tourism and recreational
activities such as through transportation of ballast water, hull
fouling of cruise ships, and fouling from recreational boating
(e.g., from hulls, outboard motors, live wells, water lines, fishing
gear and debris).
The main approaches to managing recreational activities in coral
reef areas include reducing the level of use at certain sites
(e.g., through restricting access) and reducing the impacts of
use through modifications in human behavior (e.g., educating
reef users to discourage destructive actions, and imposing
regulations prohibiting certain destructive actions).

Sustainable Lifestyles

Farming

There are 3 main farming types that you must know:

Arable farming

Farms growing crops e.g barley, wheat or potatoes.

Mixed farming

A combination of arable and livestock although one or the other

may dominate.

Pastoral (livestock) farming

Farms that rear animals e.g sheep and cattle.

Factors affecting farming

● Physical factors (or natural inputs)

● Human factors (or economic/political inputs)

Farmers are decision makers. Their aim is to make a profit and

survive on the land. The physical and human factors which
affect each farm will influence the farmers actions and what he
can do with his farm.
 Farm diversification
Farming in the UK today is no longer as profitable for
everybody as it has been. Reasons for this are:
● Supermarkets buy in bulk and are driving down the price of the
food
● Imported food is often cheaper
● Mechanization and changes to grants have meant smaller farms
and hill farms go out of business
Farms can diversify to try and keep making money. This means
that the farm will start to create other areas of income, such
as creating a tourist attraction, offering bed and breakfast or
selling produce via a farm shop. Some farms may also close and
start a different business on the land.

https://www.bbc.com/bitesize/guides/ztrvtyc/revision/1

Have a go at this quiz:-

https://www.educationquizzes.com/gcse/geography/intensive-
farming-and-the-environment/

You need to think about what intensive farming is and how it

might affect the countryside. There are many important ideas
in the following revision site which will remind you about
inorganic and organic farming activities.

https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/ztrvtyc/revision/1