Gr10 LifeSciences Teacher Eng

TEACHER’
SGUI
DE
EVERYTHING SCIENCE
GRADE 10 LIFE SCIENCES

TEACHERS’ GUIDE
VERSION 1 CAPS
WRITTEN BY VOLUNTEERS
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Siyavula Authors
Megan Beckett; Vinayak Bhardwaj; Melanie Hay; Ewald Zietsman
Siyavula and DBE team

Dr. Erica Makings; Dr. Mark Horner; Bridget Nash; Delita Otto; Marthélize Tredoux; Heather
Williams; Kanthan Naidoo; Susan Wiese; Rebecca Govender; Albert Lethole
Siyavula contributors
Shireen Amien; Bianca Amos-Brown; Julia Baum; Marvin Patrick Bester; Jennifer de Beyer ; Vinayak
Bhardwaj; Ingrid Bunge; Anine Burger; Ashley Chetty; Alec Chinhengo; Mari Clark; Hillette Coetzee;
Zelmari Coetzee; Rosemary Dally; Carol Drew; Sariana Faure; Shaun Garnett; Danuelle Geldenhuys;
Sanette Gildenhuys; Dr Kerry Gordon; Raedene Gouldie; Umeshree Govender; Veeraj Goyaram; Martli
Greyvenstein; Suzanne Grové; Henré Hanekom; Pauline Hanekom; Melanie Hay; Pierre van Heerden;
Dr Fritha Hennessy; Anna Herrington; Jess Hitchcock; Dr Ardil Jabar; Mohamed Jaffer; Reginald Jako;
Miles Jarvis; Jaisubash Jayakumar; Laura Kannemeyer; Mike Kendrick; Elvis Kidzeru; Hein Kriek; Elsabe
Kruger; Lounette Loubser; Thapelo Mahlangu; Dr Erica Makings; Dr Nayna Manga; Gary Mann; Peter
Mann; Hassiena Marriott; Nicole Masureik; Dr Thalassa Matthews; Cailey Mills; Emang Molojwane;
Christopher Muller; Corene Myburgh; Nithya Nagarajan; Eduan Naudé; Hlumani Ndlovu; Dr Natalie
Nieuwenhuizen; Edison Nyamayaro; Nkululeko Nyangiwe; Lucy Olivier; Jan Oosthuizen; Ronell Palm;
Koebraa Peters; Dr George S Petros; Poobalan Pillay; Bharati Ratanjee; Brice Reignier; Matthew Ridg-
way; Dominique Roberts; Dr Marian Ross; Dominique le Roux; Rhoda van Schalkwyk; Prof Trevor
Sewell; Hélène Smit; Lindri Steenkamp; Dr Angela Stott; Timo Tait; Rodney Titus; Katie Viljoen;
Alykhan Vira; Christina Visser; Hanri Visser; Miranda Waldron; Dr Karen Wallace; Rudi van der Walt;
Lesley Williams; Kate West
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hosting our authoring workshops.
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Contents
1 Introduction to Life Sciences 4

1.1 About this chapter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 What is Life Sciences? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Why study Life Sciences? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 How science works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5 Biological drawings and diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.6 Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.7 How to draw graphs in Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.8 Mathematical skills in Life Sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.9 Lab safety procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2 The chemistry of life 26

2.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.2 Molecules for life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.3 Inorganic compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.4 Organic compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.5 Vitamins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.6 Recommended Dietary Allowance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3 The basic units of life 64

3.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.2 Molecular make up of cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.3 Cell structure and function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.4 Cell organelles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
3.6 End of chapter exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4 Cell division 106

4.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.2 The cell cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
4.3 The role of mitosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
4.4 Cancer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.6 End of chapter exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
5 Plant and animal tissues 130

5.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
5.2 Tissues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
5.3 Plant tissues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
5.4 Animal tissues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
5.5 Applications of indigenous knowledge and biotechnology . . . . . . . . . . . 165
5.6 The leaf as an organ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
5.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
6 Support and transport systems in plants 184

6.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
6.2 Anatomy of dicotyledonous plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
6.3 Transpiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
6.4 Uptake of water and minerals in the roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
6.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
7 Support systems in animals 226

7.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
7.2 Skeletons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
7.3 Human skeleton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
7.4 Musculoskeletal tissues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
7.5 Human locomotion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
7.6 Muscle structure and function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
7.7 Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
7.8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
8 Transport systems in animals 260

8.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
8.2 Circulatory systems in animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
8.3 Lymphatic circulatory system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
8.4 Cardiovascular diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
8.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
9 Biospheres to ecosystems 298

9.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
9.2 Biosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
9.3 Biomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
9.4 Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
9.5 Ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
9.6 Energy flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
9.7 Nutrient cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
9.8 Ecotourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
9.9 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
10 Biodiversity and classification 350

10.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
10.2 Biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
10.3 Classification schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
10.4 Five kingdom system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
10.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
11 History of Life on Earth 372

11.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
11.2 Representations of life’s history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
11.3 Life’s History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
11.4 Mass extinctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
11.5 Impact of humans on biodiversity and environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
11.6 Fossil tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
11.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
2 CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1
Introduction to Life Sciences
1.1 About this chapter 4

1.2 What is Life Sciences? 4
1.3 Why study Life Sciences? 4
1.4 How science works 6
1.5 Biological drawings and diagrams 13
1.6 Tables 15
1.7 How to draw graphs in Science 15
1.8 Mathematical skills in Life Sciences 21
1.9 Lab safety procedures 23
1 Introduction to Life Sciences
1.1 About this chapter DUMMY
The aim of this chapter is to provide you with an overview of the skills that you develop
as you learn to become a Life Scientist. Living systems exhibit levels of organisation from
molecules to biomes. In addition, all life on earth is dynamic, with various processes main-
taining equilibrium at every level of organisation. The life forms we observe today are a
result of billions of years of change.
In this chapter you will learn how we gather evidence using the scientific method in order to
form theories to explain what we observe. The scientific method requires us to constantly re-
examine our understanding, by testing new evidence with our current theories and making
changes to those theories if the evidence does not meet the test. The scientific method
therefore is the powerful tool you will use throughout the Physical and Life Sciences.
1.2 What is Life Sciences? DUMMY
Life Sciences is the scientific study of living things from molecular level to the ecosystem
level, and involves a study of the interactions of organic molecules to the interactions of
animals and plants with their environment. The list below contains some of the various
branches of Life Sciences.
• Anatomy (plant and animal)

• Biochemistry
• Biotechnology
• Botany
• Ecology
• Entomology
• Environmental Studies
• Genetics
• Medicine
• Microbiology
• Morphology
• Physiology (plant and animal)
• Sociobiology (animal behaviour)
• Taxonomy
• Zoology
1.3 Why study Life Sciences? DUMMY
Here are some reasons to study Life Sciences:
4 1.1. About this chapter

• To increase knowledge of key biological concepts, processes, systems and theories.
• To develop the ability to critically evaluate and debate scientific issues and processes.
• To develop scientific skills and ways of thinking scientifically that enables you to see
the flaws in pseudo-science in popular media.
• To provide useful knowledge and skills that are needed in everyday living.
• To create a greater awareness of the ways in which biotechnology and knowledge of
Life Sciences has benefited humankind.
• To show the ways in which humans have impacted negatively on the environment and
organisms living in the environment.
• To develop a deep appreciation of the unique diversity of biomes In Southern Africa,
both past and present, and the importance of conservation.
• To create an awareness of what it means to be a responsible citizen in terms of the
environment and life-style choices that they make.
• To create an awareness of the contributions of South African scientists.
• To expose you to the range and scope of biological studies to stimulate interest in and
create awareness of possible specialities and fields of study.
• To provide sufficient background for further studies and careers in one or more of the
biological sub-disciplines.
An A to Z of possible careers in Life Sciences DUMMY
Ever wondered what you can do with Life Sciences after school? Below are some careers
which you could study:
• Agronomist: someone who works to improve the quality and production of crops.
• Animal scientist: a researcher in selecting, breeding, feeding and managing of domes-
tic animals, such as cows, sheep and pigs.
• Biochemist: someone who investigates the chemical composition and behaviour of
the molecules that make up living things and uses this knowledge to try understand
the causes of diseases and find cures.
• Botanist: someone who studies plants and their interaction with the environment.
• Developmental biologist: studies the development of an animal from the fertilised egg
through to birth.
• Ecologist: a person who looks at the relationships between organisms and their envi-
ronment.
• Food Scientist: someone who studies the biological, chemical and physical nature of
food to ensure it is safely produced, preserved and stored, and they also investigate
how to make food more nutritious and flavourful.
• Geneticist: a researcher who studies inheritance and conducts experiments to inves-
tigate the causes and possible cures of inherited genetic disorders and how traits are
passed on from one generation to the next.
• Horticulturalist: a person who works in orchards and with garden plants and they aim
to improve growing and culturing methods for home owners, communities and public
areas.
• Marine biologist: a researcher who studies the relationships between plants and ani-
mals in the ocean and how they function and develop. They also investigate ways to
minimise human impact on the ocean and its effects, such as over fishing and pollu-
tion.
Chapter 1. Introduction to Life Sciences 5

• Medical doctor or nurse: someone who uses the current latest understanding of the
causes and treatments for disease to treat people who are ill or improve a person’s
well-being.
• Medical illustrator: someone who illustrates and draws parts of the human body to be
used in textbooks, publications and presentations.
• Microbiologist: a researcher who studies microscopic organisms such as bacteria,
viruses, algae and yeast and investigates how these organisms affect animals and plants.
• Nutritionist: someone who gives advice to individuals or groups on good nutritional
practices to either maintain or improve their health and to live a healthy lifestyle.
• Palaeontologist: a researcher who studies fossils of plants and animals to trace and
reconstruct evolution, prehistoric environments and past life.
• Pharmacologist: a scientist who develops new or improved drugs or medicines and
conducts experiments to test the effects of drugs and any undesirable side effects.
• Physiologist: a researcher who studies the internal functions animals and plants during
normal and abnormal conditions.
• Science teacher: someone who helps students in different areas of science, whether it
is at primary school, high school or university.
• Science writer: someone who writes and reports about scientific issues, new discover-
ies or researcher, or health concerns for newspapers, magazines, books, television and
radio.
• Veterinarian: someone who looks after the health and wellbeing of pets, domestic
animals, animals in game parks and zoos.
• Zoologist: a researcher who studies the behaviour, interactions, origins and life pro-
cesses of different animal groups.
1.4 How science works DUMMY
Science investigation and research requires many skills and processes to come together in
order to be successful and worthwhile.
• To be accepted as a science, certain methods for broadening existing knowledge, or

discovering new things, are generally used.
• These methods must be repeatable and follow a logical approach.
• The methods include formulating hypotheses and carrying out investigations and ex-
periments to test the hypothesis.
• Crucial skills are making objective observations, taking measurements, collecting in-
formation and presenting the results in the form of drawings, written explanations,
tables and graphs.
• A scientist must learn to identify patterns and relationships in data.
• It is very important to then communicate these findings to the public in the form of
scientific publications, at conferences, in articles or TV or radio programmes.
Scientific method DUMMY
The scientific method is the basic skill process in the world of science. Since the beginning
of time humans have been curious as to why and how things happen in the world around
us. The scientific method provides scientists with a well structured scientific platform to help
find the answers to their questions. Using the scientific method there are very few things we
6 1.4. How science works

can’t investigate. Recording and writing up an investigation is an integral part of the scientific
method.
A step-by-step guide to the scientific method
1. The question
Scientists are curious people, and most investigations arise from a scientist noticing some-
thing that they don’t understand. Therefore the first step to any scientific investigation is:
• Ask a question to which you want to find an answer.

– What is happening?
– How is it happening?
– When is it occurring?
– Why is it happening?
• Example: A farmer notices that his tomato plants that are shaded have smaller tomatoes
than his plants that are in a sunny spot, which makes him wonder: ’Does the amount
of sunlight a tomato plant receives affect the size of tomatoes?’

Figure 1.1: Overview of scientific method.
2. Introduction
Once you have a general question, background research needs to be undertaken. Your
background research will ensure that you are not investigating something that has already
been researched and answered. It will also tell you about interesting connections, theories,
explanations and methods that people have used in the past to answer questions related
to yours. Science always builds on the work of others, and it ensures that our theories are
constantly improved and refined. It is important to acknowledge the work of the people upon
whose work your theory relies in the form of referencing. It is also vital to communicate your
findings so that future scientists can use use your work as a basis for future research.
3. Identify variables
Your background research will help you identify the factors that influence your question.
Factors that might change during the experiment are called variables.

• Firstly think of all the relevant variables you can change.
• Secondly think of all the variables you can measure or observe.
Different types of variables are given special names. Below is a list of some important
variable types:
• The dependent variable is the thing that you want to measure or investigate.
• The independent variable is a factor (or factors) that changes which will have an effect
on the dependent variable.
• In every experiment you need to know which independent variable you are testing,
and keep all the other possible variables constant. We call the the variables we keep
constant fixed variables, or controlled variables
Example: In this investigation, variables might include: the amount of sunshine, the types
of soil in which the tomatoes are growing, the water available to each of the plants, etc. To
which variable type does each factor belong?
• Dependent variable is the one you measure to get the results, e.g. the mass of tomatoes
• Independent variable is the ONE thing you vary to see how it affects the dependent
variable, e.g. how much light the tomatoes are exposed to (dark / dim light or shade /
bright light)
• Fixed/ Controlled variables are kept the same in all trials under investigation, because
they may interfere with the results. All tomato plants will:
– Be the same species of tomato
– Get the same fertiliser (type and amount)
– Grow in the same type of soil
– Grow in the same type of container
– Get the same amount of water
– Can you think of more?
4. Hypothesis
Write down a statement or prediction as to what you think will be the outcome or result of
your investigation. This is your hypothesis. The hypothesis should:
• be specific
• relate directly to the question you are asking
• be expressed as a statement that includes the variables involved (the ‘cause’ and ‘ef-
fect’)
• be testable
• not expressed as a question but rather as a prediction
• be written in the future tense
Example: During your background research you would have learnt that tomatoes need sun-
shine to make food through photosynthesis. You may predict that plants that get more sun
will make more food and grow bigger. In this case your hypothesis would be: I think that the
more sunlight a tomato plant receives, the larger the tomatoes will grow’.

NOTE:
A scientific investigation does not aim to prove a particular event occurs or a particular rela-
tionship exists. Rather, an investigation shows that it cannot disprove a particular suggestion
or prediction. Therefore, it is important to note that an incorrect prediction does not mean
that you have failed. It means that the experiment has brought some new facts to light that
you might not have thought of before. Therefore even if your hypothesis (prediction) turns
out to be wrong, DO NOT go back and change the hypothesis!
To test the hypothesis in life Sciences, you can follow the step-by-step guide which is outlined
below.
5. Aim
• In the aim you need to state what you going to be investigating.

• Key words you can use are:
– To determine...
– To show that...
– To investigate...
– To find out...
– To observe...
– To measure...
Example: In this case, your aim would be: to investigate the effect of different amounts of
sunlight on tomatoes.
NOTE:
In science we never ‘prove’ a hypothesis through a single experiment because there is a
chance that you made an error somewhere along the way, or there may be an alternate
explanation for the results that you observe. What you can say is that your results SUPPORT
the original hypothesis.
6. Apparatus
All the apparatus that you will need for the investigation needs to be listed.
• Sizes of beakers, test tubes and measuring cylinders

• Specialised equipment that you may need must also be included (make sure that this
equipment is available for your research).
• Include all chemicals and quantities that are required for your investigation.
7. Method
The next step is to test your hypothesis. An experiment is a tool that you design to find out
if your ideas about your question are right or wrong. You must design an experiment that
accurately tests your hypothesis. The experiment is the most important part of the scientific
method. We will discuss independent and dependent variables as well as controls later.
These are all important concepts to know when designing an experiment. In science, another
researcher may want to repeat your method, to verify your results, improve it or do a variation
of your experiment. Listing the apparatus helps others to verify that you used a suitable
method, and enables them to replicate the experiment.
• Write down the scientific method in bullet format for your investigation.

• The method should be written so that a complete stranger will be able to carry out the
same procedure in the exact same way and get almost identical results.
• The method should be written in the past tense using the passive voice.
• The method must be clear and precise instructions including
– the apparatus
– exact measurements or quantities of chemicals or substances
• Ensure that your method is written out in the correct sequence, with each step of the
experiment numbered.
• State the criteria you will look for or measure to get results.
• Give clear instructions how the results should be recorded (table, graph etc.)
• Include safety precautions where possible.
8. Results
• Record your observations from doing the investigation.

• It is important that you do not write out an explanation for the results.
• Present your results in a suitable format such as tables and graphs.
• It is also important to note that not getting the result you expected is still a result. Even
if there is no change at all, this is still a result that needs to be recorded.
9. Analysis of results or Discussion
• The analysis of the results is stating in words what the results are often saying in ta-
bles/graphs.
• Discuss if there are there any relationships between your independent and dependent
variables.
• It is important to look for patterns/trends in your graphs or tables and describe these
clearly in words.
10. Evaluation of results
• This is where you answer the question “What do the results mean?”
• You need to carefully consider the results :
– Were there any unusual results? If so then these should be discussed and possible
reasons for them can be given.
– Discuss how you ensured the validity and reliability of the investigation.
∗ Vailidity: Was it a fair test and did it test what it set out to test?
∗ Reliability: If the experiment were to be repeated would the results obtained
be similar?
– The best way to ensure reliability is to repeat the experiment several times and
obtain an average.
– Discuss any experimental errors that may have occurred during the experiment.
These can include errors in the methods and apparatus used and what make
suggestions what could be done differently next time.
11. Conclusion
The conclusion needs to link the results to the aim and hypothesis. In a short paragraph,
write down if what was observed is supported or rejected by the hypothesis by restating the

variables that were tested. If your original hypothesis does not match up with the final results
of your experiment, do not change the hypothesis. Instead, try and explain what might have
been wrong with your original hypothesis. What information did you not have originally that
cause you to be wrong in your prediction.
• Example: after conducting your experiment you may have found that tomato plants that
received more sunlight grew larger than tomato plants grown in the shade or without
light. Therefore you might conclude your investigation with the following:
– It was clear that tomato plants form bigger tomatoes when they are exposed to
bright sunlight. The original hypothesis was supported.
Important principles and relationships in Life Sciences DUMMY
Surface area and volume
Depending on the system it is advantageous to either have a large surface to volume ratio or
a small surface to volume ratio
Teacher’s Guide
The concept of surface area to volume ratio is difficult for some learners to grasp. The
following explanation may help them to understand the concept better:
• Think of a piece of clay or Prestik. If we roll it into a ball, that ball has a certain volume
(how much clay there is) and a certain surface area (how much of its surface is exposed
to the air).
• Surface area is measured in SQUARE CM or cm2, while volume is measured in CUBIC
CM or cm3.
• This is important – if they are measured in different units, we cannot say ’surface area
is bigger than volume’. It’s like trying to decide whether 5kg is smaller than R20! It
makes no sense.
• So our ball of clay has a surface area of say 50 cm2 and a volume of say 150 cm3. This
is a relatively large volume compared to a relatively small surface area – it is called a
small surface to volume ratio.
• If the same ball of clay is now flattened into a log thin strip like a ruler, the volume is
still the same (we have not removed or added any clay), but the surface area is much
more. It now has a volume of 150 cm3 and a surface area of say 500 cm2. This is
called a large surface to volume ratio.
• Surface to volume ratio is critical in Life Science – an animal with a flat or very small
body has a bigger surface to volume ratio than an animal with a rounder or bigger body.
The first animal will be able to distribute nutrients and gases by means of DIFFUSION,
while the second animal will have to have a BLOOD SYSTEM.
• In plants, surface to volume ratio has a direct effect on how easily a plant dehydrates
– leaves, for example, must have a large surface to volume ratio to absorb as much
light as possible, so they have to have special structures like cuticles / hairs to prevent
dehydration.
This is highlighted in the following examples:
• Flatworms and leeches have more surface area to volume to increase the area for

diffusion for nutrients and respiratory gases across their whole bodies.
• In animals the shapes of organs are defined by surface area to volume requirements.
For example, in the lungs there are many branches to increase the surface area through
which gases can be exchanged.
• Cells with a greater volume compared to surface area are able to metabolise more and
ingest and excrete more through the membrane.
Structure and function
In living organisms, the structure of a particular biological feature is related to what function
it performs. Thus for all the structures you will study in Life Sciences, the important questions
to ask are the following:
1. What makes this structure suited to its function?

2. How has the structure adapted to its function?
3. Why is this structure so efficient for its function?
1.5 Biological drawings and diagrams DUMMY
Drawings and diagrams are an essential part of communication in science, and especially
Life Sciences. Remember it is not an artwork or sketch! But rather it is a clear representation
of what you observe which can be used to interpret what you saw.
Some rules to follow
Drawings and diagrams must:
• Be drawn in a sharp pencil for clear, smooth lines.

• Be large so that all structures can be clearly seen (at least 10 lines of paper).
• Be drawn in the middle of the page.
• Be two dimensional (no shading)!
• Have a heading or caption.
• Specify the section in which the specimen was sliced, i.e. transverse section (T/S),
cross section (C/S), or longitudinal section (L/S).
• State the source of the drawing or diagram, i.e. From a biological specimen, a micro-
graph or a slide.
• Indicate the magnification or scale of the drawing, either in the caption or in the corner
of the drawing.
• Label lines should be drawn and they must:
– be parallel to the top of the page and drawn with a ruler.
– not cross each other or have an arrow at the end.
– clearly indicate the structure which is being named.
– be aligned neatly, one below the other and preferably on one side of the page,
unless there are many labels in which both sides can be used.

Activity: Identifying the key aspects of producing biological drawings
Instructions:
Make a list of what makes the above drawings good and bad.
Figure 1.2: Identify the features of the images that make each one good or bad.
Teacher’s Guide
TOP DRAWING IS GOOD, BECAUSE:
• Cells are drawn neatly, with continuous lines, not sketched

• The nuclei are circular and not coloured in / shaded
• Label lines end on the part indicated
• Label lines are parallel to each other and all end in one vertical line
LOWER DRAWING IS BAD, BECAUSE:
• Cell walls are roughly sketched

• The nuclei are shaded / coloured in
• Label line for ‘cell wall’ doesn’t touch any part of the drawing
• Label lines cross each other
• Lines do not end in one vertical line
14 1.5. Biological drawings and diagrams

Two-dimensional (2-D) and three-dimensional (3-D) diagrams DUMMY
Objects in Life Science can be drawn in three dimensions because they have depth.
Diagrams of apparatus are generally drawn in two-dimensions so that the shape of each item
of apparatus is simplified and looks similar to a section through the apparatus.
1.6 Tables DUMMY
What is a table?
• A table is a summary of data, using as few words as possible.

• It is a grid divided up into rows and columns.
• The heading is placed above the table.
• The heading should include both variables under investigation- the dependent and
independent variables.
• Independent variable is placed in the first column.
• The column headings should mention the units that were used, eg. grams, hours,
km/hr, cm.
When to use a table?
• To summarise information.
• To compare related things or aspects.
• To record the results of an experiment.
• To illustrate patterns and trends.
• To record the data which will be used to construct a graph.
1.7 How to draw graphs in Science DUMMY
Presenting data graphically

Line Graphs
Line graphs are used when:
• The relationship between the dependent and independent variables is continuous.

• Both dependent and independent variables are measured in numbers.
Features of line graphs:
• An appropriate scale is used for each axis so that the plotted points use most of the
axis/space (work out the range of the data and the highest and lowest points).
• The scale must remain the SAME along the entire axis and use easy intervals such as
10’s, 20’s, 50’s, and not intervals such as 7’s, 14’s, etc, which make it difficult to read
information off the graph.
• Each axis must be labelled with what is shown on the axis and must include the
appropriate units in brackets, e.g. Temperature (◦ C), Time (days), Height (cm).
• Each point has an x and y co-ordinate and is plotted with a symbol which is big enough
to see, e.g. a cross or circle.
• The points are then joined.
• With a ruler if the points lie in a straight line (see Figure 3) or you can draw a line of
best fit where the number of points are distributed fairly evenly on each side of the
line.
• Freehand when the points appear to be following a curve (see Figure 4).
• DO NOT start the line at the origin unless there is a data point for 0. If there is no
reading for 0, then start the line at the first plotted point.
• The graph must have a clear, descriptive title which outlines the relationship between
the dependent and independent variable.
• If there is more than one set of data drawn on a graph, a different symbol must be used
for each set and a key or legend must define the symbols.
16 1.7. How to draw graphs in Science

FACT
Table headings are
always written
ABOVE the table.
Graph headings are
always written
BELOW the graph.
Figure 1.3: Graph showing change in plant height over 10 days
Bar Graphs
Bar graphs are used when:
• The independent variable is discontinuous (i.e. The variables on the x-axis are each
associated with something different)
• Independent variables are not numerical. For example, when examining the protein
content of various food types, the order of the food types along the horizontal axis is
irrelevant.
Bar graphs have the following features:
• The data are plotted as columns or bars that do not touch each other as each deals
with a different characteristic.
• The bars must be the same width and be the same distance apart from each other.
• A bar graph can be displayed vertically or horizontally.
• A bar graph must have a clear, descriptive title, which is written beneath the graph.
Figure 1.4: Bar graph showing how many learners use each type of transport
Histograms

Histograms are used when the independent variable (x-axis) represents information which is
continuous, such as numerical ranges, i.e. 0-9, 10-19, 20-29, etc.
Histograms have the following features:
• Unlike a bar graph, in a histogram the data are plotted as columns or bars that touch
each other as they are related to each other in some way.
• The numerical categories must not overlap, for example, 0-10, 10-20, 20-30, etc. The
ranges must be exclusive so that there is no doubt as to where to put a reading, for
example, 0-9, 10-19, 20-29, etc.
• The bars can be vertically or horizontally drawn.
• A histogram must have a descriptive heading with is written below the graph
• and the axes must be labelled.
Figure 1.5: A histogram showing the number of learners in a Grade 10 Life sciences class with a
particular percentage test score
Pie charts DUMMY
• You want to give a visual representation of percentages as a relative proportion of the

total of a circle.
• They are a type of graph even though they do not have any axes.
• A pie chart is a circle divided into sectors (think of them as the slices of a cake).
• 100% represents the whole complete circle, 50% represents a half circle, 25% is a
quarter circle, and so on.
Example:
1. Count the number of each species and record it in a table.

2. Work out the total number of species in the ecosystem.
3. Calculate the percentage of each species.
4. Use the following formula to work out the angle of each slice:
v × 360◦
a=
t

Species No of % Slice angle
types
Insects 17
17 × 100 34 × 360
= 34% = 122,4◦
50 100
Plants 16
16 × 100 16 × 360
= 32% = 115,2◦
50 100
Birds 9
9 × 100 18 × 360
= 18% = 65◦
50 100
Amphibians 8
8 × 100 16 × 360
= 16% = 57,6◦
50 100
Table 1.1: Table showing recordings and calculations for construction of a pie chart
1. Use a compass to draw the circle and a protractor to measure accurate angles for each
slice.
2. Start with the largest angle/percentage starting at 12 o’ clock and measure in a clock-
wise direction.
3. Shade each slice and write the percentage on the slice and provide a key.
Figure 1.6: Pie chart showing the relative proportions of different categories of organisms in an
ecosystem
Activity: Converting tables to graphs
Reason:

It is very important to be able to convert tables to graphs, and vice versa. Below are some
exercises to practice this.
Questions:
1. Convert the data in the graphs below into Tables. Remember to identify which is the
independent variable in the graphs and to place this in the first column of the Table.
Figure 1.7: The average height in boys and girls between the ages of 10 and 18 years.
Figure 1.8: Proportion of each blood group in a small population.
2. Convert the data in the following tables into graphs. Look back at the features of each
type of graph to decide which one you will use.
Favourite take away restaurant in a class of learners
Take aways restaurant Learners (%)

Kauai 40
Anat Falafel 15
Nandos 25
Burger King 20
Teacher’s Guide

(1) Table to show the average height of boys and girls at different ages:
Age Height (cm) Boys Height (cm) Girls

10 140 140
11 145 148
12 149 151
13 153 158
14 163 160
15 168 161
16 172 163
17 174 163
18 174 163
(2) Table to show the proportion of each blood group in a small population:
Blood group Proportion of learners (%)

AB 5
A 40
B 10
O 45
1.8 Mathematical skills in Life Sciences DUMMY
Mathematical skills are important in Life Sciences. Below are explanations of some of the
skills you will encounter.
NB. You must state the UNITS at the end of each calculation, e.g. cm, degrees, kg, etc.
Scales
A scale is given in a diagram, drawing or electron micrograph so that the actual size of the
object that is being shown can be determined. The object could be bigger or smaller in real
life.
Example: To measure the diameter of a chloroplast with a scale line of 1 µm.
1) Measure the length of the scale line on the micrograph in mm, e.g. 1 µm = 17mm
2) Measure the diameter of the organelle in millimetres, e.g. = 60mm
3) True diameter of chloroplast:
measured size × true length of scale line

=
measured length of scale line
60 mm × 1 µm
=
17 mm
= 3,53 µm
Averages

To find an average of a set of numbers, you add all the items and divide the total by the
number of items.
Example: Find the average height in a class of 10 learners with the following heights in cm:
173, 135, 142, 167, 189, 140, 139, 164, 172, 181 cm.
Total = 1602 (add all 10 heights together)
Average
1602
Average =
10
= 160,2 cm
Percentages
To calculate a percentage, multiply the fraction by 100.
Formula for calculating percentage (%):
Number with feature (A)

Percentage = times100
Total number (B)
Example: Calculate the percentage of learners in your class that are left-handed.
1) Count how many learners are left handed (A).
2) Count the total number of learners in the class (B).
There are 48 learners and 4 of them are left handed.
Therefore, % of left-handed:
A
= × 100
B
4
= × 100
48
= 8,3%
8,3% of the learners in your class are left-handed.
The percentage of right-handed learners:
= 100 − 8,3
= 91,7%
91,7% of the learners in your class are right-handed.
Some conversions
22 1.8. Mathematical skills in Life Sciences

From unit: To unit (number of these units per “From unit”):
m mm µm nm
m 1 1000 1 000 000 1 000 000 000
mm 10−3 or 1/1000 1 1000 1 000 000
µm 10−6 or 10−3 or 1/1000 1 1000
(micrometres) 1/1 000 000
nm 10−9 or 10−6 or 10−3 or 1/1000 1
(nanometres) 1/1 000 000 000 1/1 000 000
1.9 Lab safety procedures DUMMY
The Life Science Laboratory has rules that are enforced as a safety precaution.
These rules are:
• Take care when pouring liquids or powders from one container to another. When
spillages occur you need to call the teacher immediately to assist in cleaning up the
spillage.
• Take care when using acids. A good safety precaution is to have a solution of sodium
bicarbonate in the vicinity to neutralise any spills as quickly as possible.
• Safety goggles and/ or gloves may need to be worn when doing experimental work,
working with various chemicals, or heating substances, as spitting may occur.
• When lighting a Bunsen burner the correct procedure needs to be followed.
• Remember that when heating a substance in a test tube, the mouth of the test tube
must face away from you and members in your group.
• Do not to overheat the solution when heating substances in a test tube.
• Ensure that you are dressed appropriately: hair should be tied back and loose clothing
that could potentially knock over the equipment or catch alight if too near a flame
should be avoided.
• Before doing any scientific experiment make sure that you know where the fire extin-
guishers are in your laboratory and there should also be a bucket of sand to extinguish
fires.
• If scalpel blades, pins and knives are used, take care not to cut yourself. If you do cut
yourself and draw blood call the teacher immediately.
• When working with chemicals and gases that are hazardous a fume cupboard should
be used.

CHAPTER 2
The chemistry of life
2.1 Overview 26
2.2 Molecules for life 27
2.3 Inorganic compounds 27
2.4 Organic compounds 32
2.5 Vitamins 50
2.6 Recommended Dietary Allowance 52
2.7 Summary 54
2 The chemistry of life
2.1 Overview DUMMY
Introduction DUMMY
In this chapter we will study the molecular structure and biological functions of key molecules
important to life. We will study the chemistry of proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, vitamins and
nucleic acids and will learn the role of each nutrient class in plant and animal life. We will
also learn how our diet allows us to obtain sufficient quantities of each of these nutrients.
Key concepts
• Organic molecules always contain carbon (C), and usually also contain hydrogen (H)
and oxygen (O). Some important organic molecules also contain nitrogen (N), phos-
phorous (P), sulfur (S), iron (Fe) and other elements.
• Water (H2 O) is an inorganic compound made up of two H and one O. Water helps with
temperature regulation, form and support, transport and lubrication and is a medium
for chemical reactions.
• Minerals are required as part of a healthy diet. A deficit in essential minerals results in
deficiency diseases in plants and animals.
• Fertilizers are a way that essential nutrients can be added to the soil to improve plant
growth.
• Carbohydrates are made up of C, H and O. They can be in the form of monosaccha-
rides (single sugars), disaccharides (double sugars) or polysaccharides (many sugars),
and are an important energy source for plants and animals.
• Lipids are made up of C, H and O. Triglycerides are a type of lipid that contains glycerol
and three fatty acid chains. Cholesterol, another type of lipid, can increase the risk of
heart disease.
• Proteins are made up of C, H, O, N, and some have P, S and Fe. Proteins consist of
a long chain of amino acids that fold into a very specific three-dimensional structure.
Proteins are an important building block in plants and animals and play a role in the
immune system and in cell communication.
• Enzymes are a type of protein that act as a biological catalyst to speed up reactions.
They work by a ”lock and key” mechanism and are affected by temperature and pH.
• Nucleic acids such as DNA and RNA are made of C, H, O, N and P. DNA contains
the genetic information for heredity, and RNA has the instructions on how to make
protein.
• Vitamins are important organic molecules that must be obtained in the diet. They
often help enzymes to work properly, or act in growth or differentiation.
In order to understand the chemistry of living systems, it is important to understand how all
living systems are arranged from the smallest unit (atomic scale) to the largest unit (ecosys-
tems). A simple way to describe the levels of organisation of livings things can be given as
follows:
26 2.1. Overview
atom →molecule→cell→tissue→organ→organism→ecosystem FACT
Because all
compounds contain
more than one
2.2 Molecules for life DUMMY atom, all
compounds are
molecules.
Although life at the macro level is diverse, the chemistry making up that life is remarkably However, not all
molecules are
similar. All living things are made up of basic building blocks called elements. An element is
compounds.
a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances using chemical means. Car-
bon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, calcium, sodium and iron are examples of elements FACT
you will come across in Life Sciences. WATCH: simulation
on building a
Each element is distinguished by the composition of its atom. An atom is the basic unit of molecule
See video:
matter. Molecules are formed when one or more atoms are covalently bonded together. The
SHORTCODE at
atoms of a molecule can be identical, such as 02 or H2 or differ such as H2 O. A compound www.everythingscience.
is formed when atoms of different elements join together.
Compounds are divided into organic and inorganic compounds. Organic compounds al-
ways contain carbon, but not all compounds that contain carbon are organic. A general
rule of thumb is that organic compounds contain carbon, with at least one of these car-
bons bonded to hydrogen atoms. Carbon dioxide is therefore an inorganic compound even
though it contains carbon. The major organic compounds found in living organisms include:
carbohydrates, fats, proteins and nucleic acids. These will be discussed in detail later in
this chapter.
Substance Percentage
Inorganic
Water 65%
Mineral salts 1%
Organic
Protein 18%
Carbohydrate 5%
Other organic macromolecules 1%
Table 2.1: The composition of macromolecules in humans by percentage.
2.3 Inorganic compounds DUMMY
The role of water in the maintenance of life DUMMY
As mentioned in Table 2.1, up to 65% of our bodies are made up of water. Water is an
inorganic compound made up of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. Its molecular
formula is H2 O. Water plays an important role in the maintenance of biological systems.
Temperature regulation: in humans, the sweat glands produce sweat which cools the body
as it evaporates from the body surface in a process called perspiration. In a similar way, plants
are cooled by the loss of water vapour from their leaves, in a process called transpiration.
Form and support: water is an important constituent of the body and plays an important role
in providing form and support in animals and plants. Animals, such as worms and jellyfish,
Chapter 2. The chemistry of life 27

use water in special chambers in their body to give their bodies support. This use of water
pressure to provide body form, and enable movement is called a hydrostatic skeleton . Plants
grow upright and keep their shape due to the pressure of water ( turgor pressure) inside the
cells.
Transport medium: water transports substances around the body. For example, water is the
main constituent of blood and enables blood cells, hormones and dissolved gases, elec-
trolytes and nutrients to be transported around the body.
Lubricating agent: water is the main constituent of saliva which helps chewing and swallow-
ing and also allows food to pass easily along the alimentary canal. Water is also the main
constituent of tears which help keep the eyes lubricated.
Solvent for biological chemicals: the liquid in which substances dissolve is called a solvent.
Water is known as the universal solvent as more substances dissolve in water than in any
other liquid.
Medium in which chemical reactions occur: all chemical reactions in living organisms take
place in water.
Reactant: water takes place in several classes of chemical reactions. During hydrolysis reac-
tions, water is added to the reaction to break down large molecules into smaller molecules.
Water can also be split into hydrogen and oxygen atoms to provide energy for complex
chemical reactions such as photosynthesis.
Temperature Structure and support Lubrication
Figure 2.1:
(Attribution: ??)
Sweating helps Jellyfish and worms use a Water helps Water is an important
human bodies hydrostatic (water maintain the lubricant in the eye.
cool down. pressure) skeleton to upright structure
keep their body shape. of plants.
Minerals DUMMY
Dietary minerals are the chemical elements that living organisms require to maintain health.
In humans, essential minerals include calcium, phosphorous, potassium, sulfur, sodium,
chlorine and magnesium.
Macro-elements (macro-nutrients) are nutrients that are required in large quantities by living
organisms (e.g carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, potassium, sodium, calcium, chloride,
magnesium, phosphorus and sulfur).
28 2.3. Inorganic compounds

Micro-elements (micro-nutrients) are nutrients that are required in very small quantities for
development and growth and include iron, cobalt, chromium, copper, iodine, manganese,
selenium, zinc and molybdenum.
Table 2.2 below summarises some important minerals required for proper functioning of the
human body. Proper nutrition involves a diet in which the daily requirements of the listed
mineral nutrients are met.
Mineral Food Source Main Functions Deficiency

Disease
Macro-nutrients
Calcium (Ca) most fruit and strong bones and teeth; rickets,
vegetables, meat, muscle contraction; blood osteoporosis
dairy products clotting; nerve function
Magnesium (Mg) nuts, meat, dairy strong bones and teeth; osteoporosis,
products nerve and muscle function; muscle cramps
energy production
Phosphorus (P) nuts, meat, dairy strong bones and teeth; rickets,
products nerve function; part of osteoporosis
nucleic acids and cell
membranes
Potassium (K) bananas, meat, dairy growth and maintenance, muscle cramps;
products water balance, heart function heart, kidney and
lung failure
Sodium (Na) table salt, fruit and regulates blood pressure and muscle cramps
vegetables volume; muscle and nerve
function
Sulfur (S) meat, dairy products, part of proteins; detoxifies disorder unlikely
eggs, legumes the body; good skin; hair
and nails
Micro-nutrients
Iron (Fe) meat, legumes part of haemoglobin (the anaemia
oxygen transport protein);
part of some enzymes
Iodine (I) seafood, iodated salt production of hormones by goitre, stunted
the thyroid gland; strong growth, mental
bones and teeth; good hair; problems
skin and nails
Zinc (Zn) seafood, meat immune function; male stunted growth,
reproductive system prostate problems
Table 2.2: Minerals required by humans.
Nutrients required for plant growth
The previous section examined the key nutrients important for animal growth. In Table ??
we will now look at the key nutrients required for plant growth.

Mineral Source Main Functions Deficiency Disease
Macro-nutrients
Calcium (Ca) inorganic fertilisers; part of the plant cell wall; chlorosis
Ca ions in the soil transport and rention of
other elements
Magnesium (Mg) inorganic fertilisers; component of chlorosis (the low
Mg ions in the soil chlorophyll (pigment for production or loss of
photosynthesis); activates chlorophyll in plant
many enzymes required leaves)
for growth
Nitrogen (N) inorganic fertilisers in component of stunted growth;
the form of nitrates; chlorophyll; nucleic smaller leaves
symbiotic acids and proteins; seed
nitrogen-fixing and fruit production
bacteria in roots
Phosphorus (P) inorganic fertilisers in photosynthetic process; stunted growth,
the form of part of nucleic acids and blue/green leaves
phosphates; low cell membranes; root
amounts in the soil growth
Potassium inorganic fertilisers; K needed for protein chlorosis; curling leaf
ions in the soil synthesis, tips; brown
photosynthesis, enzyme scorching, poor fruit
activation, opening and quality
closing of stomata;
Sulfur (S) inorganic fertilisers protein synthesis; root chlorosis
growth; chlorophyll
formation; promotes
activity of enzymes
Micro-nutrients
Iron (Fe) inorganic fertilisers; component of the chlorosis
Fe ions in the soil enzyme that makes
chlorophyll
Zinc (Zn) inorganic fertilisers; part of growth-regulating poor leaf growth
Zn ions in the soil enzyme systems
Sodium (Na) inorganic fertilisers; maintains salt and water reduced growth
Na ions in the soil balance
Iodine (I) inorganic fertilisers; I needed for energy poor growth
ions in the soil release during respiration
Table 2.3: Nutrients required for plant growth.
Use of fertilisers
When crops are regularly grown and harvested on the same piece of land, the soil becomes
depleted of one or more nutrients. Fertilisers are natural or non-natural mixtures of chemical
substances that are used to return depleted nutrients to the soil, improve the nutrient content
of the soil and promote plant growth. Inorganic nutrients (such as nitrates and phosphates)
are added to the soil in the form of inorganic fertilisers.
Effect of fertilisers on the environment
Using large amounts of fertilisers can be harmful to the environment. Fertilisers wash off into
rivers where they are poisonous to plant and animal life. The accumulation of fertilisers in
rivers can lead to a process known as eutrophication. This process occurs when excessive
nutrients (nitrates and phosphates) from the land (typically from fertilisers) run off into rivers
30 2.3. Inorganic compounds

and lakes. This leads to high growth of water plants. Plants grow and produce food by
photosynthesis which requires high quantities of oxygen. The high oxygen demand of the
rapidly growing water plants removes oxygen available to other organisms in the rivers and
lakes. These organisms then suffocate and die due to lack of oxygen. The biodegradation of
the dead organisms results in a massive increase in bacteria, fungi and algae degrading the
dead organic matter, which also require oxygen. This further depletes the available oxygen,
and further contributes to the death of fish and other aquatic species.
Figure 2.2: Schematic diagram showing the processes that lead to eutrophication.
Figure 2.3: Algae and dead fish in a lake that

has undergone eutrophication. Figure 2.4: Algal bloom in a river following
eutrophication.
Natural fertilisers: an application of indigenous knowledge systems
The fertilisers discussed above are non-natural inorganic compounds such as nitrates, phos-
phates etc. However, as a means of reducing the negative impact of the inorganic fertilisers
discussed earlier, organic fertilisers that occur naturally can be used. Natural fertilisers con-
sist of organic compounds derived from manure, slurry, worm castings, peat, seaweed etc.
Natural fertilisers supply nutrients to the soil through natural processes such as composting.
This means that the nutrients are released back to the soil slowly, and excessive nutrients
do not wash off into rivers causing over-fertilisation and eutrophication. However, the use
of organic fertilisers is more labour-intensive and the nutrient composition tends to be more

variable than the inorganic fertilisers. As a result it is difficult to know for sure whether the
particular nutrient required by the plant is actually being supplied by the natural fertiliser.
Figure 2.6: A homemade compost tumbler.

Figure 2.5: Sample of compost created
through processes involving degradation of
dead organic matter by bacteria and fungi.
2.4 Organic compounds DUMMY
An organic compound is a compound whose molecules contain C, and usually at least one
C-C or C-H bond. Very small carbon-containing molecules that do not follow the above
rules, such as CO2 and simple carbonates, are considered inorganic. Life on earth would
not be possible without carbon. Other than water, most molecules of living cells are carbon-
based, and hence are referred to as organic compounds. The main classes of organic com-
pounds we will investigate in this section include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic
acids.
Each of these classes of compounds consists of large molecules built from small subunits.
The smallest of these subunits is called a monomer. Several monomers bond together to
form polymers. Each of these polymers is characterised by a specific structure owing to
the chemical bonds formed. These structures are related to the function of the compound
in living organisms. We will therefore study each class of compounds under the following
headings:
• molecular make-up: the main elements that make up the class of compounds
• structural composition: how the monomers join up together to form polymers
• biological role: importance of these molecules to animals and plants
• chemical test: how to detect the presence of each class of compounds
Carbohydrates DUMMY
Molecular make-up
Carbohydrates consist of carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O).
32 2.4. Organic compounds

Figure 2.7: A glucose molecule is made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
Structural composition
Carbohydrates are made up of monomers known as monosaccharides. The monosaccharide

that makes up most carbohydrates is glucose. Other monosaccharides include fructose,
galactose and deoxyribose (discussed later). These monomers can be joined together by
glycosidic bonds. When two monosaccharides are chemically bonded together, they form
disaccharides. An example of a disaccharide is sucrose (table sugar), which is made up of
glucose and fructose. Other dissacharides include lactose, made up of glucose and galactose,
and maltose, made up of two glucose molecules. Monosaccharides and dissachardies are
often referred to as sugars, or simple carbohydrates. Several monosaccharides join together
to form polysaccharides. Examples of polysaccharides you will encounter include glycogen,
starch and cellulose. Polysaccharides are usually referred to as complex carbohydrates as
they take longer to break down.
Figure 2.8: Examples of food sources of various monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides.
Role in animals and plants
The main function of carbohydrates is as energy storage molecules and as substrates (starting
material) for energy production. Carbohydrates are broken down by living organisms to re-
lease energy. Each gram of carbohydrate supplies about 17 kilojoules (kJ) of energy. Starch
and glycogen are both storage polysaccharides (polymers made up of glucose monomers)
and thus act as a store for energy in living organisms. Starch is a storage polysaccharide in
plants and glycogen is the storage polysaccharide for animals. Cellulose is found in plant cell
walls and helps gives plants strength. All polysaccharides are made up of glucose monomers,

but the difference in the properties of these substances can be attributed to the way in which
the glucose molecules join together to form different structures. Below are images of glyco-
gen and starch.
Figure 2.9: A comparison between starch and glycogen. Glycogen is more extensively branched than
starch.
Chemical tests to identify presence of carbohydrates
Substances containing starch turn a blue-black colour in the presence of iodine. An observ-
able colour change is therefore the basis of a chemical test for the compound.
Figure 2.10: Granules of wheat starch, stained with iodine and photographed through a light micro-
scope.
Investigation: Test for the presence of starch (Essential investigation-CAPS)
Aim:
To test for the presence of starch.
Apparatus:
• piece of potato or bread

• lettuce leaf
• petri dish
• iodine solution

FACT
• dropper WATCH: Watch a
video
demonstration of
Method: the test for glucose.
See video:
SHORTCODE at
1. Place a piece of potato or bread and the lettuce leaf in the petri dish. www.everythingscience.
2. Using the dropper add a few drops of iodine solution onto the potato or bread.
Figure 2.11: Experimental set-up: test for the presence of starch using iodine.
Observations:
Record your observations.
Questions:
Can this method be used to determine how much starch is present? Explain your answer.
Certain monosaccharides, such as glucose, are known as reducing sugars. These are defined
as sugars that can easily undergo oxidation reactions (i.e. lose an electron or gain an oxygen
atom) and act as a reducing agent. In order to test for carbohydrates we typically test for
the presence of reducing sugars using either the Benedict’s or Fehling’s test. Both solutions
(Benedict’s and Fehling’s) contain copper sulphate which reacts with reducing sugars to
produce a colour change.
Investigation: Testing for the presence of reducing sugars (Essential investigation-CAPS)
Aim:
To test for presence of sugars using Benedict’s or Fehling’s test.
Apparatus:
• 4 heat resistant test tubes

• 1 beaker
• bunsen burner or water bath with hot water (+50 ◦ C)
• test tube rack (if using a water bath)
• glucose solution

• albumen solution or egg white
• starch solution
• water
• Benedict’s solution
• Fehling’s solution
• marking pen to mark the test tubes
• thermometer
• 10 ml syringe or measuring cylinder
Safety precautions:
• Follow the safety procedures (listed in Chapter 1) when lighting your Bunsen burner.
Do not light it in a shelf or near any lights and remove all notebooks, papers and excess
chemicals from the area. Tie back any long hair, dangling jewelry and loose clothing
and never leave an open flame unattended while it is burning.
• When heating your test tubes in the boiling water in the beakers ensure that the mouth
of the test tubes point away from you and fellow learners.
• When handling the test tubes, especially when they are hot, use a test tube holder and
wear goggles.
Method:
Prepare a water bath by filling a beaker to the halfway mark with water. Place the beaker on
a tripod stand over a bunsen flame as shown in Figure 2.12. This will serve as your water
bath.
Whilst waiting for the water to boil or the water to reach temperature in the water bath, carry
out the following instructions:
1. Label the test-tubes 1–4.

2. Using the syringe or measuring cylinder, add the following to the test tubes.
• Test tube 1: 5 ml of 1% starch solution

• Test tube 2: 5 ml of 10% glucose solution
• Test tube 3: 5 ml 1% albumen solution
• Test tube 4: 5 ml water.
3. Add 5 ml Benedict’s solution to each tube.

4. Place the test-tubes in the beaker of hot water on the tripod.
5. Use a thermometer to monitor the water temperature and adjust the flame to maintain
the water temperature at approximately 50◦ C.
6. If using the water bath, place the test tubes into the test tube rack and place into the
water bath with temperature set to 50◦ C.
7. After about 5 minutes, when a colour change has occurred in some of the test tubes,
extinguish the flame, or remove the test tubes from the water bath.
8. Place the four tubes in a test-tube rack and compare the colours.

Figure 2.12: Test for reducing sugars using Benedict’s test
Results:
Construct a table to record the results of this experiment. It is important to observe and
record any changes that have taken place.
Tube number Observations in

each tube
Questions:
1. What colour changes (if any) did you observe after heating the samples with Benedict’s
solution?
2. The three solutions tested are examples of the chemical substances found in cells:
glucose, starch, protein (albumen). Which of the samples tested positive when the
Benedict’s solution was added and the test tube was heated?
3. Other than the colour, what change took place in the consistency of the Benedict’s
solution?
4. What can you conclude from the investigation?
5. Why was water included in test tube 4?
Lipids DUMMY
Molecular make-up

FACT Lipids contain carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) but have less oxygen than carbohy-
When drawing drates. Examples of lipids in diet include cooking oils such as sunflower and olive oil, butter,
organic molecules,
margarine and lard. Many nuts and seeds also contain a high proportion of lipids.
it can easily get
confusing writing
out all of the ’C’s Structural composition
and ’H’s for carbon
and hydrogen
Triglycerides are one of the most common types of lipids. Triglyceride molecules are made
respectively.
Scientists overcome up of glycerol and three fatty acids (Figure 2.14). The fatty acid tails are made up of many
this by drawing the carbons joined together. The number of carbons in the fatty acid chains can differ.
carbon backbone,
and leaving out the
hydrogens. Carbon
will always make 4
bonds with other
atoms, so it is easy
to figure out how
many hydrogens
there must be. The
carbon is indicated
by a point, and the
bonds between
carbon molecules
are indicated by
lines joining the
points.
FACT Figure 2.13: A triglyceride molecule.

You will learn about
the important role
that lipids play in
cell membranes in
the following Role in animals and plants
chapter on the basic
units of life. Lipids are an important energy reserve and contain 37.8 kilojoules (kJ) of energy per gram.
Triglyceride lipids are broken down to release glycerol and fatty acids. Glycerol can be con-
verted to glucose and used as a source of energy, however the majority of energy provided
by lipids comes from the breakdown of the fatty acid chains. Some fatty acids are essential
nutrients that cannot be produced by the body and need to be consumed in small amounts.
Non-essential fatty acids can be produced in the body from other compounds.
Lipids are important for the digestion and transport of essential vitamins, help insulate body
organs against shock and help to maintain body temperature. Lipids also play an important
role in cell membranes.
Saturated and unsaturated fats
Carbon can form four bonds with other atoms. Most carbons in a fatty acid chain are bonded
to two adjacent carbons, and to two hydrogen atoms. Fatty acids which form four single
bonds, and have the maximum number of hydrogen atoms are called saturated fatty acids
because they are ”saturated” with hydrogen atoms. However, sometimes two adjacent car-
bons will from a double bond. In this case the carbons taking part in the double bond are
each joined to only one hydrogen. Fatty acids that have carbon-carbon double bonds are
known as unsaturated, because the double bond can be ’broken’ and an additional bond
with hydrogen can be made. Double bonds are stronger than single bonds and they give
the fatty acid chain a ’kink’. These kinks mean that the molecules can not pack together
tightly, and the lipids are more fluid. This is why unsaturated fats tend to be liquid at room
temperature, while saturated fats tend to be solid. Fatty acid chains with many double bonds
are called poly-unsaturated fatty acids.

FACT
You will learn more
about how
cholesterol can clog
arteries and lead to
heart disease in the
chapter on
transport systems in
animals
Figure 2.14: Fatty acids can be saturated, mono-unsaturated or polyunsaturated depending on the
number of double bonds present. Double bonds result in ”kinks” in the fatty acid chain.
Cholesterol
Cholesterol is an organic chemical substance known as a sterol. You are not required to
understand its molecular makeup or its structural composition. It is an important component
in cell membranes. The major dietary sources of cholesterol include cheese, egg, pork,
poultry, fish and shrimp. Cholesterol is carried through the body by proteins in the blood
known as lipoproteins. A lipoprotein is any combination of lipid and protein.
Cholesterol is carried in the blood through the body by high density lipoprotein, low density
lipoprotein and through triglycerides.
1. Low density lipoprotein (LDL): Low density lipoprotein transports cholesterol around
the body. It has a higher proportion of cholesterol relative to protein. It is often known
as ”bad” cholesterol because higher levels of LDL are associated with heart disease.
2. High density lipoprotein (HDL): High density lipoprotein is the smallest of the lipopro-
teins. It has a high proportion of protein relative to cholesterol and is therefore often
known as the ”good” cholesterol. HDL transports cholesterol away from cells and to
the liver where it is broken down or removed from the body as waste.
High levels of LDL can cause heart disease. Cholesterol builds up in blood vessels that carry
blood from the heart to the tissues and organs of the body, called arteries. This leads to a
hardening and narrowing of these vessels, which interferes with the transport of blood, and
can potentially lead to a heart attack. The biggest contributor to the amount of cholesterol in
your blood is the type of fats you eat. Saturated fats are less healthy than unsaturated fats as
they increase the amount of LDL cholesterol in your blood.
Test for lipids
The test for lipids relies on the fact that lipids leave a translucent ‘grease spot’ on brown
paper bags, while non-lipid substances do not.

Investigation: Test for the presence of lipids (Essential investigation-CAPS)
FACT
Because the
sequence of amino
acids determines Aim:
the way that a
protein folds, if you
To test for the presence of lipids
start with a certain
peptide chain, you
will always get the Apparatus:
same
three-dimensional
structure! • piece of paper or ”fish-and-chips” paper bag
• food item e.g fries, piece of cooked meat, etc
• 10 ml of cooking oil (positive control)
• 10 ml water (negative control)
Method:
1. Positive control: add cooking oil to brown paper bag until it is soaked up. The part of
the paper that soaks up oil should be translucent compared to the part that does not.
2. Negative control: wet the paper with water. The paper may become wet and soggy,
but should not become translucent.
3. Experimental samples: stain the brown paper bag with the food item to be tested and
hold it up to the light. If it is translucent, similar to the positive control, the food item
contains lipid.
Observations:
Record your observations, noting any key differences between the controls and the experi-
mental sample
Proteins DUMMY
Molecular make-up
Proteins contain carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N) and may have other
elements such as iron (Fe), phosphorous (P) and sulfur (S).
Structural composition
Proteins are made of amino acids. There are 20 common amino acids from which all proteins
in living organisms are made. Nine of them are considered essential amino acids, as they
cannot by synthesised in the body from other compounds, and must be obtained from the
diet. Amino acids are bonded together by peptide bonds to form peptides. A long peptide
chain forms a protein, which folds into a very specific three-dimensional shape. This three-
dimensional shape is completely determined by the identity and order of the amino acids in
the peptide chain. We often refer to four different levels of protein structure (Figure 2.15):
• Primary structure: This refers to the sequence of amino acids joined together by pep-
tide bonds to form a polypeptide chain. Some proteins have fewer than a hundred
amino acids, while others have several thousand.
• Secondary structure: This is the first level of three dimensional folding. It is driven

completely by hydrogen bonding. Hydrogen bonding usually results in regions of the
chain coiling and other regions forming sheets.
• Tertiary structure: This is the second level of three dimensional folding and is the
overall final shape of the protein molecule. The secondary structures and unstruc-
tured regions of the chain further fold into a globular shape, driven by hydrophobic
interactions (non-polar regions trying to escape the water in the cell environment) and
electrostatic interactions (polar and charged regions wanting to interact with the water
environment and each other).
• Quaternary structure: Some proteins are complex: two or more peptide chains fold
into their tertiary structures, then these complete structures associate together by hy-
drophobic and electrostatic interactions to form the final protein.
Figure 2.15: The primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary levels of protein structure
Role in animals and plants
Proteins are important in several crucial biological functions. Proteins are found in hair,
skin, bones, muscles, tendons, ligaments and other structures and perform key structural
and mechanical functions. Proteins are also important in cell communication and in the
immune system. Proteins can also act as an energy reserve when broken down through
digestive processes. Certain proteins called enzymes are important in catalysing cellular
reactions that form part of metabolism.
Proteins are essential to any diet. A lack of protein results in a disease called kwashiorkor
(Figure 2.16) or marasmus (Figure 2.17). Marasmus is caused by a general nutritional defi-
ciency (starvation), and kwashiorkor is caused by a deficiency in protein specifically.

FACT
Meat or vegetables:
which is a better
source of protein?
Both animal protein
and protein from
vegetables is good
for health. But each
type comes with
other nutrients. So
which ’package’ of
nutrients-meat or
vegetables is better
for health?
• A 180 gram
steak
provides 40
g of protein
BUT also
provides 38
g of fat
Figure 2.16: Child suffering from kwash- Figure 2.17: Child suffering from maras-
which is iorkor mus
more than
the Recom-
mended
Dietary
Allowance Test for proteins
• The same
amount of The Biuret Test for proteins using involves testing for the presence of the peptide bond.
salmon gives
Biuret reagent is a copper-based reagent that turns purple when bound to protein in an
34 g of
protein and alkaline solution (Figure 2.18). The more peptide bonds present, the greater the intensity of
18 g of fat. the purple colour, indicating a higher protein concentration.
• A cup of
cooked The presence of protein can also be detected using Millon’s reagent. Millon’s reagent re-
lentils has 18 acts with tyrosine amino acids, common to most proteins, and results in the formation of a
g of protein
and 1 g of reddish-brown precipitate when heated.
fat.
Therefore when Table 2.4 below summarises the major tests and their expected results in the presence and
choosing absence of protein.
protein-rich foods,
pay attention to
what comes along Test reagent Positive Negative
with protein. result result
Vegetable sources
of proteins such as Biuret Violet/purple Blue colour
beans, nuts and reagent colour
whole grain are Millon’s Red-brown White
excellent choices reagent colour colour
and they offer
healthy fibre,
vitamins and Table 2.4: Observable colour changes when testing for the presence of protein.
Investigation: Test for the presence of proteins
Aim:
To use the Biuret test as well as Millon’s reagent to test for the presence of proteins
Apparatus:

minerals. The best
1. bunsen burner and a beaker containing water animal protein
sources are fish and
2. or water bath with hot water (50◦ C) poultry.
3. Dropper or plastic pipette
4. Test tubes:
• two with albumin solution (positive control)

• two with sugar water (negative control)
• test tubes with samples to be tested for the presence of protein
• test tube with Millon’s Reagent
• test tube with solution for Biuret test
( NOTE: The Millon’s Reagent and Biuret’s solution in this experiment should be prepared
for you by your teacher).
Method:
Test for protein using Millon’s reagent
WARNING! Millon’s reagent is highly toxic! Avoid breathing in its fumes.
1. Using the dropper or pipette, add a few drops of Millon’s Reagent to the test-tube
containing albumin.
containing sugar water.
containing samples of your food to be tested.
4. Heat the mixtures in boiling water for 5 minutes.
5. Observe any colour changes.
Test for protein using the Biuret test
1. Using the dropper or pipette, add a few drops of the Biuret solution to the test-tube
containing albumin.
containing sugar water.
containing samples of your food to be tested.
4. Observe any colour changes.

FACT
WATCH: View a
video
demonstration of
the experiment to
test for proteins:
See video:
SHORTCODE at
Figure 2.18: Biuret test: this is the expected colour change if protein is present
Observations:
Record your observations, noting any key differences between the positive control, negative
control and experimental samples
Enzymes
Enzymes are protein molecules that help chemical reactions in living organisms to take place.
The term enzyme has a specific meaning: an enzyme is a biological catalyst that speeds up
the rate of a chemical reaction without being used up in the chemical reaction itself. Let
us analyse this definition in greater detail.
Biological: Enzymes are protein molecules which are made of long chains of amino acids.
These fold into unique three-dimensional structures with a region known as an active site
where reactions take place.
Catalyst: Enzymes speed up chemical reactions without being used up in the reaction them-
selves. All chemical reactions require a certain minimum amount of energy to take place.
This energy is known as the free energy of activation. Enzymes lower the energy of activa-
tion thus speeding up chemical reactions (Figure 2.19).

Figure 2.19: Enzymes lower the activation energy, thus making reactions occur faster
Enzymes are not consumed by the reactions they catalyse: they do not alter the equilibrium
of reactions, thus they catalyse both forward and reverse reactions. The direction in which
a reaction proceeds is determined by concentration of the substrates and the products of the
reactions.
Enzymes may be involved in reactions that break down or build up molecules. The break-
down reactions are known as catabolic reactions. The building up reactions are known as
anabolic reactions.
The ‘lock and key’ model of enzyme action
Enzymes are highly specific regarding the reactions they catalyse. The specificity depends on
the bonds formed between the active site of an enzymes and its substrate. Active sites have
a specific shape that allows binding of a very specific substrate. The highly specific nature
of the enzyme-substrate binding has been compared to a ”lock and key” with the enzyme
as the ’lock’ and the substrate as the ’key’ (Figure 2.20). The substrate binds the active site
to form an enzyme-substrate complex. The reaction takes place, then the product leaves the
active site as it no longer fits the ’lock’ in the same way as the substrate did. The enzyme
remains unchanged.
Figure 2.20: This diagram illustrates the ‘lock-and-key’ model of enzyme action.
Enzymes in every day life

Investigation: Investigating how biological washing powders work
Aim:
To test how enzymes in biological washing powders work
Apparatus:
• two soft boiled eggs (hard boiled eggs contain denatured proteins that do not cause
stains)
• two beakers
• biological washing powder (with enzymes)
• non-biological washing powder (older type of washing powder)
• water
• two measuring spoons
Method:
1. Label 3 beakers ’Bio’, ’Non-Bio’ and ’control’ which will contain biological washing
powder, non-biological washing powder and water (negative control) respectively.
2. In the beaker labelled ’Bio’ dissolve 5 g of biological washing powder in 30 ml water.
3. In the beaker labelled ’Non-Bio’ dissolve 5 g of non-biological washing powder in
30 ml water.
4. Pour 30 ml of tap water into the control beaker.
5. Scoop out a small amount of egg yolk.
6. Place a teaspoon with the egg yolk in each of the beakers.
7. Leave the spoons in the beakers for 1 to 2 hours.
8. Observe your results.
Results:
1. Write down your observations.

2. Suggest a reason for your observations.
3. Write a conclusion for the investigation.
Enzymes in everyday life
The properties of enzymes to control reactions have been widely used for commercial pur-
poses. Examples of some of these uses are listed below:
• Biological washing powders contain enzymes such as lipases (breaks down lipids)
and proteases (breaks down protein), which assist in the breakdown of stains caused
by foods, blood, fat or grease. These biological washing powders save energy as they
are effective at low temperatures.
• Meat tenderisers contain enzymes which are obtained from fruits such as papaya or
pineapple. When used in meat tenderisers these enzymes soften the meat.
• Lactose-free milk is manufactured primarily for people who are lactose intolerant. Lac-
tose intolerant individuals lack the enzyme lactase that digests lactose (milk sugar).

Lactose is pre-digested by adding lactase to the milk. FACT
The optimal pH and
temperature for an
Factors affecting enzyme action enzyme will be
determined by the
1. Temperature kind of living thing
it is found in. The
enzymes in the
In humans, enzymes function best at 37◦ C (Figure 1.19). This is the optimum temperature. human body have
At very high temperatures proteins denature; this means that the hydrogen, hydrophobic and an optimum
electrostatic interactions that result in the protein’s three-dimensional shape break down, un- temperature of 37
◦
ravelling the protein into its primary structure, a long chain of amino acids. When an enzyme C. Bacteria that
live in compost
is denatured, the shape of its active site, as well as the rest of the protein shape is altered. heaps have
The substrate can no longer fit in the active site of the enzyme and chemical reactions cannot enzymes with an
take place. Low temperatures can slow down or even inactivate enzymes, as low tempera- optimal range in the
ture means less available kinetic energy, so that even the lower energy of activation that the 40’s, and bacteria
called
enzyme allows is not available. The first graph shows the effect of temperature on enzyme
hyperthermophiles
activity. (lovers of very high
temperatures) that
2. pH live in hot springs
have enzymes with
optimum
Enzyme activity is sensitive to pH. Enzymes have an optimum pH as shown on the graph, temperatures above
but they can function effectively within a pH range. The effectiveness of the enzyme falls 80 ◦ C.
sharply when the pH is outside its optimum range. An enzyme can become denatured
when exposed to a pH outside its pH range, as pH affects the charge on some amino acids,
and therefore affects the electrostatic interactions holding the tertiary structure together. The
second graph shows the effect of pH on enzyme activity.
Figure 2.21: Graphs showing the effect of temperature and pH on enzyme activity respectively.
In the investigation that follows, the effect of temperature on catalase enzyme activity will be
investigated. Hydrogen peroxide is potentially toxic and so living tissues contain an enzyme
named catalase to break it down into non-toxic compounds, namely water and oxygen. You

will study the effect of the enzyme catalase on the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide. You
will further examine the effect of pH and temperature on enzyme activity.
Investigation: Investigating the effect of catalase from chicken liver on hydrogen perox-
ide
Aim:
To demonstrate the effect of catalase on hydrogen peroxide
Apparatus:
• 10 ml measuring cylinders
• pipette
• 3% Hydrogen peroxide solution
• scalpel
• forceps
• balance
• chicken liver at room temperature
• boiled chicken liver
• frozen chicken liver
• stirring rod
Method:
Follow the instructions below:
• Cut two square pieces weighing 0.1 g from the fresh liver sample and place each in a
separate 10 ml measuring cylinder.
• Use a clean measuring cylinder to measure 3 ml water. Pour into one of the fresh
liver-containing cylinders. This is your negative control.
• Use a clean measuring cylinder to measure 3 ml hydrogen peroxide. Pour into the
remaining fresh liver-containing cylinder. This is your positive control.
• Wait for four minutes and then measure and record the height of the resulting oxygen
bubbles in each cylinder.
Questions:
1. Name the three variables that must remain stable throughout these experiments and
explain why they must be kept stable.
2. What kind of reaction is taking place?
3. How could you make this experiment more accurate?
4. In addition to temperature, what other factors influence the rate of reaction?

Investigation: PART B
Aim:
To demonstrate the effect of temperature on catalase activity
Method:
• Add 3 ml of hydrogen peroxide to two separate 10 ml graduated measuring cylinders.

Mark one cylinder ”frozen chicken liver” and the other ”boiled chicken liver”.
• Cut a 0.1 g square from each of the frozen and boiled chicken livers. Add the liver
pieces to the correspondingly labelled measuring cylinder with hydrogen peroxide in
it.
• Leave both pieces of liver for four minutes and measure the height of bubbles pro-
duced.
Questions:
1. Give reasons for the differences observed across the three measuring cylinders.
2. Name the dependent and independent variables in this experiment.
3. How could you make this experiment more accurate?
4. What would you conclude from your observations?
Nucleic acids DUMMY
Nucleic acids are large organic molecules that are key to all living organisms. Nucleic acids
are polymers made up of nucleotides. Nucleotides are made up of a sugar, a phosphate and
a nitrogenous base. Nucleotides are joined together by phosphodiester bonds, joining the
phosphate of one nucleotide to the sugar of the next. DNA is synthesised using intermediate
products of carbohydrate and amino acid metabolism.
Nucleic acids include:
• Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): which contains the ’instructions’ for the synthesis of
proteins in the form of genes. DNA is found in the nucleus of every cell.
• Ribonucleic acid (RNA): is important in transferring genetic information from DNA to
proteins. It is found on ribosomes, in the cytoplasm and in the nucleus.

FACT
The structure and
function of the
nucleus will be
explained in details
in the next chapter:
The basic units of
life.
Figure 2.22: Schematic diagram of DNA and RNA: DNA is double stranded and RNA is single-
stranded.
2.5 Vitamins DUMMY
Vitamins are organic compounds required by organisms as vital nutrients in limited amounts.
Vitamins are therefore essential to a balanced diet. Vitamins have a variety of functions in
the body. Some vitamins are coenzymes, which means that they help enzymes to catalyse
a reaction efficiently. Some are responsible for regulating metabolism or act as regulators of
cell and tissue growth and differentiation.
50 2.5. Vitamins
Vitamin Role Food sources Deficiency
disease
Vitamin A Needed for proper functioning liver, carrots, egg night blindness
of eyes
Vitamin B (A Carbohydrate, protein, lipid, grains, potatoes, B1- beriberi, B3-
group of vitamins nucleic acid and alcohol bananas pellagra, B6, B9,
with related metabolism; neurotransmitter B12- anaemia
functions) synthesis and nerve function;
red blood cell production
Vitamin C Combines with key enzymes in citrus fruit scurvy (results in
metabolic reactions (oranges, lemons bleeding gums)
etc)
Vitamin D Metabolites important in sunshine rickets (resulting
absorption of minerals from the in soft bones,
gut (such as calcium and with bowed legs
phosphate) and widened
wrists)
Vitamin E Acts as an anti-oxidant margarine, depressed
soybean oil, immune system,
fortified cereals, anaemia, poor
condensed cow’s nerve conduction
milk, cheese,
orange juice
Figure 2.23: Sources of essentials vitamins.

2.6 Recommended Dietary Allowance DUMMY
In order to ensure that we consume adequate quantities of all the food types, nutritionists
have compiled a list of guidelines known as the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA).
The RDA defines the required intake of each nutrient type to meet the basic nutrient needs
of almost all individuals in a gender group at a given life stage. Food companies are required
to advertise the nutrient composition on all products sold. This allows consumers to decide
whether to purchase the food item. Table 2.5 shows the recommended dietary intake for
males or females between 19 and 30 years old.
Recommended dietary allowance of vitamins
Nutrient RDA (Male) RDA (Female) Unit Top Sources

Vitamin A 900 700 micrograms carrots, carrot
juice, turkey,
pumpkin
Vitamin C 75 75 milligrams orange juice,
grapefruit juice,
bell peppers
Vitamin D 5 5 micrograms cereals,
mushrooms,
yeast, salmon,
swordfish, trout
Vitamin E 15 15 milligrams fortified cereals,
tomato paste,
sunflower seeds
Calcium 1000 1000 milligrams fortified cereals,
cow’s milk,
cheese, orange
juice
Iodine 150 150 micrograms iodised salt
Phosphorous 700 700 milligrams maize-meal,
milk, wheat
flour
Potassium 4700 4700 milligrams potatoes,
bananas, tomato
paste, orange
juice
Sodium 1500 1500 milligrams onion soup mix,
table salt
Table 2.5: RDA for males and females between 19 years and 30 years.
Macronutrients
The table below shows the relative quantities of macronutrients recommended for average
adult (25-year old) male and female individuals.
52 2.6. Recommended Dietary Allowance

Substance Amount (males) Amount (females) Sources of FACT
nutrient Did you know?
Malnutrition, which
Water 3.7 L/day 2.7 L/day water
is the lack of a
Carbohydrates 130 g/day 130 g/day rice, potatoes, balanced diet, is a
pasta, bread, major problem in
mealie meal, South Africa. Key
fruits vitamins have been
added to wheat and
Protein 56 g/day 46 g/day duck, chicken, maize-meal in order
turkey, beef, fish, to provide the
eggs, legumes recommended
(pulses and amounts. Iodine has
been added to salt.
lentils), nuts, The nutritional
seeds, milk needs of new-born
Fat 15 20% – 35% of sunflower oil, babies are unique.
total calories olive oil, butter, A major challenge
in South Africa is to
consumed* margarine, lard, encourage women
avocados, to breastfeed
coconut, nuts, children for their
seeds, oily fish first six months after
birth. Only 25% of
Cholesterol As low as possible egg yolk, chicken babies are breastfed
giblets, turkey in this way. This
giblets, beef liver leads to high levels
of malnutrition,
diarrhoea and poor
growth.
*calories: a measure of energy consumption
Working out your daily nutrient intake
From our understanding of recommended dietary allowance we can understand what it is

we consume and how important it is to our diet. The activity below requires you to use the
information provided in these tables (and any other information you can find) in order to
evaluate your diet with regards to the recommended daily allowances.
Activity: Measuring your daily nutrient intake (Essential investigation- CAPS)
Figure 2.24:
Breastfeeding
1. Keep a food diary for 3 days by writing down the food you eat. Make sure to note the
infants for first 6
time you eat, the type of food you eat, and how much of it you consume. months of life is
2. Pick one of the days you recorded (that is the most typical of your normal diet), and vital to the infants’
draw a pie chart with the energy component of each food item you consumed. Make survival.
sure your pie chart includes a key. (See the Introduction to Life Skills Chapter if you
are unsure of how to do this.)
3. Draw another table with each food class (vitamins, proteins, carbohydrates, etc) listed.
In one column, list the recommended dietary allowance and in the next column list
the estimated amount of the food type you consume on a daily basis.
4. Which food types do you consume in excess? Which ones do you consume too little
of? What are the consequences of each?
The table below lists the energy components of some common food items. Study it and
answer the following questions:
1. Which food has the highest energy value? Why?

2. Name the key food items you would include in a balanced diet
Nutrient composition of some common foods
Food Energy Protein CarbohydrateTotal Sodium Iron Vitamin Vitamin

type (kJ) (g) (g) Fat (g) (mg) (mg) A C (mg)
(IU)
rice, 969 5 48 2 10 0.9 0 0
brown
(250 ml)
Muffin, 824 4 34 5 317 1.1 24 1
blue-
berry (50
g)
Beansprouts(250
274 6 14 0 12 2.5 41 21
ml)
Carrots 145 1 8 1 35 0.4 22644 7
raw (1
medium)
Apples, 341 0 21 2.6 0 0.2 73 8
raw,
with skin
(7cm di-
ameter)
Egg 69 3 0 0 54 0 0 0
white,
raw (1
egg)
Lamb 914 33 0 9 69 2.7 0 0
stew
(250 ml)
Chicken 218 30 0 10 69 0.6 107 0
roasted
(1/2
breast)
2.7 Summary DUMMY
• Cells are made up of organic and inorganic molecules which in turn are made up of
atoms bonded together.
• Living organisms need to consume organic and inorganic compounds, which they
break down for energy and use as building blocks for the components of life.
• Essential compounds are those that a living organism cannot build itself from other
molecules, but must obtain from its environment.
• Plants may require a supply of inorganic nutrients through natural and non-natural
fertilisers. An excess of non-natural fertilisers supplied to plants may result in eutroph-
ication of rivers and lakes.
• Proteins, carbohydrates and fats are key organic molecules required for growth and
54 2.7. Summary
survival of living organisms. Each of these molecule classes consists of polymeric
compounds made up of individual monomers. Chemical tests for the presence of each
of these polymers in a sample rely on the detection of the component monomer.
• Each of these compounds has essential functions in living organisms, for example:
fats (storage); proteins (growth); carbohydrates (energy); nucleic acids (store genetic
information); vitamins (variety of functions in the body). An inadequate supply of
these can result in diseases of malnutrition (e.g kwashiorkor, marasmus, scurvy, rickets
etc).
• The class of proteins known as enzymes is important in speeding up chemical reactions
in living organisms. Enzymes work under specific pH and temperature conditions
known as ‘optimal conditions’. They may become denatured or deactivated under
unfavourable conditions.
• The Recommended Dietary Allowance is a measure of how much of the various or-
ganic and inorganic nutrients we require in our diet. The specific allowance is different
across age groups and sexes. It is a useful guide to maintaining a balanced diet.
Exercise 2 – 1: End of chapter exercises
1. Which one of the following is not a biological role of water?

a) prevents deficiency diseases
b) dissolves biochemical compounds
c) provides a medium in which chemical reactions take place
d) involved in the hydrolysis of foodstuffs
Solution:
2. Which combination of the following substances is best to prevent rickets?
a) magnesium, phosphorus and carrots
b) phosphorus, calcium and fish liver oil
c) iron, calcium and liver
d) iodine, iron and oranges
Solution:
3. Study the diagram below and answer the following questions:

a) What is the polymer A that is found in an animal cell?
b) What is the function of polymer A in the body?
Solution:
4. The table below gives nutrients present in various dry seeds.
The following histogram shows the different amounts of nutrients found in one of the
four seeds.
The chart shows the nutrients found in:
a) green peas
b) sunflower seeds
c) maize
d) peanuts
56 2.7. Summary
Solution:
5. The graph below illustrates that enzymes:
a) are pH-specific
b) catalyses a specific substrate
c) are denatured at high pH
d) are sensitive to low pH
Solution:
6. The following diagrams show the enzyme lock-and key method of action.
Label each of the letters.

Solution:
7. Explain briefly how you would test for glucose.
Solution:
8. Study the graph below. The graph shows total protein (in grams) present in a 100 grams
of different food items. Use the graph to answer questions below.
a) Name the two foods from which vegetarians would obtain the most protein.
Solution:
b) Which foods contains only 2% protein?
Solution:
c) Which food would be the best for a non-vegetarian person who is suffering from
kwashiorkor and anaemia?
Solution:
d) Name and explain the process which proteins undergo when heated excessively.
Solution:
9. Study the information in the following diagrams and the table below, for three different
meals X, Y and Z.
58 2.7. Summary
Meals Energy (in kJ) Vitamin C (in mg) Calcium (in mg)
X 2900 25 70
Y 2100 47 265
Z 2600 40 170
a) Name three polysaccharide carbohydrates in meal X.

Solution:
b) Giving one reason for each answer, which meal will:
i. provide the greatest source of energy?
ii. be most suitable for the development of healthy bones and teeth?
iii. be least suitable for people who are prone to scurvy?
Solution:
c) Meal Z is relatively low in lipids (fat) yet high in energy content.
Which of the food components in Z provides the energy?
Solution:
d) Which of the three meals can be regarded as the healthiest?
Give three reasons for your answer.
Solution:
10. The following information (given in the table below) appeared on a box of breakfast
cereal. Use this information in the table to assist you in answering the questions that
follow.

a) How many servings does a person need to provide the RDA of energy?
Solution:
b) Which organic compounds are the most important energy providers?
Solution:
c) How much energy do the vitamins in the cereal provide?
Solution:
d) What deficiency disease could result if a person does not obtain adequate
amounts of vitamin B1?
Solution:
e) Explain the role of iron in the diet.
Solution:
f) Consider the RDA of energy (3125 kJ). Do you think this amount is realistic for
your requirements? Explain your answer.
Solution:
11. The histograms below show the percentage of carbohydrates, fats, proteins and water
in eight types of foods.
From the information provided in the histograms above, name two types of food that:
a) Contain more than 25% of a nutrient that is involved in the formation of an
insulating layer
60 2.7. Summary
Solution:
b) Would best help to prevent kwashiorkor
Solution:
c) Will form only monosaccharides and amino acids after digestion
Solution:
d) Are not involved in the formation of cell membranes
Solution:
e) Contain more than 50% of a nutrient which is the primary source of energy
Solution:
12. The diagram shows the apparatus used in various organic food tests. Study it and
answer the questions that follow:
a) Name the nutrients tested for in each of the experiments numbered A, B, C & D.
Solution:
b) Identify the chemicals numbered 1, 2 and 3.
Solution:
c) State the colour change for a positive reaction in each of the test-tubes used in
the experiments numbered B, C and D.
Solution:
d) Identify each of the compounds A, B and C. In each case give a reason for your
answer.
Which compound (A, B or C)
i. serves as a main source of energy in cellular respiration
ii. is most likely to form part of an enzyme
Solution:
13. The figure below shows the differences between the upper and lower basin of a water
body.

Figure 2.25
a) What has caused the key differences between the upper and lower basin?
b) What could researchers have done to the water in the lower basin to simulate
eutrophication in rivers/dams.
Solution:
62 2.7. Summary
CHAPTER 3
The basic units of life
3.1 Overview 64
3.2 Molecular make up of cells 65
3.3 Cell structure and function 73
3.4 Cell organelles 84
3.5 Summary 98
3.6 End of chapter exercises 99
3 The basic units of life
3.1 Overview DUMMY
Introduction DUMMY
Teacher’s Guide
THE BASIC UNITS OF LIFE
Overview
A brief overview of the history of microscopy needs to be taught. This should include the
progression from the use of lenses, light microscopy and then electron microscopy. The
development of microscopy over the years has enabled people to view cells and then with
the introduction of the electron microscope the structures within cells. All this led to the cell
theory.
This section deals with the ultra-structure of cells, including cell wall, cell membrane, nu-
cleus, cytoplasm, and various organelles such as chloroplast, mitochondria, ER, vacuoles,
Golgi bodies and centrosomes.
Transport across membranes is also covered briefly. Learners will need to understand the
movement of molecules by diffusion, osmosis and active transport.
Key Concepts:
• Cells are considered to be the basic units of life.
• Cells are microscopic and we use microscopes to view them.
• Cells differ in size, shape and structure and these are adapted to their
specific functions within the tissue.
• The cell is made up of smaller structures known as organelles, namely:
– nucleus
– cytoplasm
– mitochondria
– vacuoles
– Golgi body
– plastids
– vacuole, lysosomes, vesicles
• We will learn the structure and function of each of these organelles.
”In the year of 1657 I discovered very small living creatures in rain water.” — Antonie
van Leeuwenhoek, the Father of Microbiology on discovering cells. Together with Robert
Hooke’s discoveries, van Leeuwenhoek’s findings laid the foundations of microbiology.
64 3.1. Overview
Key concepts
• The invention of microscopes allowed us to see life at the microscopic level.

• Cell walls are present in plants, bacteria and fungi and provide a rigid support structure.
• Cell membranes are semi-permeable and have a fluid rather than a fixed structure.
Substances move across them by diffusion, osmosis, facilitated transport and active
transport.
• Cells contain organelles with structures adapted to perform specific functions within
the cell.
• Cells differ in size, shape and structure in order to carry out specialised functions.
Cells with similar structures and functions associate to form tissues.
• Plant and animal cells differ in many crucial ways.
The previous chapter discussed the various organic molecules that make up living organisms.
In this chapter we will look at the cellular level of organisation of living things.
atom→molecule→cell→tissue→organ→system→organism→ecosystem
3.2 Molecular make up of cells DUMMY
Teacher’s Guide
Section 2: Molecular make up of Cells
The practical Life Science techniques are an important part of the Life Science assessment
program. This section addresses some of these important skills. Learners are introduced
to the various microscopes and this enables the skills of drawing, labelling and annotating
diagrams and micrographs, using microscopes as well as calculating magnification of cells.
(This will be covered later in this Chapter).
Cells are the basic structural and functional units of all living organisms. Cells are made up
of the compounds you learnt about in the previous chapter: carbohydrates, fats, proteins,
nucleic acids and water. The word ’cell’ was first used by the 17th century scientist Robert
Hooke to describe the small pores in a cork that he observed under a microscope. Cells are
very small structures. The human body is made up of 1013 cells. Each of these is too small
to see with the human eye and it is through the development of microscopic techniques that
we have been better able to visualise and understand them.
Microscopy DUMMY
Early attempts to magnify images of objects through grinding of glass lenses eventually gave
rise to the earliest microscope. In 1600, Anton van Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch microbiologist
used a simple microscope with only one lens to observe blood cells. He was the first scientist
to describe cells and bacteria through observation under microscope. By combining two or
more lenses, the magnification of the microscopes was improved, thus allowing scientists to
view smaller structures.
The dissecting microscope is an optical microscope used to view images in three dimensions
Chapter 3. The basic units of life 65

FACT at low resolution. It is useful for low-level magnification of live tissue. The development of
Sections for TEM the light microscope, (Figure 3.5) which uses visible light to magnify images allowed for up
have to be so thin
to 1000X magnification of objects through which scientists were able to view individual cells
that they have to be
prepared using a and internal cell structures such as the cell wall, membrane, mitochondria and chloroplasts.
special piece of However, although the light microscope allowed for 1000X magnification, in order to see
equipment called even smaller structures such as the internal structure of organelles, microscopes of greater
an ultramicrotome.
resolving power (with up to 10 000X magnification) were required.
FACT With the development of electron microscopes the microscopic detail of organelles such
Transmission
electron as mitochondria and chloroplasts became easier to observe. The Transmission Electron Mi-
microscopes can croscope (TEM) was developed first, followed by the Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM).
magnify an image TEM is used to view extremely thin sections of material. Beams of electrons pass through
50 million times.
the material and are focused by electromagnetic lenses. In SEM the electrons are bounced
off the surface of the material and thus produce a detailed image of the external surface of
the material. They produce a 3D image by picking up secondary electrons knocked off the
surface with an electron collector. The image is then amplified and viewed on a screen.
Examples of each of the image types produced by these microscopes are given in Figures 3.1
to 3.3.
The world through a microscope
Figure 3.4:
Transmission elec-
tron microscope
in use.
Figure 3.1: SEM: A natural com- Figure 3.2: SEM: These pollen Figure 3.3: TEM: Image of
munity of bacteria growing on a grains show the characteristic chloroplast, showing thylakoid
single grain of sand. depth of field of SEM micro- discs within a eukaryotic cell.
graphs.
The apparatus most commonly used in lab microscopy exercises is a simple light micro-
scope. Figure 3.1 shows an annotated diagram of a light microscope with a description of
the function of each part. The main parts are described in the table that follows and the
function of each part is explained.
66 3.2. Molecular make up of cells

Figure 3.5: Light microscope

Part of the microscope Description
Ocular lens/ eyepiece - A cylinder containing two or more lenses.
- These lenses are held at the correct working
distance.
- The ocular lens/eyepiece helps to bring the
object into focus.
Revolving nose piece The revolving nose piece holds the objectives in
place so that they can rotate and can be changed
easily.
Objective The objective magnifies the objects.
There are normally three objectives present:
• 4X magnification
Coarse adjustment screw The coarse adjustment screw is used for the initial
focus of the object. By moving the stage up and
down, bringing the object closer to or further
away from the objective lens.
Fine adjustment screw The fine adjustment screw is used for the final and
clear focus of the object.
Frame - A rigid structure for stability.
- The frame is supported by a U-shaped foot
leading to the base of the microscope.
Light source / mirror - Provides a source of light so that the object can
be viewed.
Diaphragm and condenser The diaphragm and condenser control the amount
of light which passes through the slide.
Stage - The microscope slide is placed here.
- The stage contains a clip or clips to prevent the
slide from moving around.
- There is a hole in the stage which allows light
through.
Table 3.1: The parts of a microscope.
NOTE:
The ocular, rotating nosepiece and objectives are held above the stage by the arm.
How to use a microscope correctly
1. When handling or carrying the microscope, always do so with both hands. Grasp the
arm with one hand and place the other hand under the base for support.
2. Turn the revolving nosepiece so that the lowest power objective is in position.
3. Place the microscope slide on the stage and and fasten it with the stage clip(s).
4. Look through the eyepiece and adjust the diaphragm for the greatest amount of light.
5. While looking at the slide on the stage from the side, turn the coarse adjustment screw
so that the stage is as close to the objective lens as possible. WARNING: Make sure
you do not touch or damage the slide.
6. Slowly turn the coarse adjustment screw until the image comes into focus.
7. Now use the fine adjustment screw to move the stage downwards until the image is
clearly visible. Never move the lens towards the slide.

8. You can readjust the light source and diaphragm for the clearest image. FACT
WARNING: if using
9. When changing to the next objective lens use the fine adjustment screw to focus the a mirror for
image. WARNING: Never use the coarse adjustment screw for the strongest objec- illumination instead
tive lens. of a light bulb,
never reflect direct
10. Do not touch the glass part of the lenses with your fingers.
sunlight as you
11. When finished, move the stage and objective as far away from each other as possible could damage your
and remove the slide. eyes.
12. Disconnect the power source and cover the microscope.

13. Carry the microscope by holding it firmly by the ”arm” and ”base” and when walking
it should be near your chest.
NOTE:
Remember that microscopes are expensive scientific equipment and need to be handled
with care to prevent damaging them. Proper lens paper should be used when cleaning dust
or dirt off any lenses. Avoid getting moisture on the objective lenses. Dust and moisture are
the biggest enemies of microscopes.
Differences between the light microscope and transmission electron microscope
Property Light Microscope Transmission Electron

Microscope
Source Light Beam of electrons
Resolution (how far apart Under optimal conditions Resolution of a transmission
two objects must be in order (clean lenses, oil immersion), electron microscope is about
to be distinguished as the resolution is 0,2 0,05 nanometres (nm) which
separate) micrometres or 2 thousands is about 0,5 millionth of a
of a millimetre millimetre. This means that a
transmission electron
microscope has about
10 000 times the resolving
power of a light instrument
Material (alive/ dead) Alive or dead. Bright field or Dead. Electron microscope
phase contrast microscopes images are produced by
enable viewer to observe passing an electron beam
living cells. Specimens need through tissues stained with
to be stained. heavy metals.
Example of microscope
image Bacterial spores as seen Chlamydomonas reinhardtii,
under light microscope. a single celled green algae,
as seen under the
transmission electron
microscope.

Calculating magnification DUMMY
Microscopes magnify an image by use of lens found in the eye-piece, which is also known as
the ocular lens. The image is further magnified by the objective lens. Thus the magnification
of a microscope is: magnification power of the eye-piece x the power of the objective lens
Example: if the eyepiece magnification is 5X and the objective lens’ magnification is 10X,
the image of the object viewed under the microscope is 50X bigger than the object:
overall magnification = power of eyepiece × power of objective
= 5 × 10
= 50 × the original size
Calculating the field of view
When viewing an object through a microscope, the diameter of the circle through which
you view the object is known as the field of view.
As the magnification increases, the field of view decreases.
To measure the field of view, use a microscope slide with a tiny ruler printed on it. For
example, the size of the field of view shown below under low power magnification is ap-
proximately 1 mm.
Figure 3.6: Field of view is approximately 1 mm
Once the size of the field of view is known, we can estimate the size of the objects being
viewed under the microscope. At 10X magnification, the field of view is 1,0 mm. If the
magnification is increased to 100X, what will the new field of view be?
1,0 mm at 10 X magnification
current magnification
new field of view = × current field of view
new magnification
x mm at 100 X magnification
current magnification
new field of view = × current field of view
new magnification
10
x= × 1,0 mm
100
= 0,1 mm

If magnification is increased 10-fold, the field of view will decrease 10 fold. Thus it will
become 0.1 mm. What this means is that at higher magnification, we are able to see objects
of smaller and smaller size within our field of view. This is why at higher magnification, the
field of view becomes smaller.
At 500X magnification, the field of view of a microscope is 0,05 mm. What will the field of
view be at 100X magnification?
500
x= × 0,05 mm
100
= 0,25 mm
Calculating magnification and using scale bars
When drawing cells or cellular structures, your diagrams will usually be much larger than
the actual size of the structures you will be drawing. The magnification is given by:
drawing size
magnification =
actual size
When a scale bar is provided with the diagram, the magnification is given by:
scale given
magnification = drawing size ×
measured length of scale
Worked example 1: Calculating overall magnification
QUESTION
Calculate the overall magnification of a compound light microscope with a magnification of

10 X due to the eyepiece and a magnification of a 100X due to the objective lens.
SOLUTION
Using the formula:

= 10 × 100
Worked example 2: Calculating size of object from its microscopic image
QUESTION
If the measured length of the magnified beetle larva image shown below was 2 centimetres
(20 mm), the ocular magnification of the microscope is 5X and you are using an objective
lens magnification of 10X, what is the actual length of the larva in millimetres?

Figure 3.7: A beetle larva as seen under a light microscope.
SOLUTION
Step 1: Calculate the total magnification

Use the same formula as above

= 5 × 10
Step 2: Now calculate the size of the object

If the image is 50 x larger than the object, what is the size of the object? Calculate this by
simple proportion given in the formula below.
size of image
Size =
overall magnification
20 mm
=
50
= 0,4 mm
Worked example 3: Calculating actual size given of a structure given scale bar on an
image
QUESTION
Calculate the actual length of AB from the image shown in the micrograph given with the
scale bar given below.

Figure 3.8: Electron micrograph showing rough endoplasmic reticulum with a scale bar given
SOLUTION
Step 1: Measure the length AB shown in the diagram

This should be approximately 20 mm
Step 2: Work out the length AB

Given that the measured length of the scale bar is approximately 5 mm, work out the length
AB:
length of AB on diagram
Size = × number on scale bar
measured length of scale bar
20 mm
= × 200 nm
5 mm
= 800 nm
Teacher’s Guide
Activity 3.2: Investigation of cell size
Learners to be given photomicrographs to practice this exercise.
Activity 3.3: Drawing diagrams of scale
Learners to prepare slides to view under the microscope. Using the skills from the previous
activity they are to do cell calculations.
3.3 Cell structure and function DUMMY
Teacher’s Guide
Section 3: Cell Structure and Function
In this section the learners now expand their knowledge and learn the various cell structures
and related functions. The roles of the organelles within the cells need to be introduced and
relate structure and location of organelles to their function.
Cells differ in size, shape and structure and therefore carry out specialised functions. Link
this to tissues. The differences between plant and animal cells can be linked to Grade 9.

FACT
DNA (the hereditary Cell theory DUMMY
information of cells)
is passed from
’parent’ cells to
’daughter’ cells The cell theory developed in 1839 by microbiologists Schleiden and Schwann describes the
during cell division.
properties of cells. It is an explanation of the relationship between cells and living things.
You will learn more
about this in the The theory states:
following chapter:
Cell division.
• all living things are made of cells and their products
• new cells are created by old cells dividing into two
• cells are the basic building blocks of life
The cell theory applies to all living things, however big or small. The modern understanding
of cell theory extends the concepts of the original cell theory to include the following:
• The activity of an organism depends on the total activity of independent cells.

• Energy flow occurs in cells through the breakdown of carbohydrates by respiration.
• Cells contain the information necessary for the creation of new cells. This information
is known as ’hereditary information’ and is contained within DNA.
• The contents of cells from similar species are basically the same.
Cells are the smallest form of life; the functional and structural units of all living things. Your
body contains several billion cells, organised into over 200 major types, with hundreds of
cell-specific functions.
Some functions performed by cells are so vital to the existence of life that all cells perform
them (e.g. cellular respiration). Others are highly specialised (e.g. photosynthesis).
Figure 3.9 shows a two-dimensional drawing of an animal cell. The diagram shows the
structures visible within a cell at high magnification. The structures form the ultrastructure
of the cell.
74 3.3. Cell structure and function

Figure 3.9: Diagram of the cell ultrastructure of an animal cell.
Teacher’s Guide
Group discussion:
1. In pairs, discuss the different organs in the human body and the way in which they
function.
2. How do you think cells function?
See simulation: SHORTCODE at www.everythingscience.co.za
See video: SHORTCODE at www.everythingscience.co.za
We will now look at some of the basic cell structures and organelles in animal and plant
cells.

FACT
The human body Cell wall DUMMY
cannot break down
the cellulose in cell
walls because we
do not produce the The cell wall is a rigid non-living layer that is found outside the cell membrane and surrounds
enzyme cellulase. the cell. Plants, bacteria and fungi all have cell walls. In plants, the wall is comprised of
cellulose. It consists of three layers that help support the plant. These layers include the
middle lamella, the primary cell wall and the secondary cell wall.
Middle lamella: separates one cell from another. It is a thin membranous layer on the outside
of the cell and is made of a sticky substance called pectin.
Primary cell wall: is on the inside of the middle lamella and is mainly composed of cellulose.
Secondary cell wall: lies alongside the cell membrane. It is is made up of a thick and tough
layer of cellulose which is held together by a hard, waterproof substance called lignin. It is
only found in cells which provide mechanical support in plants.
Figure 3.10: Diagram of plant cell wall showing the structure of the outermost layer of the cell which
includes the cell wall and plasma membrane. (You will not be expected to draw this diagram in an
exam but it is important to know how the various components of the plant cell wall interact with one
another.)
Figure 3.11: Scanning electron microscope micrographs of diatoms showing the external appearances
of the cell wall. Scale bar: A, B, D: 10 um, C 20 um
Functions of the cell wall

• The main function of the wall is to protect the inner parts of the plant cell, it gives plant FACT
cells a more uniform and regular shape and provides support for the plant body. Recall the structure
if lipid molecules
• The cell wall is completely permeable to water and mineral salts which allows distri- from the previous
bution of nutrients throughout the plant. chapter on the
chemistry of life
• The openings in the cell wall are called plasmodesmata which contain strands of cy-
toplasm that connect adjacent cells. This allows cells to interact with one another,
FACT
allowing molecules to travel between plant cells. WATCH: a video
about the cell
membrane.
Cell membrane DUMMY See video:
SHORTCODE at
www.everythingscience.
The cell membrane, also called the plasma membrane, is composed of a double layer of
lipids (fats) called a phospholipid bilayer. It physically separates the intracellular (inside cell)
space from the extracellular (outside cell) environment. All plant and animal cells have cell
membranes. The cell membrane surrounds the cytoplasm which is part of the protoplasm
and is the living component of the cell.
The lipid bilayer forms spontaneously due to the properties of the phospholipids from which
it is made. The majority of the lipid structure, the fatty acid chain, is non-polar (uncharged).
Non-polar substances are unable to dissolve in water and are therefore known as hydropho-
bic compounds. Some lipids also contain polar (charged) regions. Polar substances can dis-
solve in water and are known as hydrophilic (water-loving) compounds. The bilayer forms
because hydrophilic heads point outwards and from hydrogen bonds with water, and the
hydrophobic tails point towards one another.
Figure 3.12: The lipid bilayer showing the arrangement of phospholipids, containing hydrophilic,
polar heads and hydrophobic, non-polar tails.
All the exchanges between the cell and its environment have to pass through the cell mem-
brane. The cell membrane is selectively permeable to ions (e.g. hydrogen, sodium), small
molecules (oxygen, carbon dioxide) and larger molecules (glucose and amino acids) and
controls the movement of substances in and out of the cells. The cell membrane performs
many important functions within the cell such as osmosis, diffusion, transport of nutrients
into the cell, processes of ingestion and secretion. The cell membrane is strong enough to
provide the cell with mechanical support and flexible enough to allow cells to grow and
move.
Structure of the cell membrane: the fluid mosaic model
S.J. Singer and G.L. Nicolson proposed the Fluid Mosaic Model of the cell membrane in
1972. This model describes the structure of the cell membrane as a fluid structure with
various protein and carbohydrate components diffusing freely across the membrane. The
structure and function of each component of the membrane is provided in the table below.

FACT Table 3.2 refers to the components of the cell membrane shown in the diagram in Figures
A further 3.12and 3.13.
description of the
fluid mosaic model
can be viewed at:
See video:
SHORTCODE at
Figure 3.13: Fluid mosaic model of the cell membrane.
Component (see Structure Function

Figure 3.13)
Phospholipid bilayer Consists of two layers of It is a semi-permeable
phospholipids. Each structure that does not allow
phospholipid has a polar, materials to pass through the
hydrophilic (water-soluble) membrane freely, thus
head as well as a non-polar, protecting the intra and
hydrophobic extracellular environments of
(water-insoluble) tail. the cell.
Membrane proteins These are proteins found Act as carrier proteins which
spanning the membrane from control the movement of
the inside of the cell (in the specific ions and molecules
cytoplasm) to the outside of across the cell membrane.
the cell. Membrane proteins
have hydrophilic and
hydrophobic regions that
allow them to fit into the cell
membrane.
Glycoproteins Consist of short carbohydrate These proteins are useful for
chains attached to cell-to-cell recognition.
polypeptide chains and are
found on the extracellular
regions of the membrane.
Glycolipids Carbohydrate chains attached Act as recognition sites for
to phospholipids on the specific chemicals and are
outside surface of the important in cell-to-cell
membrane attachment to form tissues.
Table 3.2: Structure and function of components of the cell membrane.

FACT
Movement across membranes DUMMY WATCH: diffusion
taking place by
clicking on the
following link.
Movement of substances across cell membranes is necessary as it allows cells to acquire See video:
oxygen and nutrients, excrete waste products and control the concentration of required sub- SHORTCODE at
stances in the cell (e.g oxygen, water, hormones, ions, etc). The key processes through www.everythingscience.
which such movement occurs include diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion and active
transport.
1. Diffusion
Diffusion is the movement of substances from a region of high concentration to low con-
centration. It is therefore said to occur down a concentration gradient. The diagram below
shows the movement of dissolved particles within a liquid until eventually becoming ran-
domly distributed.
Figure 3.14: Diffusion is the movement of molecules from a region of higher concentration to a lower
concentration. It is a passive process (i.e. does not require input of energy).
Diffusion is a passive process which means it does not require any energy input. It can occur
across a living or non-living membrane and can occur in a liquid or gas medium. Due to
the fact that diffusion occurs across a concentration gradient it can result in the movement
of substances into or out of the cell. Examples of substances moved by diffusion include
carbon dioxide, oxygen, water and other small molecules that are able to dissolve within the
lipid bilayer.
Investigation: Observing diffusion
Aim:
To observe diffusion
Apparatus:
• 1 x 500 ml beaker
• large funnel
• plastic straw
• potassium permanganate crystals

Method:
1. Fill a beaker with water and allow it to stand for a few minutes so that water movement
stops.
2. Place a large funnel into the water so that it touches the bottom of the beaker. Drop
a few small potassium permanganate crystals through the straw. Remove the funnel
carefully and slowly.
3. Observe the size of the area that is coloured by the potassium permanganate at the
beginning of the experiment, after 5 minutes and then after 20 minutes.
Questions:
1. What do you observe happening in the beaker?

2. What can you conclude based on your observations?
3. Explain how using hot water would affect the results of this experiment (remember that
when you explain you need to give a reason for your answer).
Teacher’s Guide
Observing Diffusion
Questions
1. What do you observe happening in the beaker?

2. What can you conclude based on your observations?
3. Explain how using hot water would affect the results of this experiment (remember that
when you explain you need to give a reason for your answer).
Answers
1. The purple colour slowly spreads (diffuses) throughout the entire beaker of water, until
the colour is evenly spread out.
2. The molecules of water and potassium permanganate must be constantly moving in
order for the purple colour to diffuse throughout the water and spread out evenly.
3. Using hot water would speed up the spreading process/ diffusion. The additional heat
from the water gives the particles kinetic energy which enables them to move more
quickly. The faster the particles move, the faster the colour spreads/ diffuses throughout
the beaker.
2. Osmosis
When the concentration of solutes in solution is low, the water concentration is high, and we
say there is a high water potential. Osmosis is the movement of water from a region of higher
water potential to a region of lower water potential across a semi-permeable membrane that
separates the two regions. Movement of water always occurs down a concentration gradient,
i.e from higher water potential (dilute solution) to lower potential (concentrated solution).
Osmosis is a passive process and does not require any input of energy. Cell membranes
allow molecules of water to pass through, but they do not allow molecules of most dissolved

substances, e.g. salt and sugar, to pass through. As water enters the cell via osmosis, it FACT
creates a pressure known as osmotic pressure. WATCH: osmosis
taking place by
clicking on the
following link.
See video:
SHORTCODE at
Figure 3.15: Osmosis is the movement of water from an area of high water potential to an area of low
water potential across a semi-permeable membrane.
In biological systems, osmosis is vital to plant and animal cell survival. Figure 3.16 demon-
strates how osmosis affects red blood cells when they are placed in three different solutions
with different concentrations.
Figure 3.16: The effect of hypertonic, isotonic and hypotonic solutions on red blood cells.
Hypertonic (concentrated) Isotonic Hypotonic (dilute)

The medium is concentrated The water concentration The medium has a higher
with a lower water potential inside and outside the cell is water potential (more dilute)
than inside the cell, therefore equal and there will be no than the cell and water will
the cell will lose water by nett water movement across move into the cell via
osmosis. the cell membrane. (Water osmosis, and could
will continue to move across eventuality cause the cell to
the membrane, but water burst.
will enter and leave the cell
at the same rate.)

Plant cells use osmosis to absorb water from the soil and transport it to the leaves. Osmosis
in the kidneys keeps the water and salt levels in the body and blood at the correct levels.
Investigation: Predicting the direction of osmosis
Aim:
To predict the direction of osmosis
Apparatus:
• 1 x 500 ml beaker
• 1 x large potato
• potato peeler/scalpel
• 2 x pins
• concentrated sucrose/sugar solution. To obtain this, add 100 g of sugar to 200 ml of
water.
Method:
1. Peel off the skin of a large sized potato with a scalpel/potato peeler.
2. Cut its one end to make the base flat.
3. Make a hollow cavity in the potato almost to the bottom of the potato.
4. Add the concentrated sugar solution into the cavity of the potato, filling it about half
way. Mark the level by inserting a pin at the level of the sugar solution (insert the pin
at an angle into the cavity at the level) (Figure 3.17 A).
5. Carefully place the potato in the beaker containing water.
6. Observe what happens to the level of the sugar solution in the potato.
7. After 15 to 20 minutes, mark the level by inserting the second pin at the level of the
sugar solution (insert as the first pin) (Figure 3.17 B).
Figure 3.17: Using a potato to investigate osmosis.

FACT
Questions: WATCH: am
illustration of
diffusion and
1. What do you observe happening to the level of the solution inside the potato? osmosis.
See video:
2. What conclusion can you draw based on your observation? SHORTCODE at
3. What conditions were met in this experiment that makes this type of transport different www.everythingscience.
to diffusion?
Teacher’s Guide
Predicting the direction of osmosis
Questions
1. What do you observe happening to the level of the solution inside the potato?
2. What conclusion can you draw based on your observation?
3. What conditions were met in this experiment that makes this type of transport different
to diffusion?
Answers
1. The level of the solution inside the potato increases.

2. Water moves out of the potato into the cavity in the middle. At the same time, water
is drawn into the potato from the beaker. This means that the solution in the cavity is
hypertonic and the water is hypotonic.
3. The semi-permeable membranes of the cells in the potato prevented the sugar molecules
from moving. Only the water moves. In diffusion, all molecules are able to move. In
osmosis, only water moves, and it moves across a semi-permeable membrane.
3. Facilitated diffusion
Facilitated diffusion is a special form of diffusion which allows rapid exchange of specific
substances. Particles are taken up by carrier proteins which change their shape as a result.
The change in shape causes the particles to be released on the other side of the membrane.
Facilitated diffusion can only occur across living, biological membranes which contain the
carrier proteins. A substance is transported via a carrier protein from a region of high concen-
tration to a region of low concentration until it is randomly distributed. Therefore movement
is down a concentration gradient.
Figure 3.18: Facilitated diffusion in cell membrane, showing ion channels and carrier proteins.

FACT Examples of substances moved via facilitated diffusion include all polar molecules such as
ATP and ADP are glucose or amino acids.
molecules involved
with moving energy
within cells. You do 4. Active transport
not need to know
these names in full Active transport is the movement of substances against a concentration gradient, from a
and will learn more
region of low concentration to high concentration using an input of energy. In biological
about them later.
systems, the form in which this energy occurs is adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The process
transports substances through a membrane protein. The movement of substances is selective
FACT
REVISIONYou may via the carrier proteins and can occur into or out of the cell.
have encountered
the terms
cytoplasm,
nucleoplasm and
protoplasm earlier
in Grade 9.
Cytoplasm is the
part of the cell that
is within the cell
membrane and
excludes the
nucleus.
Nucleoplasm is the
substance of the cell
nucleus, i.e.
everything within Figure 3.19: The sodium-potassium pump is an example of primary active transport.
the nucleus that is
not part of the
nucleolus.
Protoplasm is the Examples of substances moved include sodium and potassium ions as shown in Figure 3.19
colourless material
comprising the
living part of a cell,
including the 3.4 Cell organelles DUMMY
cytoplasm, nucleus
and other
organelles.
We will now look at the key organelles that make up the cell. It is important to bear in mind
that structure and function are closely related in all living systems. When studying each
organelle, ensure that you observe the specific structures (from micrographs) that allow the
organelle to perform its specific function.
Cytoplasm DUMMY
The cytoplasm is the jelly-like substance that fills the cell. It consists of up to 90% water. It
also contains dissolved nutrients and waste products. Its main function is to hold together
the organelles which make up the cytoplasm. It also nourishes the cell by supplying it with
salts and sugars and provides a medium for metabolic reactions to occur.
All the contents of prokaryotic cells are contained within the cytoplasm. In eukaryotic cells,
all the organelles are contained within the cytoplasm except the nucleolus which is con-
tained within the nucleus.
Functions of the cytoplasm
• The cytoplasm provides mechanical support to the cell by exerting pressure against
the cell’s membrane which helps keep the shape of the cell. This pressure is known as
turgor pressure.
84 3.4. Cell organelles

• It is the site of most cellular activities including metabolism, cell division and protein FACT
synthesis. During cell division,
DNA contracts and
• The cytoplasm contains ribosomes which assist in the synthesis of protein. folds to form distinct
• The cytoplasm acts a storage area for small carbohydrate, lipid and protein molecules. structures called
chromosomes. The
• The cytoplasm suspends and can transport organelles around the cell. chromosomes are
formed at the start
of cell division.
Nucleus DUMMY
FACT
The genetic material
of eukaryotic
The nucleus is the largest organelle in the cell and contains all the cell’s genetic informa- organisms is
tion in the from of DNA. The presence of a nucleus is the primary factor that distinguishes separated from the
cytoplasm by a
eukaryotes from prokaryotes. The structure of the nucleus is described below: membrane whereas
the genetic material
Nuclear envelope: two lipid membranes that are studded with special proteins that separates of prokaryotic
the nucleus and its contents from the cytoplasm. organisms (like
bacteria) is in direct
contact with the
Nuclear pores: tiny holes called nuclear pores are found in the nuclear envelope and help cytoplasm.
to regulate the exchange of materials (such as RNA and proteins) between the nucleus and
the cytoplasm. FACT
Mitochondria also
Chromatin: thin long strands of DNA and protein. contain DNA,
called
mitochondrial DNA,
Nucleolus: the nucleolus makes RNA another type of nucleic acid. (mtDNA) but it
makes up just a
small percentage of
the cell’s overall
Schematic Diagram Micrograph DNA content. All
mitochondrial DNA
in humans is
derived from the
mother’s side.
Figure 3.20: Diagram showing the basic structures of the an-

imal cell nucleus. Figure 3.21: An electron micro-
graph of a cell nucleus showing a
densely staining nucleolus.
Functions of the nucleus
• The main function of the cell nucleus is to control gene expression and facilitate the
replication of DNA during the cell cycle (which you will learn about in the next chap-
ter).
• The nucleus controls the metabolic functions of the cell by producing mRNA which
encodes for enzymes e.g. insulin.
• The nucleus controls the structure of the cell by transcribing DNA which encodes for
structural proteins such as actin and keratin.

FACT • The nucleus is the site of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis, which is important for the
WATCH: Powering construction of ribosomes. Ribosomes are the site of protein translation (synthesis of
the cell:
proteins from amino acids).
mitochondria
See video: • Characteristics are transmitted from parent to offspring through genetic material con-
SHORTCODE at tained in the nucleus.
Mitochondria DUMMY
A mitochondrion is a membrane bound organelle found in eukaryotic cells. This organelle

generates the cell’s supply of chemical energy by releasing energy stored in molecules from
food and using it to produce ATP (adenosine triphosphate). ATP is a special type of ”energy
carrying” molecule.
Structure and function of the mitochondrion
Mitochondria contain two phospholipid bilayers: there is an outer membrane, and in inner
membrane. The inner membrane contains many folds called cristae which contain spe-
cialised membrane proteins that enable the mitochondria to synthesise ATP. Inside the inner
membrane is a jelly-like matrix. Listed from the outermost layer to the innermost compart-
ment, the compartments of the mitochondrion, are:
• Outer mitochondrial membrane

• Intermembrane space
• Inner mitochondrial membrane
• Cristae (folds of the inner membrane)
• matrix (jelly-like substance within the inner membrane)
Schematic Diagram Micrograph
Figure 3.23: Electron micro-

graph of a mitochondrion.
Figure 3.22: The major structures of the mitochondrion in three

dimensions.
The table below relates each structure to its function.

FACT
Structure Function Adaptation to function In Life Sciences it is
Outer mitochondrial Transfer of nutrients (e.g Has large number of important to note
that whenever a
membrane lipids) to mitochondrion channels to facilitate transfer
structure has an
of molecules increased surface
Intermembrane space Stores large proteins allowing Its position between two area, there is an
for cellular respiration selectively permeable increase in the
functioning of that
membranes allows it to have
structure.
a unique composition
compared to the cytoplasm
and the matrix
Inner membrane Stores membrane proteins Contains folds known as
that allow for energy cristae which provide
production increased surface area, thus
enabling production of ATP
(chemical potential energy)
Matrix Contains enzymes that allow The matrix is contains a high
for the production of ATP quantity of protein enzymes
(energy) which allow for ATP
production
Endoplasmic reticulum DUMMY
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is an organelle found in eukaryotic cells only. The ER has
a double membrane consisting of a network of hollow tubes, flattened sheets, and round
sacs. These flattened, hollow folds and sacs are called cisternae. The ER is located in the
cytoplasm and is connected to the nuclear envelope. There are two types of endoplasmic
reticulum: smooth and rough ER.
Smooth ER: does not have any ribosomes attached. It is involved in the synthesis of lipids,
including oils, phospholipids and steroids. It is also responsible for metabolism of carbohy-
drates, regulation of calcium concentration and detoxification of drugs.
Rough ER: is covered with ribosomes giving the endoplasmic reticulum its rough appear-
ance. It is responsible for protein synthesis and plays a role in membrane production. The
folds present in the membrane increase the surface area allowing more ribosomes to be
present on the ER, thereby allowing greater protein production.

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Rough endoplasmic reticulum
Ribosomes DUMMY
Ribosomes are composed of RNA and protein. They occur in the cytoplasm and are the sites
where protein synthesis occurs. Ribosomes may occur singly in the cytoplasm or in groups
or may be attached to the endoplasmic reticulum thus forming the rough endoplasmic retic-
ulum. Ribosomes are important for protein production. Together with a structure known as
messenger RNA (a type of nucleic acid) ribosomes form a structure known as a polyribosome
which is important in protein synthesis.
Diagram: Free Ribosome Diagram: Polyribosome
Figure 3.24: Free ribosomes found within cyto- Figure 3.25: Diagram of several ribosomes
plasm. joined together on a strand of mRNA to form a
polyribosome.

FACT
Golgi body DUMMY The Golgi body was
discovered by the
Italian physician
Camillo Golgi. It
The Golgi body is found near the nucleus and endoplasmic reticulum. The Golgi body was one of the first
organelles to be
consists of a stack of flat membrane-bound sacs called cisternae. The cisternae within the
discovered and
Golgi body consist of enzymes which modify the packaged products of the Golgi body described in detail
(proteins). because it’s large
size made it easier
to observe.
Figure 3.26: Diagram showing Golgi bodies found

in animal cells.
Figure 3.27: TEM Micrograph of Golgi

body, visible as a stack of semicircular
black rings near the bottom.
Functions of the Golgi body
It is important for proteins to be transported from where they are synthesised to where they
are required in the cell. The organelle responsible for this is the Golgi Body. The Golgi body
is the sorting organelle of the cell.
Proteins are transported from the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) to the Golgi. In the
Golgi, proteins are modified and packaged into vesicle. The Golgi body therefore receives
proteins made in one location in the cell and transfers these to another location within the
cell where they are required. For this reason the Golgi body can be considered to be the
’post office’ of the cell.
Vesicles and lysosomes DUMMY
Vesicles are small, membrane-bound spherical sacs which facilitate the metabolism, trans-
port and storage of molecules. Many vesicles are made in the Golgi body and the endo-
plasmic reticulum, or are made from parts of the cell membrane. Vesicles can be classified
according to their contents and function. Transport vesicles transport molecules within the
cell.
Lysosomes are formed by the Golgi body and contain powerful digestive enzymes that can
potentially digest the cell. Lysosomes are formed by the Golgi body or the endoplasmic
reticulum. These powerful enzymes can digest cell structures and food molecules such as
carbohydrates and proteins. Lysosomes are abundant in animal cells that ingest food through
food vacuoles. When a cell dies, the lysosome releases its enzymes and digests the cell.

Vacuoles DUMMY
Vacuoles are membrane-bound, fluid-filled organelles that occur in the cytoplasm of most
plant cells, but are very small or completely absent from animal cells. Plant cells generally
have one large vacuole that takes up most of the cell’s volume. A selectively permeable
membrane called the tonoplast, surround the vacuole. The vacuole contains cell sap which
is a liquid consisting of water, mineral salts, sugars and amino acids.
Figure 3.28: A vacuole.
Functions of the vacuole
• The vacuole plays an important role in digestion and excretion of cellular waste and
storage of water and organic and inorganic substances.
• The vacuole takes in and releases water by osmosis in response to changes in the
cytoplasm, as well as in the environment around the cell.
• The vacuole is also responsible for maintaining the shape of plant cells. When the
cell is full of water, the vacuole exerts pressure outwards, pushing the cell membrane
against the cell wall. This pressure is called turgor pressure.
• If there is not sufficient water, pressure exerted by the vacuole is reduced and the cells
become flaccid causing the plant to wilt.
Centrioles DUMMY
Animal cells contain a special organelle called a centriole. The centriole is a cylindrical
tube-like structure that is composed of 9 microtubules arranged in a very particular pattern.
Two centrioles arranged perpendicular to each other are referred to as a centrosome. The
centrosome plays a very important role in cell division. The centrioles are responsible for
organising the microtubules that position the chromosomes in the correct location during
cell division. You will learn more about their function in the following chapter on Cell
Division.
Figure 3.29: A TEM micrograph of a cross-section of a centriole in an animal (rat) cell.

FACT
Plastids DUMMY The colour of plant
flowers such as an
orchid is controlled
by a specialised
Plastids are organelles found only in plants. There are 3 different types: organelle in a cell
known as the
chromoplast.
1. Leucoplasts: white plastids found in roots
2. Chloroplasts: green-coloured plastids found in plants and algae
3. Chromoplasts: contain red, orange or yellow pigments and are common in ripening
fruit, flowers or autumn leaves
Figure 3.30: Plastids perform a variety of functions in plants, including storage and energy production.
Chloroplast
The chloroplast is a double-membraned organelle. Within the double membrane is a gel-

like substance called stroma. Stroma contains enzymes for photosynthesis. Suspended in the
stroma are stack-like structures called grana (singular = granum). Each granum is a stack of
thylakoid discs. The chlorophyll molecules (green pigments) are found on the surface of the
thylakoid discs. Chlorophyll absorbs energy from the sun in order for photosynthesis to take
place in the chloroplasts. The grana are connected by lamellae (intergrana). The lamellae
keep the stacks apart from each other.
The structure of the chloroplast is neatly adapted to its function of trapping and storing energy
in plants. For example, chloroplasts contain a high density of thylakoid discs and numerous
grana to allow for increased surface area for the absorption of sunlight, thus producing a
high quantity of food for the plant. Additionally, the lamellae keeping the thylakoids apart
maximise chloroplast efficiency, thus allowing as much light as possible to be absorbed in
the smallest surface area.

FACT
WATCH: This video Schematic Diagram Micrograph
shows the
fascinating inner life
of a cell:
See video:
SHORTCODE at
Figure 3.32: Electron micrograph

of chloroplast with grana and thy-
lakoids.
Figure 3.31: Structure of chloroplast.
The differences between plant and animal cells DUMMY
Now that we have looked at the basic structures and functions of the organelles in a cell, you
would have noticed that there are key differences between plant and animal cells. The table
below summarises these differences.
Animal Cells Plant Cells

Do not contain plastids. Almost all plants cells contain plastids
such chloroplasts, chromoplasts and
leucoplasts.
No cell wall. Have a rigid cellulose cell wall in
addition to the cell membrane.
Contain centrioles. Do not contain centrioles.
Animals do not have plasmodesmata Contain plasmodesmata and pits.
or pits.
Few vacuoles (if any). Large central vacuole filled with cell
sap in mature cells.
Nucleus is generally found at the Nucleus is found near the edge of the
centre of the cytoplasm. cell.
No intercellular spaces found between Large intercellular air spaces found
the cells. between some cells.
Investigation: Examining plant cells under the microscope
Aim:
To study the microscopic structures of plant cells

Apparatus:
• onion
• blade
• slides and coverslips
• brushes
• compound microscope
• tissue paper
• forceps
• dropper
• iodine solution
• watchglass
• petri dish containing water
• iodine solution
Method:
1. Peel off the outer most layer of an onion carefully, using a pair of forceps.
2. Place the peeled layer in a watchglass containing water. Make certain that the onion
peel does not roll or fold.
3. Using a scalpel or a thin blade, cut a square piece of the onion peel (about 1 cm2 ).
4. Remove the thin transparent skin from the inside curve of a small piece of raw onion
and place it on a drop of iodine solution on a clean slide.
5. Cover the peel with a coverslip ensuring that no bubbles are formed.
6. Using a piece of tissue paper wipe off any excess iodine solution remaining on the
slide.
7. Observe the onion skin under low power of the microscope and then under high
power.
8. Draw a neat diagram of 5-10 cells of the typical cells you can see.
Figure 3.33: Onion cells stained with methylene blue.
Teacher’s Guide

Activity 3.1. Preparation of a wet mount
Before the learners do this practical it may be necessary to recap the parts and functions of
the microscope and the preparation of a wet mount.
Instructions
1. It is necessary to stain the onion to clearly show the parts of the onion under the
microscope.
2. Learners will see a number of closely arranged, brick shaped cells.
3. Learners to draw 5-10 cells.
4. Learners should draw label lines to indicate the cell wall, cytoplasm, nucleus and
vacuole.
5. The cells have a regular shape and each cell has a cell wall.
Note: As an extension activity learners can also do wet mount preparations of cheek cells.
Methylene Blue can be used to stain the cheek cells.
Investigation: Examining animal cells under the microscope
Aim:
to study the microscopic structures of human cheek cells under a compound microscope
Apparatus:
• clean ear bud

• clean slide
• methylene blue
• dropper
• water
• tissue paper
• forceps
• microscope
Method:
1. Place a drop of water on a clean glass slide.

2. Using a clean ear bud, wipe the inside of your cheek. The ear bud will collect a moist
film.
3. Spread the moist film on a drop of water on a clean glass slide, creating a small smear
on the slide.
4. Use a coverslip to cover the slide gently.
5. Place one or two drops of stain on the side of the cover slip.
6. Use a piece of tissue to remove the excess dye.
7. Observe the cheek cells under low power magnification and then under high power
magnification.

Questions:
1. What are the shapes of epidermal cells of the onion peel and the human cheek cells?
2. Why is iodine used to stain the onion peel?
3. What is the difference between the arrangement of cells in onion cells and in human
cheek cells?
4. Why is a cell considered the structural and functional unit of living things?
Figure 3.34: Cheek epithelial cells.
Teacher’s Guide
Examining cells under a microscope
Questions
1. What are the shapes of epidermal cells of the onion peel and the human cheek cells?
2. Why is iodine used to stain the onion peel?
3. What is the difference between the arrangement of cells in onion cells and in human
cheek cells?
4. Why is a cell considered the structural and functional unit of living things?
Answers
1. The onion cells have a regular shape – roughly rectangular. The cheek epidermal cells
have an irregular shape.
2. The onion peel stores glucose as starch, and starch turns brown iodine solution purple.
Using iodine solution as a stain because it will stain the starch purple, which makes
the cells more easily visible.
3. In the onion, the cells are packed regularly, like bricks in a wall. The epidermal cells
are packed irregularly – the packing depends on the shape of the cells in the region,
which are irregular.
4. The cell is the smallest unit of life. It contains the DNA necessary to create an entire

organism, and is the basic building block from which all tissues and organisms are
made. Every cell performs the seven life processes, and so each cell individual cell is
living.
Project: Cell organelles
You are required to compile a report on one of the organelles you have studied in class, or
any other organelle you choose. Your report must include the following information.
• Past
– The discovery of the organelle
– All past understanding of the organelles structure and/or function that has now
changed
– The importance of the discovery of the organelle to cell science
Present
• – The presently understood structure and function of the organelle
– A 2-dimensional picture of the organelle showing all the relevant structures of the
organelle
– An electron-microscope picture of the organelle showing the structure of the or-
ganelle
– An understanding of the importance of the organelle to human survival
• Future
– What remains to be discovered or fully understood?
– Any important role of the organelle could potentially play with the development
of future technology (i.e. in industry or medicine).
• Any other additional information or interesting facts you wish to include.
Teacher’s Guide
Presentation
• Students are required to present results of their research in a booklet format.

• It must be neatly yet creatively set out.
• It should include a thorough and correctly structured bibliography.
Students should be marked according to the attached rubric.
Project: Cell Organelles
Mark learners project according to the following guidelines.

Assessing Knowledge
Discovery of the organelle identified /5
Story of the discovery of the organelle /5
discussed and understood
Future discoveries regarding the /5
organelle discussed and understood
Interpreting Knowledge
Information on the present structure /5
and function of the organelle
discussed and understood
2D picture of organelle provided and /5
sufficiently detailed
3D picture of organelle provided and /5
Micrograph of organelle provided and /5
Additional information supplied /5
Understanding of content in everyday
life
The importance of the discovery of the /5
organelle to science provided and
understood
The possible future role of the /5
organelle provided, understood and
relevant
Exploring science in the past
Past theories/understanding of the /5
organelle that have changed discussed
Communicating information
Referencing technique correct /5
Presentation neat /5
Presentation creative /5
Total /70
Project: Diagrams of cells
Diagrams of the cell are very well understood but they often give us the wrong impression
about how complicated cells really are. Learners are to do an assignment that will help you
understand the complexity of cells.
1. Learners are to find and submit a hard copy of 5 micrographs showing different cell
organelles.
2. Of the five, learners must draw and label two so that they can demonstrate your draw-
ing, labelling and interpretive skill.
Pay close attention to the following:
• the organelles should each comfortably occupy an A5 page

• the organelles must each have a heading that includes the view, title and magnification.

• Drawings must follow the drawing skills you have learnt. One drawing must be the
same size as the micrograph, the other must be exactly half the size. Learners’ drawings
must have a correct scale line.
• Learners must state the source of your micrographs according to the Harvard conven-
tion.
• Marks will be awarded for neatness: present your work as a uniform set.
• Learners must select hardcopies well so that they can be easily recognisable and of
high quality. Their images may be of the same organelle but only if the images show
some significant variation.
Marks : [30]
Due Date:
Presentation:
Teacher’s Guide
Project: Diagrams of cells
Mark according to the following criteria:
1. Following instructions: size, quantity (5)

2. Images: choice, quality, headings, referenced (10)
3. Drawings: accuracy, realism, scale, labelling (10)
4. Effort: neatness, professionalism (5)
3.5 Summary DUMMY
The discovery of cells:
• All living organisms are made of cells.

• Cells are very small therefore magnifying instruments such as lenses and microscopes
are used to view them.
• By using a light microscope the simple features of cells can be studied. The light
microscope uses a beam of light focused by various glass lenses.
• Electron microscopes have higher power of magnification than the ordinary light mi-
croscope, therefore allowing us to see very small structures inside the cells. These
microscopes use a beam of electrons focused by electromagnets to magnify objects
instead of light rays and lenses.
• Robert Hooke (1665) used a light microscope to examine non-living cork cells.
• Antonie van Leeuwenhoek was the first person to observe living cells using a micro-
scope.
• The development of cell theory was from the study of microscopic cells.
Cell structure and function
98 3.5. Summary
• All cells have the same basic structure. They are all surrounded by a cell membrane
and contain cytoplasm and organelles.
• Cells have different sizes, shapes and structures in order to carry out specialised func-
tions.
• The cell membrane is made of phospholipids and proteins and controls substances
which move in and out of the cell.
• The structure of the cell membrane is referred to as the Fluid Mosaic Model.
• The nucleus is made up of a nuclear membrane with nucleopores, chromatin material

and the nucleolus inside the nucleoplasm.
• Mitochondria release chemical potential energy (ATP) for the cell during cellular res-
piration.
• Ribosomes are important for protein production.
• Cytoplasm is used for storage and circulation of various materials.
• Endoplasmic reticulum transports substances from one part of the cell to another.
• The Golgi body modifies, secretes, packages and distributes various organic molecules
(proteins and lipids) around the cell.
• Vacuoles are used for storage. In plant cells these are large, whilst in animal cells, if
present, are very small.
• Lysosomes are mainly found in animal cells.
• Centrioles are only found in animal cells.
• The cell wall is found only in plant cells and is made up of cellulose. The cell wall
gives the plants shape, support and protection.
• Plastids are found only in plant cells. There are three types of plastids:
– chloroplasts contain chlorophyll and their function is the production of food by
photosynthesis
– chromoplasts give colour to fruits and flowers
– leucoplasts are white and are used mainly for starch storage
3.6 End of chapter exercises DUMMY
Exercise 3 – 1:
1. Examine the three images below. Use calculations Explain which organism would be
the smallest when viewed with the naked eye. Show all the calculations you used to
arrive at your answer.

Solution:
A = 4 / 40 = 0,1 mm
B = 1,6 / 100 = 0,016 mm
C = 0,4 / 400 = 0,001 mm
So item C would be the smallest
2. Below is a three-dimensional diagram of the cell. Provide the name and function of
the following numbered structures:
The following difficult to distinguish structures have been done for you:
• 4-vesicle: spherical sacs that facilitate storage, metabolism and transport of
molecules.
• 7-cell membrane: selectively permeable to control the passage of substances into
and out of the cell.
• 10-vacuole: storage of sugars, minerals and pigments and help maintain water
balance in the cell.
• 12-lysosome: contain powerful digestive enzymes that digest damaged cell struc-
tures and food molecules.
a) Solution:
• 1-Nucleolus: site of the transcription of RNA.
• 2-Nucleus: controls metabolism of the cell and contains hereditary informa-
tion.
• 3-Ribosome: site of protein synthesis.
• 5-Rough endoplasmic reticulum: many ribosomes therefore allowing for the
production of many proteins.
100 3.6. End of chapter exercises

• 6-Golgi body: modify and package proteins and send them where they are
needed int he cell.
• 8-Smooth endoplasmic reticulum: the synthesis of lipids and the detoxifica-
tion of drugs.
• 9-Mitochondrion: the site of cellular respiration where energy is released
from glucose molecules.
• 11-Cytoplasm: jelly-like substance that contains all the organelles and which
contains dissolved nutrients.
• 12-Centriole: special structures that help cells to divide during mitosis.
3. Multiple answers are provided for each question. Write only the letter of the correct
answer next to the corresponding number.
a) Active transport is the movement of a substance from a:

i. high concentration to a low concentration.
ii. high water potential to a low water potential.
iii. isotonic solution.
iv. low concentration to a high concentration.
Solution:
iv
b) Protoplasm consists of:
i. nucleoplasm and nucleolus.
ii. cytoplasm and nucleoplasm.
iii. cytoplasm and organelles.
iv. membranes and organelles.
Solution:
ii
c) This organelle is responsible for transporting substances around the cell:
i. Ribosome
ii. Golgi body
iii. Nucleus
iv. Endoplasmic reticulum
Solution:
iv
d) The nucleus does not control:
i. Hereditary transmission
ii. Cellular respiration
iii. Metabolism
iv. Structure
Solution:
ii
e) The energy that a molecule possesses while moving:
i. Potential energy
ii. Kinetic energy
iii. Magnetic energy
iv. Mechanical energy

Solution:
ii
f) Which of the following is not a product of cellular respiration?
i. CO2
ii. H2 O
iii. O2
iv. ATP
Solution:
iii
4. Give the correct biological term for each of the following. Write only the term next to
the relevant question number.
a) Part of the cell that consists of about 90% water.
Solution:
cytoplasm
b) Often referred to as the powerhouse of the cell.
Solution:
mitochondrion
c) Pigment found in green plants.
Solution:
chlorophyll
d) The part of a plant cell that is composed of cellulose.
Solution:
cell wall
e) The fluid inside the vacuole.
Solution:
cell sap
f) The movement of a substance against a concentration gradient.
Solution:
active transport
g) The structure that distributes substances made in the cell.
Solution:
Golgi body
5. Choose the correct option for each of the following questions. Write only the term
next to the relevant question number.
a) What structure contains DNA and regulates most of the processes within the cell?
i. Mitochondria
ii. Chloroplast
iii. Nucleus
iv. Nucleolus
Solution:
iii
b) What is a cell membrane?
i. thin flexible barrier around the cell that regulates transport
ii. rigid cover that provides support for the cell
iii. the place where light energy, water and carbon dioxide are used

iv. special organelle that converts solar energy to chemical energy
Solution:
i
c) Which two organelles contain their own DNA genome, separate from the nuclear
genome?
i. lysosomes and transport vesicles
ii. endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus
iii. cilia and flagella
iv. mitochondria and chloroplast
v. ribosomes and vacuoles
Solution:
iv
6. Tabulate four differences between animal and plant cells.
Solution:
Any four of the following:
Animal Cells Plant Cells

Do not contain plastids. Almost all plants cells contain plastids
such chloroplasts, chromoplasts and
leucoplasts.
No cell wall. Have a rigid cellulose cell wall in
addition to the cell membrane.
Contain centrioles. Do not contain centrioles.
Animals do not have plasmodesmata Contain plasmodesmata and pits.
or pits.
Few vacuoles (if any). Large central vacuole filled with cell
sap in mature cells.
Nucleus is generally found at the Nucleus is found near the edge of the
centre of the cytoplasm. cell.
No intercellular spaces found between Large intercellular air spaces found
the cells. between some cells.
7. a) Name a structural adaptation of the mitochondria that makes it suited to its func-
tion:
Solution:
Mitochondria have many cristae (folds) that increase the surface area for reactions.
b) Name one structural adaptation of chloroplasts.
Solution:
Chloroplasts have many thylakoid discs, which contain chlorophyll, thus max-
imising the surface area for the absorption of light energy.

CHAPTER 4
Cell division
4.1 Overview 106

4.2 The cell cycle 107
4.3 The role of mitosis 111
4.4 Cancer 112
4.5 Summary 122
4.6 End of chapter exercises 123
4 Cell division
4.1 Overview DUMMY
Introduction DUMMY
Teacher’s Guide
Time allocation: 2 weeks (8 hours)
In this section we discuss how and why cells make copies of themselves, as well as what can
go wrong when cell division is uncontrolled. Learners will be introduced to the mechanism
by which cells replicate themselves through the process of cell division called mitosis. Mi-
tosis is absolutely vital to the survival of all organisms, as without it unicellular organisms
would not be able to reproduce and multicellular organisms would not be able to grow or
heal after damage. However, uncontrolled mitosis can result in cancer, a potentially fatal
condition. In this chapter we will review the stages of mitosis in plants and animal cells. We
will then discuss how cancer is caused and some treatments that are available.
Key concepts
• The cell cycle is divided into two main stages: interphase and the mitotic phase.
• During interphase cells grow in size and replicate their DNA.
• Chromosomes are present in the nuclei of all cells and consist of two chromatids joined
by a centromere.
• Mitosis is the process by which cells distribute their replicated DNA to two daughter
cells.
• The mitotic phase consists of five stages: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase
and cytokinesis.
• Mitosis is the means of reproduction in unicellular organisms that undergo asexual
reproduction.
• Mitosis is required for growth and repair in multicellular organisms.
• Cancer is a disease of uncontrolled mitosis.
• Cancer is caused by carcinogens and is treated through surgery, radiation and chemother-
apy.
In this unit you will learn how we are able to replicate our cells through the process of
cell division called mitosis. Mitosis is absolutely vital to the survival of all organisms, as
without it unicellular organisms would not be able to reproduce and multicellular organisms
would not be able to grow or heal after damage. However, uncontrolled mitosis can result
in cancer, a potentially fatal condition. In this chapter we will review the stages of mitosis
in plants and animal cells. We will then discuss how cancer is caused and some treatments
that are available.
Key concepts
106 4.1. Overview

• The cell cycle is divided into two main stages: interphase and the mitotic phase.
• During interphase cells grow in size and replicate their DNA.
• Chromosomes are present in the nuclei of all cells and consist of two chromatids joined
by a centromere.
• Mitosis is the process by which cells distribute their replicated DNA to two daughter
cells.
• The mitotic phase consists of five stages: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase
and cytokinesis.
• Mitosis is the means of reproduction in unicellular organisms that undergo asexual
reproduction.
• Mitosis is required for growth and repair in multicellular organisms.
• Cancer is a disease of uncontrolled mitosis.
• Cancer is caused by carcinogens and is treated through surgery, radiation and chemother-
apy.
4.2 The cell cycle DUMMY
Teacher’s Guide
This section introduces the learner to the life cycle of a cell. Teachers should emphasise
that mitosis and the cell cycle are not the same thing! Mitosis is simply one stage of the
cell cycle. The process of mitosis (cell division) is explained. Learners need to know the
names of the phases and they need to be able to draw simple descriptive diagrams showing
the chromosome changes. A description of the differences in telophase between plant and
animal cells is also required (plant cells lack centrioles). The difference between cytokinesis
in animal and plant cells should also be addressed: plant cells invaginate and ”pinch off”
and plant cells grow a cell plate, which becomes the new cell wall.
The cell cycle is the series of events that takes place in a cell that results in DNA replication
and cell division. There are two main stages in the cell cycle. The first stage is interphase
during which the cell grows and replicates its DNA. The second phase is the mitotic phase
(M-Phase) during which the cell divides and transfers one copy of its DNA to two identical
daughter cells. Figure 4.1 provides a brief overview of what takes place during each of the
key events of the cell cycle.
Chapter 4. Cell division 107

FACT
Some cells no
longer need to
divide and exit the
cell cycle. These
cells may exit the
cell cycle
permanently, such
as neurons, or they
may exit the cell
cycle temporarily.
These cells are said
to be in G0 . G0 is
not a stage of the
cell cycle.
FACT
In cells without a
nucleus (prokaryotic
cells e.g. bacteria),
there are many
copies of the DNA
floating around the Figure 4.1: The sequence of events in the cell leading to division of a cell into two daughter cells is
whole cell. The known as the cell cycle and is shown above.
prokaryotic cell
cycle occurs
through a process
termed binary
fission. In cells with Interphase DUMMY
a nucleus
(eukaryotes) all the
DNA is inside the
nucleus and so a
more complicated Interphase is the longest phase of the cell cycle. During this phase the cell grows to its
cell cycle is maximum size, performs its normal cellular functions, replicates its DNA, and prepares for
required for cell division. This stage is divided into three parts: G1 , G2 and S phases.
replication.
G1 phase: occurs just after the two daughter cells have split and the cells have only one copy
of their DNA. Cells in this stage synthesise proteins and increase in size. Cells can remain
in this stage for a long time.
S phase: is the stage during which DNA replication occurs. The cell makes an identical
copy of each of its chromosomes. Chromosomes are found inside the nucleus of the cell
and consist of long strands of DNA that contain the genetic information of the cell.
G2 phase: occurs after the DNA had been duplicated in S phase. During this phase the cell
may continue to grow and undergo normal cellular functions. Towards the end of this phase
the cell will start to replicate its organelles in preparation for mitosis.
Interphase (G1 , S and G2 phases) accounts for approximately 90% of the cell cycle, with the
other 10% being taken up by mitosis.
Mitotic Phase DUMMY
The mitotic phase (M phase) is composed of two tightly coupled processes: mitosis and
cytokinesis. During mitosis the chromosomes in the cell nucleus separate into two identical
sets in two nuclei. This is followed by cytokinesis in which the cytoplasm, organelles and cell
membrane split into two cells containing roughly equal shares of these cellular components.
We will now describe what takes place during the stages of M-phase, which includes the
four broad phases of mitosis (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase) and the fifth phase
108 4.2. The cell cycle

of cytokinesis: FACT
Human cells have
46 chromosomes.
1. prophase (23 from the mother
and 23 from the
2. metaphase
father).
3. anaphase
4. telophase
5. cytokinesis
1. Prophase
During prophase, the chromatin material shortens and thickens into individual chromo-
somes which are visible under the light microscope. Each chromosome consist of two strands
or chromatids joined by a centromere (Figure 4.2 ).
Figure 4.2: Chromosome structure showing (1) Chromatid, (2) Centromere, (3) Short and (4) Long
arms of chromosome.
As prophase progresses, the nuclear membrane and nucleolus disintegrates. In animal cells
the centrioles separate and move to opposite poles. The centrioles give rise to the spindle
fibres which form between the poles. In plant cells there are no centrioles to move to the
poles, so spindle fibres form in the cytoplasm.
Schematic diagram: animal cell Micrograph: plant cell

FACT 2. Metaphase
HINT: The stages of
the cell cycle
During metaphase, chromosomes line up on the equator of the cell. The chromosomes
(interphase,
prophase, appear in a straight line across the middle of the cell. Each chromosome is attached to the
metaphase, spindle fibres by its centromere.
anaphase,
telophase) can be
remembered by
using the
mnemonic IPMAT.
FACT
In plant cells there
are no centrioles to
move to the poles,
so spindle fibres
form in the
cytoplasm.
3. Anaphase
During anaphase the chromatids are pulled to opposite poles of the cell by the shortening of
the spindle fibres. The chromatids are now called daughter chromosomes.
4. Telophase
During telophase, a nuclear membrane reforms around the daughter chromosomes that have
gathered at each of the poles. The daughter chromosomes uncoil to form chromatin once
again. The nuclear membrane reforms.
110 4.2. The cell cycle

5. Cytokinesis
The cytoplasm then divides during a process called cytokinesis. Cytokinesis is not a stage
of mitosis but the process of the cytoplasm splitting into two. In an animal cell the cell
membrane constricts. This invagination or in-folding of the cytoplasm divides the cell in
two. In a plant cell a cross wall is formed by the cell plate dividing the cytoplasm in two.
Schematic diagram: animal cell Micrograph
There are now two genetically identical daughter cells which are identical to the parent cell
and to each other.
4.3 The role of mitosis DUMMY
Teacher’s Guide
Discuss the role of mitosis in growth, repair and reproduction in some simple organisms.
Learners should be aware that there are two kinds of cell division, but only need to know
mitosis in Grade 10. It is important that to remind learners that mitosis is the ”copying” divi-
sion, where the two daughter cells are exact copies of the mother cell. However, in meiosis,
it is a reduction division where the daughter cells have half the number of chromosomes
than the mother cell. No further detail is required.
The process of mitosis is essential for growth and repair processes of eukaryotic organisms:
mitosis is how we are able to replace our fingernails and hair as well as how our skin is
replaced. The table below summarises the role of mitosis in various processes in eukaryotic
organisms.

FACT Living Process Role of Mitosis
Hair has the highest Development and growth The number of cells increases by
rate of mitosis. An
mitosis enabling organisms to grow
average hair grows
0.3 mm every day from a single cell to a complex
and 1 cm every multicellular organism.
month. Cell replacement Cells are constantly lost and replaced
by new ones in the body, for example
in the skin and in the gut. In addition,
red blood cells live for only four
months, and are replaced by mitosis.
Replacement of damaged plant or Some organisms use mitosis to replace
animal tissue (regeneration) body parts. For example starfish
replace lost arms by mitosis.
Asexual reproduction Some organisms such as the hydra use
mitosis to produce genetically
identical offspring. The process is
known as budding. Mitosis is also the
method by which yeast cells multiply.
Figure 4.3 shows asexual reproduction in a ciliate organism. Asexual reproduction uses
mitosis.
Figure 4.3: Asexual reproduction: ciliate undergoing cytokinesis.
4.4 Cancer DUMMY
Teacher’s Guide
Cancers are caused by uncontrolled cell division and growth. Initially learners will need to
be told what cancer is, and how cancer cells differ from normal cells. They will also need to
understand how a tumour can be benign or malignant. The key characteristic of a malignant
tumour is the ability to metastasise to other organs via the bloodstream or lymph.
A brief discussion of the causes of cancers with learners is necessary. Teachers should em-
phasise that learners can control some of the behaviours that cause cancer. Finally teachers
should address the beliefs and attitudes of various communities and groups about cancer.
This is an excellent opportunity to hold a class discussion, and we encourage teachers to
invite questions and stories from learners and not to focus on only some of the common
misconceptions outlined in this book.
112 4.4. Cancer

The various treatments of cancer including traditional, other non-conventional treatments
also need to be discussed. The advancement of medical biotechnology e.g. radiotherapy,
chemotherapy needs to be introduced to the learners, but no detail is required.
Websites to visit
Short video from the Khan Academy: ”Cancer : An introduction to cancer and how it is the
by-product of broken DNA replication” http://www.khanacademy.org/video/cancer?
playlist=Biology
Inside Cancer (very good summary of cancer and related issues) http://www.insidecancer.
org/ and http://www.insidecancer.org/
Introduction DUMMY
Cancer is a group of diseases characterised by uncontrolled cell division which leads to

growth of abnormal tissue. This means that a cancer is essentially a disease of mitosis.
Cancer begins when a single cell is transformed, or converted from a normal cell to a cancer
cell. Cancer cells grow and divide uncontrollably to form a mass of cancer cells called a
tumour. As the tumours grow, they squash healthy cells, steal their nutrients and prevent
them from working normally. Cancer cells differ from normal cells in a number of ways:
1. Cancer cells don’t listen to signals to stop growing: normal cells listen to signals from
the body to stop growing and dividing. However cancer cells do not respond to signals
from the body and keep on dividing.
2. Cancer cells grow new blood vessels: as the tumour grows larger, it begins to release
proteins from the cell to attract new blood vessels. Blood vessels draw nutrients away
from healthy cells and therefore starve them while allowing the growth of the tumour.
The new blood vessels also enable cancer cells to enter the bloodstream and spread to
other parts of the body.
3. Cancer cells spread around the body: another feature of cancer cells is that they can
spread around the body (metastasise). Tumours that have the ability to spread to other
parts of the body are called malignant. Cancer cells can spread to surrounding tissues
via the bloodstream or via the lymph system.
As previously mentioned, cancer cells are malignant which means they are able to invade
tissues and spread to other parts of the body. Some tumours cannot spread to other tissues
and are called benign tumours. Benign tumours are non-cancerous.

FACT
WATCH some
videos to learn
more about how
normal cells turn
cancerous.
See video:
SHORTCODE at
See video:
SHORTCODE at
See video:
SHORTCODE at
See video:
SHORTCODE at
FACT
There are hundreds Figure 4.4: Benign tumours are unable to metastasise. Malignant tumours are able to metastasise
of different types of away from the original tumour site.
cancer. For a
comprehensive list
visit: http:
//en.wikipedia. Types of cancers
org/wiki/List_
of_cancer_types Cancer can affect almost any tissue in the body. A list of some common cancers includes:
• Breast cancer
• Lung cancer
• Oesophageal cancer
• Leukaemia (blood cancer)
• Melanoma (skin cancer)
Cancers often spread to different organs, however it remains the same type of cancer as the
original cancer, it is simply referred to as a metastasis. Therefore melanoma (skin cancer)
that spreads to the liver is not liver cancer, but a melanoma metastasis to the liver.
Causes of cancer DUMMY
Cancer is caused by agents called carcinogens. Carcinogens cause cancer by damaging

DNA which can no longer code for the important regulatory functions of the cell cycle.
Some viruses can also increase the likelihood of getting certain types of cancer. Human
papillomavirus (HPV), the disease that causes genital warts, can increase a woman’s risk of
cervical cancer, and infection with hepatitis B or C increases the risk of liver cancer. In
addition, some people are born with genetic mutations that they have inherited from their
parents that increase their chances of getting cancer. However a genetic predisposition to
cancer does not mean that you will get cancer. If you have a family history of cancer it simply
means it is more important for you to limit your exposure to carcinogens. Examples of some
carcinogens include:
• cigarette smoke
• radiation
• x-rays
• UV light
114 4.4. Cancer

• food additives FACT
Carcinogens can
• several dangerous chemicals cause a DNA
mutation that
occurs in one of
Beliefs and attitudes concerning cancer DUMMY several genes that
normally function to
control growth. E.g
the BRCA1, or
”Breast Cancer
There are some common misconceptions about cancer Gene”. The BRCA1
gene normally
functions to
• It is people’s fault if they get cancer: although there are ways to try and decrease your suppress tumour
risk of getting cancer, it is not always possible. Cancer is caused by random mutations formation; but if a
in DNA, and sometimes people get cancer purely by chance. genetic mutation
occurs it does not
• Cancer is a death sentence: sometimes when the cancer is very advanced there is not work properly, and
much to be done to save a person, but there are many cancers that respond well to tumour formation
treatment when detected early. Depending on the type and the stage of the cancer, can begin.
people can survive cancer and go on to live healthy happy lives. Mutations in this
gene does not mean
• If someone in your family has cancer you might get it too: although there are some that a person will
cancers that are more common in certain families due to an inherited genetic mutation, develop breast
a family history of cancer does not mean than you will also get cancer. However, if cancer, but they
have an increased
a certain type of cancer runs in your family it is good to see a doctor for regular
risk for breast
screenings. cancer.
• Cancer is contagious and you can catch it from others: cancer cannot be spread from
one person to another.
• A positive attitude can cure cancer: there is plenty of evidence that a positive attitude
can help a person with cancer feel better and stay healthier for longer, however it is
not the only factor that determines whether someone will recover or not.
• Only old people get cancer: although cancer is more common in older people, chil-
dren and babies can also get cancer. Leukaemia is a common childhood cancer.
• Only females get breast cancer: although breast cancer is more common in females,
males can also get breast cancer.
• Only pale people get skin cancer: although skin cancer is more common in people
with light skin (melanin, the pigment that makes your skin dark is also protective),
people with dark skin can also get skin cancer.
Cancer treatment DUMMY
Conventional methods
The conventional medical approaches to treating cancer include radiation therapy, chemother-
apy and surgery.
1. Radiation therapy
Radiation therapy is the use of high energy electromagnetic radiation to kill cancer cells. The
radiation damages the DNA inside the cancer cells, causing them to die. Radiation damages
healthy cells too; therefore the treatment is targeted directly at the tumour.

FACT
Chemotherapy
targets cells that are
rapidly dividing so
patients undergoing
chemotherapy often
lose their hair and
feel nauseous
(because the
intestinal lining in
the stomach is
killed).
Figure 4.5: Radiation therapy uses high energy electromagnetic radiation to kill cancer cells.
2. Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy is the use of special drugs to treat cancer. Most chemotherapy drugs are
cytotoxic (toxic to cells) and work by damaging the cell’s DNA. Chemotherapy specifically
tries to prevent cell division, and so it is very toxic to cancer cells which are characterised
by uncontrolled cell division. However, unfortunately, these drugs also damage healthy cells
that divide rapidly, such as blood cells and cells found in hair follicles, lining the mouth,
stomach and intestine and the skin. Because of the damage to rapidly dividing healthy
cells, the side-effects from chemotherapy include hair loss, mouth ulcers, nausea, sores,
anaemia and infections due to a lowered immune system. A combination of drugs which act
in slightly different ways to halt cell division are often given together. Patients often receive
chemo according to a regime, where they receive doses of chemo for a time period, followed
by a break that allows the healthy cells in their bodies to recover. Usually a chemo regime
consists of a few cycles of chemotherapy doses and breaks for recovery.
Figure 4.6: Chemotherapy is the use of chemical treatments targeted at cancer cells.
3. Surgery
Surgery involves removal of either the whole tumour, part of the tumour and sometimes
even whole organs or body parts. When a small section of the tumour is removed this is
called biopsy. Frequently surgery is followed by either radiation therapy or chemotherapy
and sometimes both.
Indigenous methods
116 4.4. Cancer

In addition to the conventional methods of treatment described, many people seek alterna- FACT
tive forms of treatment. In South Africa, individuals commonly use traditional medicines Some people are
born with mutations
like African Potato (Hypoxis hemerocallidea) and ”Cancer bush” (Sutherlandia frutescens),
in genes involved in
to boost the immune system while undergoing conventional treatments. regulating the cell
cycle. For example
in colorectal cancer
(cancer of the
colon) some people
have mutations in
the mismatch repair
genes. Mismatch
repair genes fix
damaged DNA. If
they are not
working properly it
enhances a person’s
risk of getting
cancer. People who
have a close family
member who got
Figure 4.7: African potato is used as a remedy Figure 4.8: ”Cancer bush” used in certain cancer when they
against cancer in some forms of traditional forms of indigenous treatments for cancer. were under 40 years
of age need to be
medicine.
regularly tested for
damaged genes.
The cancer bush (Sutherlandia frutescent, uNwele) is an indigenous medicinal plant which
the Khoi and Nama people used to wash wounds and to reduce high fevers. The early settlers
also used this bush to treat chicken pox, eye problems and internal cancers. Cancer patients
often lose weight and suffer muscle wastage and a tonic made from this bush may improve
appetite, decrease anxiety and slow down the weight loss.
Prevention of cancer DUMMY
The risk of developing any one of the many types of cancer can be reduced by eating a
healthy diet, exercising regularly and avoiding smoking and alcohol. The sooner cancer
is detected the easier it is to treat. Therefore it is also advisable for people to get regular
screenings. Here are some guidelines to lower your risk of developing cancer:
• Avoid smoking: avoid smoking cigarettes and avoid enclosed areas where people
smoke (this avoids passive smoking).
• Avoid alcohol: limit alcohol, as excessive alcohol consumption can lead to increased
risk of oesophageal, liver and breast cancer.
• Healthy diet: avoid (or limit) very processed foods or burnt food, both of which contain
carcinogens.
• Regular physical activity: partake in physical activity on a regular basis. Regular exer-
cise improves general health and helps one to maintain an ideal body weight, thereby
lowering the risk of many cancers.
• Sun protection: limit exposure to the sun and damage by ultraviolet radiation. Try to
stay out of the sun between 10 am and 3 pm, wear high SPF sunscreen that protects
against UVA and UVB, and wear a hat, sunglasses, and protective clothing.
• Regular screenings: cell or tissue abnormalities can sometimes be detected before they
become cancerous. Regular pap smears can prevent cervical abnormalities developing
into cervical cancer and getting moles and skin conditions checked can prevent dan-
gerous skin cancer. Cancer can also be detected at the early treatable stages by going

for regular mammograms (for breast cancer), or prostate exams (for prostate cancer) as
adults. The frequency of these exams will be age and risk dependent.
Ways to decrease cancer risk
Avoid smoking Avoid excessive alcohol Eat a healthy diet

consumption
Regular physical activity Sun protection Regular screenings
Activity: Cancer and smoking
Aim:
Investigating the relationship of smoking and cancer.
Instructions:
Look at the graph below and answer the questions that follow:
118 4.4. Cancer

Figure 4.9: Graph showing correlation between smoking and lung cancer (courtesy NHI).
Questions:
1. In what year was the first incidence of lung cancer seen in male smokers?
2. How many years was this after the introduction of cigarettes?
3. In which year did the average number of cigarettes smoked per year reach a peak?
4. Approximate how many years it takes most male smokers to develop cancer? Clue:
Compare the number of years seen between the two line graphs for 1000, 2000, 3000
and 4000 cigarettes per year. Add the years together and divide by 4 to get the average
time (in years) taken for smokers to develop cancer.
5. What can you say about the shape of the two graphs? Do they look similar or different?
What does this mean?
6. What was the death rate from lung cancer in 1950? Express your answer as a percent-
age and show your working.
7. Suggest a reason why the number of cigarettes smoked shows a decrease after 1945.
Teacher’s Guide
Cancer and Smoking
1. Approximately 1918-1919 (1)
2. Approximately 18 years - 19 years (1)
3. Around 1945 (accept one year either way) (1)

4. The average is about 20 years. (4)
5. They are very similar in shape (where the smoking graph shows an increase in the average
number of cigarettes smoked per year, the incidence of lung cancer increased), but are
approximately 20 years apart. The fact that the two lines converge (get closer together) near
the top, indicates that the more cigarettes one smokes, the less time it takes for lung cancer
to develop. (3)
6. 125 deaths per 100 000 people = 125 / 100 000 x 100 = 0,125
7. Fewer people were smoking after the Second World War – it became widely known that
smoking damages one’s health, so they stopped / gave up. The ones who were still smoking
may also have decided to cut down / reduce the number they smoke. (2)
Activity: Research on cancer
Aim
To research and present information on one of the human cancers
Resources required
1. Science journals such as ”New Scientist”, ”Scientific American” and any other journals
you can find.
2. Use the Internet widely including the websites below:
• Howard Hughes Medical Institute: contains links for educators and learners on
a variety of approaches to determining causes and potential cures for cancer:
http://www.hhmi.org/
• Whitehead Institute for cancer research. This is one of the world’s leading cancer
research labs where you can find interactive videos, links to other resources and
information about a variety of cancers: http://wi.mit.edu/
Instructions
Using the resources available, you are required to research ONE of the cancers affecting
humans. In particular you are required to:
• Write a report under the following main headings:

– Discuss the major causes of the cancer: discuss cancer with respect to its genetic
and/or environmental causes and how the cancer spreads within a particular in-
dividual.
– Describe the common beliefs and attitudes concerning the particular cancer
you have chosen to research: present the popular (common) attitudes people
have about cancer, its treatment and how cancer is caused in the first place.
– Describe the major forms of treatment available : what are the major treatments
available. Provide an analysis of these under the sub-headings ”Modern biotech-
nological methods” and ”Traditional methods”.
– Describe the prevalence of the cancer type: prevalence refers to how common
a cancer is in a particular location. Provide statistics in the form of histograms
120 4.4. Cancer

and pie charts of how prevalent the cancer is in different age groups, races and
genders.
• At the end of your report, provide a complete list of references of websites, articles and
other sources of information used in compiling the report.
• Include any pictures, diagrams and information that you think may be relevant to your
report.
Teacher’s Guide
Research on Cancer
This can be an extremely complex research task, or one that is relatively easily managed,
depending on how the teacher approaches the task. It is recommended that the following
guidelines be used:
1. All staff members who teach classes in Grade 10 should get together and decide on
how detailed they want the research tasks to be. All learners in the grade should get
the same guidelines.
2. Decide on what the maximum mark will be and how much this task will contribute
towards the term mark of learners. The guideline rubric for marking has a maximum
of 25.
3. It is suggested that teachers do not require HUGE amounts of detail, since learners are
in Grade 10 and the aim should be to have them expand their knowledge while also
having fun with the subject matter. This should not take up all their free time for the
term.
4. THE FOLLOWING BROAD GUIDELINES MAY BE USED IF TEACHERS PREFER
a) Major causes: Describe two to four causes. It is recommended that learners list
these in order of importance. Each cause should be approximately one short
paragraph of about 4 lines. More marks will be allocated to four, rather than two
causes.
b) Common beliefs / attitudes: Find and briefly describe three commonly held be-
liefs about the causes, treatment, progression and origins of cancer. These do not
have to be accurate, but they do have to be substantiated. Learners are required to
indicate sources for where these beliefs / attitudes were found. It is also expected
that learners indicate whether these are in fact accurate or incorrect.
c) Treatment:Briefly describe two forms of treatment for the specific type of cancer
that was researched. It is not expected that learners name specific drugs or give
dosages of radiation or drugs.
d) Prevalence: Sources must be acknowledged when quoting statistics. Teachers are
to check that learners give stats for the SPECIFIC type of cancer they researched,
not for cancers in general. Teachers should guard against plagiarism in copying
pie charts and other graphs directly off the Internet – learners should be asked to
give their sources if doing so is deemed acceptable by the staff, or they may be
required to hand in only HAND DRAWN graphs and other charts. It is suggested
that learners be told SPECIFICALLY what graphs to hand in, e.g. you MUST have
at least one graph to support your research, but you may not submit more than
three.
5. Teachers should draw up a rubric for marking the research task. The following table
provided below is merely a suggestion – it may be used or altered as the staff at the

school feel. They just need to print one rubric per task and put ticks in the relevant
blocks:
Section 5 4 3 2 1 0
Excellent. Good. Average. Not so Very Not done /
Clear, Well- Tried, but good. weak. no proof
detailed, researched, made Some gaps Very few given
neat less detail errors in facts
knowledge
Causes
Beliefs
Treatment
Prevalence
Pictures/
Graphs
Total
Table 4.1: Marking rubric for Cancer Research Project
4.5 Summary DUMMY
Mitosis and the cell cycle
• During interphase the DNA replicates.

• The process of mitosis occurs in four stages: prophase, metaphase; anaphase and
telophase.
• Cytokinesis differs in plant and animal cells. In animal cells the cytoplasm invaginates
and divides the cell in two, and in a plant cell the cell is divided in two by the cell
plate which forms the cell wall.
• Mitosis ensures growth of tissues and organisms.
• Damaged and worn out tissues are repaired and replaced by new cells through mitosis.
• Single-celled (unicellular) organisms like amoeba often reproduce asexually by mitosis.
Cancer
• Cancer is caused by DNA mutations.

• Abnormal and uncontrolled cell division results in tumour formation.
• Tumours affect the functioning of the tissue or organ.
• Cancer cells can enter the bloodstream or lymph and spread to distant parts of the
body and form new tumours (metastasise).
• Cancers are caused by substances called carcinogens.
• Carcinogens such as certain chemicals, radiation, viruses and genetics can be the cause
of certain cancers.
• Cancers can be treated by various methods including surgery, radiation, chemotherapy
and traditional medicines.
Teacher’s Guide
122 4.5. Summary

Videos to watch
Overview: Binary fission- Mitosis and cell division- Cancer http://www.neok12.com/php/

watch.php?v=zX45724701445b595e766477 Cell Division http://www.neok12.com/php/
watch.php?v=zX45724701445b595e766477
4.6 End of chapter exercises DUMMY

Exercise 4 – 1:
1. Multiple answers are provided for each of the questions below. You are required to
choose the most appropriate answer for each question. Write down the letter only.
a) During which stage does DNA replication occur?
• A) Prophase
• B) Anaphase
• C) Metaphase
• D) None of the above
Solution:
D
b) Which of the following statements is correct?
• A) The chromosomes shorten and thicken during prophase
• B) The nucleolus reappears following telophase
• C) Interphase is characterised by little cellular activity, as the cell is resting to
prepare for the next mitotic event.
• D) All of the above
Solution:
A
c) Which of the following is not true?
• A) Only plant cells grow a cell plate
• B) Animal and plant cells both contain centrioles
• C) Metaphase is is when the chromosomes line up on the equator of the cell
Solution:
B
d) There are two copies of DNA in the cell during:
• A) G1 phase
• B) Telophase
• C) G2 phase
Solution:
G2 phase
2. Study the onion root-tip slides below and Identify the stage of mitosis (most stages are
represented more than once).

i ii iii
iv v vi
Solution:
a) i) prophase
b) ii) anaphase
c) iii) metaphase
d) iv) interphase
e) v) anaphase
f) vi) metaphase
3. What is the difference between a benign and a malignant tumour?

Solution:
A malignant tumour has the ability to invade and spread to other parts of the body
(metastasise), while a benign tumour cannot spread.
4. Name five preventative measures or behaviours that will decrease your chances of
developing cancer.
Solution:
a) Avoid smoking.
b) Do not consume excessive alcohol.
c) Eat a healthy diet.
d) Partake in regular physical activity.
e) Protect yourself from the sun.
f) Attend regular preventative screenings at your doctor.
5. Cancer in South Africa. Look at the following table showing the percentage of deaths
by cancer type in South Africa in 2000.

Cause of death Percentage in all Percentage in Percentage in
people men women
Tracheal/ 16.5 21.9 10.9
Bronchal/ Lung
cancer
Oesophageal 13.4 16.7 9.9
cancer
Cervical cancer 8.4 17.2
Breast cancer 7.7 0.2 15.6
Liver cancer 6.4 7.8 4.9
Colorectal Cancer 6.2 5.4 6.9
Prostate cancer 6.1 11.8
Stomach cancer 5.6 6.5 4.7
Pancreatic cancer 3.7 3.7 3.7
Leukaemia 3.5 3.8 3.2
a) What medical procedures should women take to detect breast cancer early?
Solution:
Mammograms, self-examination for lumps, x-rays and ultrasound scans.
b) Draw a bar graph to show the percentage deaths for each type of cancer for men
and women.
Solution:
Learner-dependent answer. Must show males and females next to each other for
each type of cancer, with a space between each cancer type. Graph must have a
heading, axis should be labelled correctly: x-axis- cancer type, y-axis- percentage.
There should be a key which identifies which bar represents males and which bar
represents females.
c) Which type of cancer is the most common in:
i. men
ii. women
Solution:
i. tracheal/ bronchial/ lung cancer
ii. cervical cancer
Teacher’s Guide
PLANT AND ANIMAL TISSUE
Overview
This section covers plant and tissue. Learners need to learn the range of tissues found in
plants and animals as well as a brief description of each tissue. The description should
include structure, location and function. This unit also lends itself to microscope work
allowing the learners to view the various plant and tissues under the microscope either by
using already prepared slides or making their own slides (for plant tissue).

Key Concepts:
• Tissues are group of similar cells adapted for a particular func-
tion.
• Such cells are adapted for such function through a process of
cell differentiation.
• Examples of such cells whose structure allow them to perform
their specific function include xylem, phloem, parenchyma, col-
lenchyma, sclerenchyma, epidermis and meristematic tissue.
• There are essentially four types of animal tissues studied here:
epithelial, connective, muscle and nerve tissue whose structure
is neatly adapted to function.
• Various plant tissues are important ingredients in traditional
medicine.
• Biotechnology is a modern and powerful science manipulating
properties of tissues and cells to produce vaccines, antibiotics.
• One such manipulation within biotechnology is the use of ge-
netic material to create whole new organisms in a process
known as cloning.The ethics and legislation around these new
developments must be carefully understood.
What is a tissue?
Learners are introduced to the concept of a tissue as a group of similar cells adapted
for a particular function: cell differentiation. Emphasise the relationship between
basic structure of the tissue and its function.
Plant Tissue
Plant tissue is divided into four different types:
• Meristematic tissue which is responsible for the making of new cells by mitosis.
• Epidermal tissue which is the outer layer of cells which cover and protect the plant.
• Ground tissue which has air spaces and manufacture and store nutrients.
• Conducting tissue which is responsible for the transport of water and nutrients for the
plant.
Key Concepts:
Understand the differentiation of plant tissue and then be able to identify
the four different groups of plant tissue
• Understand the structure and function of the different plant tissues
and the importance of their location within the plant
Be able to draw and label plant and animal tissue
• Be able to prepare slides of the various plant tissue
• Understand the importance of meristematic tissue in biotechnology
and in our indigenous knowledge systems

Learners to be able to examine and identify some plant tissues using microscopes, bio view-
ers, photomicrographs and posters. Learners to be able to draw the cells that makes up the
various plant tissues showing the specialised structures.

CHAPTER 5
Plant and animal tissues
5.1 Overview 130

5.2 Tissues 130
5.3 Plant tissues 131
5.4 Animal tissues 149
5.5 Applications of indigenous knowledge and
biotechnology 165
5.6 The leaf as an organ 172
5.7 Summary 177
5 Plant and animal tissues
5.1 Overview DUMMY
Introduction DUMMY
‘If you want to understand function, study structure.’- Francis Crick in his book ”What Mad
Pursuit: A Personal View of Scientific Discovery” (1988).
The relationship between structure and function is important to understanding this chapter
and is important to the study of Life Sciences in general. This chapter requires you to build
on the concepts you understood in the section on cell structure.
Key concepts
• Tissues are a group of similar cells adapted for a particular function. These cells are
adapted for such function through a process of cell differentiation.
• The structure of cells allow them to collectively perform specific functions. Examples
of these include xylem, phloem, parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma, epidermis
and meristematic tissue.
• There are essentially four types of animal tissues studied here: epithelial, connective,
muscle and nerve tissue whose structure is neatly adapted to function.
• Various plant tissues provide important ingredients for traditional medicine.
• Biotechnology is a modern science that manipulates properties of tissues and cells to
produce vaccines and antibiotics
• One such manipulation in biotechnology is the use of genetic material to create a
whole new organism, with the identical genetic make-up as its parent, using a process
known as cloning.
• The ethics and legislation around these new developments must be carefully under-
stood
Previous chapters have discussed the molecular and cellular levels of organisation of living
organisms. In this chapter we will examine how similar cells associate together to form
tissues.
atom→molecule→cell→tissue→organ→system→organism→ecosystem
5.2 Tissues DUMMY
Tissue is a level of organisation that falls between cells and a complete organism. Therefore
a tissue is a group of similar cells that perform a specific function. Organs are then formed
by the functional grouping together of multiple tissues.
130 5.1. Overview

FACT
There are over
200 000 types of
plant species in the
world. Green plants
provide the Earth’s
oxygen, and also
directly or indirectly
provide food for all
animals because of
their ability to
photosynthesise.
Plants also provide
the source of most
of our drugs and
medicines. The
scientific study of
plants is known as
botany.
FACT
WATCH: learn more
about plant tissues:
See video:
Figure 5.1: The diagram above depicts how several cells adapted for the same function work in SHORTCODE at
conjunction to form tissues, and together form an organ.
In this chapter we will be studying plant and animal tissues, starting with plant tissues.
Teacher’s Guide
5.3 Plant tissues DUMMY
Teacher’s Guide
Types of plant tissues: http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/

P/PlantTissues.html
Plant tissues picture: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/media/388/Cell-types-and-tissues
Plants are typically made up of roots, stems and leaves. Plant tissues can be broadly cat-
egorised into dividing, meristematic tissue or non-dividing, permanent tissue. Permanent
tissue is made up of simple and complex tissues.
Figure 5.2 provides an overview of the types of plant tissues being studied in this chapter.
Chapter 5. Plant and animal tissues 131

Figure 5.2: The diagram above depicts how several cells adapted for the same function work in
conjunction to form tissues.
It is important that for each tissue type you understand:
• where it is located
• what its key structural features are and how these relate to function
• how each tissue type looks under the microscope
• how to draw biological diagrams of each structure
Meristematic tissue DUMMY
Meristematic tissue is undifferentiated tissue. Meristematic tissue contains actively dividing

cells that result in formation of other tissue types (e.g. vascular, dermal or ground tissue).
Apical meristematic tissue is found in buds and growing tips of plants. Lateral meristem-
atic tissue make the plant grow thicker. Examples of lateral meristematic tissue include the
cambium or ’bark’ found in trees. Lateral meristems occur in woody trees and plants.
132 5.3. Plant tissues

Diagram Micrograph
Figure 5.4: Micrograph of meristematic tissue

Figure 5.3: Meristematic cells in the growing
root-tip of the onion, from a longitudinal sec-
tion. a. non-dividing cells, with chromatin-
network and deeply stained nucleoli; b. nu-
clei preparing for division; c. dividing cells;
e. pair of daughter-cells shortly after division
The following table highlights how the structure of the meristematic tissue is suited to its
function.
Structural adaptation Function

Cells are small, spherical or polygonal in This allows for close packing of a large
shape. number of cells.
Vacuoles are very small or completely Vacuoles provide rigidity to cells thus
absent. preventing rapid division.
Large amount of cytoplasm and a large The lack of organelles is a feature of an
nucleus. undifferentiated cell. Large nuclear
material contains the DNA necessary for
division and differentiation.
Table 5.1: Structural adaption and function of meristematic tissue
Meristematic tissue is found in root tips as this is where roots are growing and where dividing
cells are produced. Figure 5.5 shows micrograph images of a root tip.

Figure 5.5: Image shows meristematic tissue in a root tip as observed under an electron microscope.
Permanent tissues DUMMY
The meristematic tissues give rise to cells that perform a specific function. Once cells develop
to perform this particular function, they lose their ability to divide. The process of developing
a particular structure suited to a specific function is known as cellular differentiation. We
will examine two types of permanent tissue:
1. Simple permanent tissues

• Epidermis
• Parenchyma
• Collenchyma
• Sclerenchyma
2. Complex permanent tissues
• xylem vessels (made up of tracheids and vessels)
• phloem vessels (made up of sieve tubes and companion cells)
Epidermis tissue DUMMY
The epidermis is a single layer of cells that covers plants’ leaves, flowers, roots and stems.
It is the outermost cell layer of the plant body and plays a protective role in the plant. The
function of key structural features are listed in Table 5.3.

Structure Function FACT
Layer of cells covering surface of entire Acts as a barrier to fungi and other The chemicals in
trichomes make
plant. microorganisms and pathogens.
plants less easily
Layer is thin and transparent. Allow for light to pass through, thereby digested by hungry
allowing for photosynthesis in the tissues animals and can
below. also slow down the
growth of fungus on
Epidermal tissues have abundant Leaf trichomes trap water in the area
the plant. As such
trichomes which are tiny hairs projecting above the stomata and prevent water they act as a form of
from surface of epidermis. Trichomes are loss. protection for the
abundant in some plant leaves. plant against
predation.
Root hairs are elongations of epidermal Root hairs maximise the surface area
cells in the root. over which absorption of water from the
soil can occur.
Epidermal tissues in leaves are covered The waxy outer layer on the epidermis
with a waxy cuticle. prevents water loss from leaves.
Epidermal tissues contain guard cells Guard cells control the opening and
containing chloroplasts. closing of the pores known as stomata
thus controlling water loss in plants.
Some plant epidermal cells can secrete The bitter taste of the substances deter
poisonous or bad-tasting substances. browsing and grazing by animals.
Figure 5.6: Scanning electron microscope image of Nicotiana alata (tobacco plant) upper leaf surface,
showing trichomes (also known as ‘hairs’) and a few stomata.
Guard cells and Stomata
A stoma is a pore found in the leaf and stem epidermis that allows for gaseous exchange.
The stoma is bordered on either side by a pair of specialised cells known as guard cells.
Guard cells are bean shaped specialised epidermal cells found mainly on the lower surface
of leaves which are responsible for regulating the size of the stoma opening. Together, the
stoma and the guard cells are referred to as stomata.
The stomata in the epidermis allow oxygen, carbon dioxide and water vapour to enter and
leave the leaf. The guard cells also contain chloroplasts for photosynthesis. Opening and
closing of the guard cells is determined by the turgor pressure of the two guard cells. The
turgor pressure is controlled by movements of large quantities of ions and sugar into the
guard cells. When guard cells take up these solutes, the water potential decreases causing
osmotic water to flow into the guard cells. This leads to an increase in the swelling of the
guard cells and the stomatal pores open.

Structure
Figure 5.7: Stomata in a tomato leaf as seen Figure 5.8: The above is a microscopic im-
under a scanning electron microscope. age of an Arabidopsis thaliana (commonly
known as ‘Thale cress’ or ‘mouse ear’)
stoma showing two guard cells exhibiting
green fluorescence, with chloroplasts stain-
ing red.
Activity: Practical investigation of leaf epidermis
Materials:
• leaves of Agapanthus, Wandering Jew (Tradescantia ) or similar plants that have epi-
dermis that strips off easily
• microscopes
• microscope slides and cover slips
• dissecting needles
• scissors
Instructions:
1. Rip a piece of leaf lengthwise and check for ”thinner bits” near the edges, which will
be epidermal tissue (ensure that you have LOWER epidermis because this is where the
guard cells are found.)
2. Use the scissors to cut off a small section of epidermis and mount it in water on a
microscope slide. Cover with a cover slip.
3. Focus the slide on low power and search for a section of the sample that does not have
air bubbles over the stomata.
4. Enlarge the part of the specimen you chose and focus on high power.
5. Adjust lighting if necessary and draw one stoma and its guard cells. Label all parts.
Questions:

1. Describe the shape of the guard cells and normal epidermal cells.
2. Which epidermal cells have chloroplasts?
3. Describe the wall thickness around the guard cells and account for any visible differ-
ences.
Teacher’s Guide
Activity: Practical investigation of leaf epidermis
Learners to use microscope and slide preparation skills.
NOTES TO TEACHERS
• Tradescantia, a common SA plant with purple leaves, works particularly well for this
practical since the epidermis rips off easily.
• Learners should be encouraged to rip the leaves quickly in order to get epidermal
tissue.
• They must search the entire specimen on low power, in order to get the best part to
magnify. There is little value in just enlarging the first part of the leaf they focus on –
there will be many stomata that have air bubbles with thick black outlines over them.
Learners must search carefully and enlarge the best stoma they can find.
• Learners must be encouraged to draw the guard cells as they see them, even if they are
lying at an angle.
Figure 5.9: Tradescantia, a common SA plant with purple leaves.
Questions
1. Describe the shape of the guard cells and normal epidermal cells.
2. Which epidermal cells have chloroplasts?
3. Describe the wall thickness around the guard cells and account for any visible differ-
ences.

Answers
1. Guard cells are bean shaped and normal epidermal cells are irregular, square-shaped
or elongated (depending on leaf used.
2. Only the guard cells.
3. Guard cells have thick inner walls and thinner outer walls, as this helps them to open
the pores for gaseous exchange.
We will now look at parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma cells. Together these
tissue types are referred to as ground tissues. Ground tissues are located in the region
between epidermal and vascular tissue.
Parenchyma tissue DUMMY
Parenchyma tissue forms the majority of stems and roots as well as soft fruit like tomatoes
and grapes. It is the most common type of ground tissue.
Figure 5.10: Parenchyma tissue found in cells responsible for storage.

Parenchyma
Structure Function
Thin-walled cells. Thin walls allow for close packing and
rapid diffusion between cells.
Intercellular spaces are present between Intercellular spaces allow diffusion of
cells. gases to occur.
Parenchyma cells have large central This allows the cells to store and regulate
vacuoles. ions, waste products and water. Also
function in providing support.
Specialised parenchyma cells known as This allows them to perform a
chlorenchyma found in plant leaves photosynthetic function and responsible
contain chloroplasts. for storage of starch.
Some parenchyma cells retain the ability Allows replacement of damaged cells.
to divide.
Table 5.2: Structure and function of parenchyma
Activity: Observing parenchyma cells.
Aim:
To observe the structure of fresh parenchyma cells
Materials:
• banana
• petri dishes or watch glasses
• dissection needles
• iodine solution
• microscopes, microscope slides and cover slips
Instructions:
1. Use the dissecting needle to lift off a small piece of the soft banana tissue.
2. Put the sample onto a petri dish or watch glass and mash it slightly using the dissecting
needle (and a pencil if you want).
3. Lift a small sample of the tissue onto a microscope slide on which you already have
placed a drop of iodine solution. Put the cover slip on.
4. Observe the cells under low power and find a section where the cells are lying sepa-
rate, not all over each other.
5. Enlarge this section and focus carefully to see if you can find nuclei in some of the cells
(they will be bigger than the purple plastids and transparent).
6. Draw 2 or 3 cells and label.
Questions:
1. Describe the shape of the cells and their wall thickness.

2. What are the plastids called which appear purple and what is their function?

Teacher’s Guide
Activity 4.2: To observe the structure of fresh parenchyma cells
NOTES TO TEACHERS
1. The cells will be large and have very thin walls. Many cells have leucoplasts storing
starch.
2. Encourage learners to use the diaphragm on the microscope to prevent their cells being
over-exposed to light – this can make the cells difficult to see.
Questions
1. Describe the shape of the cells and their wall thickness.

2. What are the plastids called which appear purple and what is their function?
Answers
1. Cells are rounded or oval and have very thin walls.

2. The plastids are leukoplasts and they store starch.
Collenchyma tissue DUMMY
Collenchyma is a simple, permanent tissue typically found in the shoots and leaves of plants.
Collenchyma cells are thin-walled but the corners of the cell wall are thickened with cellu-
lose. This tissue gives strength, particularly in growing shoots and leaves due to the thickened
corners. The cells are tightly packed and have fewer inter-cellular spaces.
Collenchyma
Diagram Micrograph
Figure 5.12: Light microscope image of col-

Figure 5.11: Collenchyma cells are thin lenchyma cells.
walled with lignified corners.

Collenchyma FACT
Structure Function • Collenchyma
Cells are spherical, oval or polygonal in This allows for close packing to provide tissues make
shape with no intercellular spaces. structural support. up the strong
strands
Corners of cell wall are thickened, with Provides mechanical strength. observed in
cellulose and pectin deposits. stalks of
Cells are thin-walled on most sides. Provides flexibility, allowing plant to celery.
bend in the wind. • The growth
of
collenchyma
Table 5.3 tissue is
affected by
mechanical
stress on a
Sclerenchyma tissue DUMMY plant. For
instance if
the plant is
constantly
Sclerenchyma is a simple, permanent tissue. It is the supporting tissue in plants, making the shaken by
the wind the
plants hard and stiff. Two types of sclerenchyma cells exist: fibres and sclereids. walls of
collenchyma
Sclerenchyma fibres are long and narrow and have thick lignified cell walls. They provide may be
mechanical strength to the plant and allow for the conduction of water. 40–100%
thicker than
those that
Sclereids are specialised sclerenchyma cells with with thickened, highly lignified walls with are not
pits running through the walls. They support the soft tissues of pears and guavas and are shaken.
found in the shells of some nuts.
FACT
WATCH: Learn
Sclerenchyma more about
Diagram Micrograph permanent simple
tissues.
See video:
SHORTCODE at
Figure 5.14: Cross-section of Figure 5.15: Sclereid.

sclerenchyma fibres.
Figure 5.13: Sclerenchyma tis-

sue provides support in plants.
Sclerenchyma
Structure Function
Cells are dead and have lignified This provides mechanical strength and
secondary cell walls. structural support. The lignin provides a
’wire-like’ strength to prevent from
tearing too easily.
Sclereids have strong walls which fill Provide the hardness of fruits like pears.
nearly the entire volume of the cell. These structures are used to protect other
cells.

FACT Sclerenchyma tissues are important components in fabrics such as flax, jute and hemp. Fibres
A useful way to are important components of ropes and mattresses because of their ability to withstand high
remember the
loads. Fibres found in jute are useful in processing textiles, given that their principal cell
difference between
collenchyma and wall component is cellulose. Other important sources of fibres are grasses, sisal and agaves.
sclerenchyma is to Sclereid tissues are the important components of fruits such as cherries, plums or pears.
remember the 3 Cs
pertaining to
collenchyma:
thickened at Activity: Observing sclerenchyma in pears
corners, contain
cellulose, and
named
collenchyma. Aim:
To observe sclerenchyma stone cells (sclereids) in pears
Materials:
• soft, ripe pear

• microscopes, microscope slides and cover slips
• iodine solution
• dissecting needles or forceps
Instructions:
1. Use the forceps or needle to lift a small piece of soft pear tissue onto your microscope
slide.
2. Add a drop of iodine solution.
3. Mash the tissue slightly to separate the cells.
4. Cover with a cover slip and observe under low power. You should focus on the groups
of dark ”stones” that appear amongst the rounded parenchyma cells of the pear. Try to
find one or two stone cells or sclereids that are separate from the rest.
5. Enlarge a good specimen (or focus on the edge of a group where one cells sticks out)
and adjust the lighting.
6. Look carefully while you focus up and down to see the long, narrow PITS running
through the extremely thick walls of these cells.
7. These ”stone cells” are called sclereids. They are a modified form of sclerenchyma
found in pears, guavas and the shells of nuts for extra support.
8. Also observe the large round cells around the sclereids.
Questions:
1. Do you see cytoplasm inside the stone cells? Are they living or dead cells?
2. What tissue type do the large round cells around the sclereids belong to?
Teacher’s Guide
Activity: To observe sclerenchyma stone cells (sclereids) in pears.

NOTES TO TEACHERS
1. Learners need a very small amount of pear tissue for this practical – the riper the pear,
the better. This practical works best in pears that are actually over-ripe and extremely
soft.
2. Once again, encourage learners to scan the entire slide for the best parts before en-
larging. They need to find a very small group of sclereids (they will appear as “little
groups of black stones” amongst the large, thin-walled parenchyma cells of the pear).
3. Learners must expect that it will be very difficult to focus them – the sclereids lie in a
heap at slightly different levels, so it will not be possible to focus on all of them at the
same time.
4. The cells and pits are best seen if one FOCUSES UP AND DOWN slightly on high
magnification using the fine focus adjustment – warn them not to touch the coarse
focus adjustment!
5. It will be necessary to adjust the diaphragm to prevent over-illumination of the material.
Questions
1. Do you see cytoplasm inside the stone cells? Are they living or dead cells?
2. What tissue type do the large round cells around the sclereids belong to?
Answers
1. No, they are dead cells.

2. Parenchyma.
Activity: To investigate sclerenchyma fibres
Aim:
To see sclerenchyma fibres in tissue paper
Materials:
• cheap toilet paper (single ply)

• iodine solution or water
• microscopes and slides
Instructions:
1. Tear a tiny piece of toilet paper off the sample and mount it in water or iodine solution.
2. Place on a cover slip and examine under the microscope on low power.
3. Focus on the torn edge of the paper and observe the long sclerenchyma fibres.
4. Observe on high power.
Questions:

1. Describe the shape of these cells.
2. Are they living or dead cells?
3. Suggest their function.
Teacher’s Guide
To investigate sclerenchyma fibres
NOTES TO TEACHERS
1. It’s important that learners focus on the torn EDGE of the paper, not the centre.
Questions
1. Describe the shape of these cells.

2. Are they living or dead cells?
3. Suggest their function.
Answers
1. Cells are very long and pointed.

2. Dead cells.
3. They provide strength and support and help transport water.
We will now examine the complex permanent tissues. Remember the difference between
simple and complex permanent tissues is that simple permanent tissues are made up of cells
of the same type whereas complex permanent tissues are made up of more than one cell
type that combine to perform a particular function. We will examine the vascular tissues,
xylem and phloem tissues next.
Xylem tissue DUMMY
Xylem has the dual function of supporting the plant and transporting water and dissolved
mineral salts from the roots to the stems and leaves. It is made up of vessels, tracheids, fibres
and parenchyma cells. The vessels and tracheids are non-living at maturity and are hollow to
allow the transport of water. Both vessels and tracheids have lignin in their secondary walls,
which provides additional strength and support.
Xylem vessels are composed of a long chain of straight, elongated, tough, dead cells known
as vessel elements. The vessel elements are long and hollow (lack protoplasm) and they make
a long tube because the cells are arranged end to end, and the point of contact between two
cells is dissolved away. The role of xylem vessels is to transport water from roots to leaves.
Xylem vessels often have patterns of thickening in their secondary walls. Secondary wall
thickening can be in the form of spirals, rings or pits.
Tracheids have thick secondary cell walls and are tapered at the ends. The thick walls of
the tracheids provide support and tracheids do not have end openings like the vessels. The

tracheids’ ends overlap with one another, with pairs of pits present which allow water to pass FACT
through horizontally from cell to cell. In addition to
transporting water
and mineral salts
from roots to leaves,
Diagram Micrograph xylem also provides
support to plants
and trees because of
its tough lignified
vessel elements.
Figure 5.16: Longitudinal section through a Figure 5.17: Xylem vessel fibres with rings of
xylem vessel to show hollow lumen to allow lignin thickening.
for transport of water and nutrients.
Structure Function
Long cells Form effective conducting tubes for
water and minerals
Dead cells: no cytoplasm No obstruction to water transport
Thick, lignified walls Support the plant and are strong enough
to resist the suction force of transpiration
pull, so they don’t collapse
Pits in cell walls Allow lateral water transport to
neighbouring cells
Tracheids have tapered ends Improved flexibility of the stem in wind
Vessels elements have open ends Water is transported directly to the next
cell
No intercellular spaces Added support for the stem
Living parenchyma cells in between Form vascular rays for water transport to
xylem the cortex of the stem
Patterns of secondary wall thickening Improve flexibility of the stem in wind
and allow the stem to stretch as it
lengthens
Activity: Observing the patterned secondary walls in the xylem of fresh plant tissue
Aim:
To observe the patterned secondary walls in the xylem of fresh plant tissue
Materials:

• celery stalk, rhubarb stalks or pumpkin stems (macerated - chop them across and boil
them in water for 3 minutes, then add an equal amount of glycerine. Cool before
using. It can be stored for a few months in the refrigerator.)
• microscopes and slides
• dissecting needles
• petri dishes or watch glasses
• eosin solution
Instructions:
1. Lift a small piece of celery / any other tissue chosen from the dish and transfer it to a
watch glass or petri dish.
2. Use the dissecting needle and a pencil to tease the tissue apart (separate the thread-
like, thicker cells away from each other). Try to get the long cells away from each other,
otherwise bundles will be too thick to allow you to see individual cells. Ignore the thin
walled parenchyma cells around them.
3. Transfer the plant tissue to a microscope slide and add eosin solution. Separate a bit
more if necessary.
4. Examine under low power, focusing on the bundles of xylem vessels. Look for long
bundles of fairly wide cells with thickening in the form of rings or spirals. Do not
confuse xylem vessels with the more common and much narrower sclerenchyma fibres
- fibres have walls all the same thickness, have no spirals or rings and they are pointed
at the end. If necessary, make a second slide if you did not find xylem.
5. Move a good part to the centre and enlarge. Examine the secondary walls of these
cells.
Questions:
1. Describe the shape of xylem vessels.

2. What secondary walls patterns do you see?
3. Suggest the function of such secondary walls.
Teacher’s Guide
Activity 4.4: To observe the patterned secondary walls in the xylem of fresh plant tissue.
NOTES TO TEACHERS
1. Learners must ensure that they transfer some of the “stringy tissue” that been prepared,
not just the soft tissue (which is parenchyma).
2. They will need to spend a bit of time teasing the cells apart with dissecting needles;
otherwise the cells are very clumped together and difficult to see properly. They need
to separate the ‘stringy’ bits from the normal soft tissue and mount only the stingy stuff
onto the microscope slide.
3. These cells can be successfully mounted in iodine solution if eosin is not available.
4. Remind learners to adjust the diaphragm and look specifically for spirals / rings in very

long, tubular cells. There will be many long, pointed sclerenchyma cells with the FACT
xylem. Do you remember
that sucrose is made
5. It is frustrating if no such cells can be found – it may be necessary to make a second up of glucose and
slide and try again. fructose
monosaccharides?
Plants transport
Questions sucrose rather than
glucose because it is
less reactive and has
1. Describe the shape of xylem vessels. less of an effect on
2. What secondary walls patterns do you see? the water potential.
3. Suggest the function of such secondary walls.
Answers
1. Long, tubular cells with open ends.

2. Hopefully spirals and rings, maybe a reticulate / netted vessel as well.
3. To provide flexibility, support and allow the stem to stretch as it grows. They also
resist the suction of transpiration pull and prevent the vessels collapsing during water
transport.
Phloem tissue DUMMY
Phloem tissue is the living tissue responsible for transporting organic nutrients produced
during photosynthesis (mainly as the carbohydrate sucrose) to all parts of the plant where
these are required. The phloem tissue is made up of the following major types of cells:
• sieve elements: these are conducting cells which transport sucrose.

• parenchyma cells: which store food for transport in phloem.
• companion cells: are associated with parenchyma cells and control the activities of
sieve tube elements, since the latter have no nuclei. Companion cells are responsi-
ble for providing energy to the sieve elements to allow for the transport of sucrose.
Companion cells play an important role in loading sieve tubes with sucrose produced
during photosynthesis. Companion cells and sieve tube elements are connected via
connecting strands of cytoplasm called plasmodesmata.
• fibres: unspecialised cells and supportive cells.

Diagram Micrograph
Figure 5.19: Cross-section: the arrow indi-

cates the location of the phloem in the vas-
Figure 5.18: Longitudinal section: phloem cular bundle.
tissue transports nutrients throughout the
plant.
In the table below, the key structural features of the phloem are related to their function.
Structure Function
Companion cells:
Contain large number of ribosomes and Due to absence of organelles or nucleus
mitochondria. in sieve tube, companion cells perform
cellular functions of sieve tube.
Has many plasmodesmata (intercellular Allows transfer of sucrose-containing sap
connections) in the wall attached to the over a large area.
sieve tube.
Sieve tubes
Sieve tube elements are long conducting Form good conducting tubes over long
cells with cellulose cell walls. distances. Allows for transfer over a large
area.
They are living cells with no nucleus or Allows for more space to transport sap. It
organelles such as vacuoles or is also why sieve elements need
ribosomes. companion cells to carry out all cellular
functions.

Figure 5.20: Xylem and phloem are the main transport vessels in plants. The figure above shows how
vascular tissues are arranged in a vascular bundle.
5.4 Animal tissues DUMMY
Teacher’s Guide
Section 4: Animal Tissue
Animal cells with the same structure and function are grouped together to form tissues.
There are four types of animal tissues: epithelial tissue, connective tissue, muscle tissue and
nervous tissue.
Key Concepts:
• Understand the differentiation of animal tissues and the relationship
between structure and function of the various tissues.
• Know the location of the various tissues within the animal body
• Learn the skill of drawing the various animal tissues
• Be able to prepare slides of selected animal tissues
• Know the importance of stem cell research in biotechnology and ge-
netic engineering.
Learners to be able to identify the four basic animal tissues and relate the structure to func-
tion. No detail is required. Learners to examine and identify some animal tissues using
microscopes, bio viewers, micrographs or poster and from these be able to draw the various
cells that make up these tissues to show their specialised structures.

FACT Tissues are groups of similar cells that perform a particular function. We will be examining
WATCH: a video human tissues as an example of animal tissues.
about the different
tissue types in
animals Human bodies, like most animal bodies are made up of four different types of tissue:
See video:
SHORTCODE at
1. Epithelial tissue forms the outer layer of the body and also lines many of the bodies
cavities where it has a protective function.
FACT 2. Connective tissue assists in support and protection of organs and limbs and depending
Pseudostratified on the location in the body it may join or separate organs or parts of the body.
epithelium refers to
epithelium 3. Muscle tissue enables various forms of movement, both voluntary and involuntary.
consisting of one 4. Nerve tissue is responsible for the carrying of electrical and chemical signals and
layer but looking as
impulses from the brain and central nervous system to the periphery, and vice versa.
though it consists of
more than one layer.
We will now look at each tissue type, examining its structure and function as well as its
specific location in the body. You will be expected to recognise microscope images of each
tissue type and from them produce biological drawings.
Teacher’s Guide
Tissues of human body: http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/ap/histology_mh/tismodov.html
Epithelial tissue DUMMY
Epithelial tissues are formed by cells that cover surfaces (e.g. skin) and line tubes and cavities
(e.g. digestive organs, blood vessels, kidney tubules and airways). Epithelial tissue usually
consists of a single cell layer of cells, however in certain cases there may be more than one
layer. All epithelial tissues are free surfaces attached to the underlying layers of a basement
membrane. There are different types of epithelial tissue which are named according to the
number of layers they form and the shape of the individual cells that make up those layers.
Simple epithelium refers to a single layer of cells. Stratified epithelium refers to two or
more layers of cells. Squamous epithelium refers to flattened calls, cuboidal epithelium
refers to cells that are cube-shaped and columnar epithelium refers to vertically elongated
cells. Ciliated epithelium refers to epithelial cells that contain many tiny hair-like projections.
Figure 5.21: The different types of epithelial tissue found in mammals.
General functions of Epithelial Tissue
150 5.4. Animal tissues

• Provides a barrier between the external environment and the organ it covers. FACT
The skin is the
• Specialised to function in secretion and absorption. largest human
• Protects organisms from microorganisms, injury, and fluid loss. organ.
• Excretes waste products such as sweat from the skin.
The different types of epithelial tissue are classified according to their shape. The major
categories we are going to examine are squamous, columnar and cuboidal epithelium. The
table presents each of them in detail.
Epithelial Location in body Structure Function

tissue type
Simple Simple: capillaries, Thin and flat cells that Responsible for
squamous alveoli (in lungs); are elliptically shaped diffusion. Thin
and stratified stratified: skin and lie on basement structure allows for
squamous membrane. Simple movement of
squamous epithelium substances across the
is one-cell thick. cells.
Stratified squamous
epithelium consists on
many layers.
Epithelial Diagram Microscopic image

tissue type
Simple
squamous
and stratified
squamous

tissue type
Cuboidal Kidney tubules or Cube-like in structure; Serve a protective
glands (regions of the may occasionally have function against
body responsible for structures called bacteria and the
excretion). microvilli on surface wearing away of
to aid absorption. certain organs by
lining various
structures. Also
prevent water loss.

tissue type
Cuboidal

tissue type
Columnar Digestive tract, Elongated cells, nuclei Main function is
reproductive organs located at the base of protective. Prevents
the cell. Cells against bacterial
connected by tight infection. Can also
junctions and receive secrete mucus to
their nutrients from the protect surface from
basement membrane. damage.

tissue type
Columnar

Muscle tissue DUMMY
Muscle tissue
There are three types of muscle tissue:
1. Skeletal
2. Smooth
3. Cardiac
Skeletal and cardiac muscle are striated. Striated muscle cells are striped, with regular pat-
terns of proteins responsible for contraction. Striated muscle contracts and relaxes in short
bursts, whereas smooth muscle contracts for longer.
1. Skeletal muscle is a voluntary muscle. It is striated in appearance. Skeletal muscle tissue

has regularly arranged bundles. It is anchored by tendons and is used to effect skeletal muscle
movement such as locomotion and maintain posture. The muscles have a reflex action but
can also respond to conscious control.
Figure 5.22: Skeletal muscle tissue
2. Cardiac muscle is the major tissue making up the heart. It is an involuntary muscle
that is striated in appearance. However, unlike skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle connects at
branching, irregular angles. The connected branches help with coordinated contractions of
the heart.
Figure 5.23: Cardiac muscle.

3. Smooth muscle is an involuntary, non-striated muscle with tapered ends. It is found within
the walls of blood vessels such as arteries and veins. Smooth muscle is also found in the
digestive system, urinary tract and in the trachea. It is responsible for involuntary rhythmic
contractions of peristalsis required for moving food down the alimentary canal, and for the
dilation and construction of blood vessels to control blood pressure.
Diagram Micrograph
Figure 5.24: Smooth muscle cells.
Figure 5.25: Smooth muscle cells.
Nervous tissue DUMMY
Cells making up the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system are classified
as nervous tissue. In the central nervous system, nervous tissue forms the brain and spinal
cord. In the peripheral nervous system the nervous tissue forms the cranial nerves and spinal
nerves, which include the sensory and motor neurons.
The function of nerve tissue is to transmit nerve impulses around the body. Nerves consist of
a cell body (soma), dendrites, which receive impulses, and axons which send impulses. The
axons of neurons are surrounded by a myelin sheath. The myelin sheath consists of layers of
myelin, a white fatty substance. The myelin sheath’s main function is to insulate nerve fibres
and it also increases the speed of the impulses transmitted by the nerve cell. There are three
types of nerve cells: sensory neurons, interneurons and motor neurons.

Sensory neuron Motor neuron Interneuron
Sensory neurons are Motor neurons carry impulses These neurons are very short
responsible for transmitting from the CNS to the effectors compared to the sensory and
various external stimuli from (muscle or glands). In most motor neurons. The
the environment into internal cases the effector is a muscle connectors or inter neurons
chemical messages (called whose contraction is directed connect a sensory neuron
stimuli). They are activated by a particular impulse. with a motor neuron. The
by touch, hearing etc. Other effectors could include impulse travels from the cell
Sensory nerve cells (or glands. The motor neuron body at the head end along
sensory neurons) carry facilitates muscle contraction the short axon to the
impulses (electrical signals) in response to specific dendrites.
from a receptor to the central impulses and chemicals
nervous system (CNS). known as neurotransmitters.
Connective tissue DUMMY
Connective tissue is a biological tissue that is important in supporting, connecting or sepa-

rating different types of tissues and organs in the body. All connective tissue is made up of
cells, fibres (such as collagen) and extracellular matrix. There are different types of connec-
tive tissues with different functions. The following table lists the different types of connective
tissue.

Connective Structure Function Location Diagram/Photo
tissue type
Areolar (loose jelly matrix; has holds the organs surrounds blood
connective) network of in place, vessels and
elastic fibres cushions and nerves ad found
which attach protects organs in the mesentry
together (acts as a which Figure 5.26: Loose
packing surrounds the connective tissue.
material) intestine
White fibrous consists of acts as a shock in tendons,
non-elastic absorber, ligaments and
fibres transfers or many tough
absorbs forces membrane
sheaths that
surround organs
Figure 5.27: White
fibrous tissue.
Cartilage rubbery matrix, gives structure, joints, nose,

can be flexible shape and sternum,
or rigid strength; trachea
reduces friction;
provides
Figure 5.28:
support Cartilage.
Bone tissue made up of provides bones found all

collagen fibres; strength and over the body
mineralised support; creates
with calcium red blood cells
and phosphates and white blood
to make it solid cells; Figure 5.29:
Osteoclast, a type
of bone tissue.
Blood DUMMY
Blood is regarded as a specialised form of connective tissue because it originates in the

bones and has some fibres. Blood is composed of red blood cells, white blood cells and
platelets. These components are suspended in a yellow fluid known as plasma.

Electron micrographs of blood cells
Figure 5.31: Scanning electron microscope image of a white

Figure 5.30: Scanning elec- blood cell (right), a platelet (centre) and a red blood cell (left).
tron microscope image of cir-
culating blood showing sev-
eral red and white blood cells.
Red blood cells: called erythrocytes are made in the red bone marrow. They do not have
a nucleus and are biconcave in shape. Their biconcave shape makes them flexible so that
they can squeeze through narrow capillaries. It also gives them a bigger surface to volume
ratio, so that they absorb and release gases faster. Red blood cells have a short life span
of approximately 120 days. Red blood cells contain the protein known as haemoglobin.
Haemoglobin contains the pigment known as heme that has an iron (Fe) at its centre that
combines with oxygen. Haemoglobin releases oxygen as required and takes up carbon
dioxide. Red blood cells transport oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and returns carbon
dioxide from the tissues to the lungs.
Figure 5.32: Human red blood cells.
White blood cells: are commonly known as leukocytes and are produced in the yellow
bone marrow and lymph nodes. The cells have one or more nuclei. White blood cells are
slightly larger than red blood cells and are more irregular in shape. Their main function
is to protect the body from diseases. There are several types of leukocytes: neutrophils,
basophils, eosinophils, lymphocytes, monocytes and macrophages. The white blood cells
known as lymphocytes actively produce chemicals called antibodies which destroy disease
causing micro-organisms.

FACT Platelets: also known as thrombocytes are produced in the bone marrow and are fragments
The number of of bone marrow cells. They have no nuclei. Platelets assist in the clotting of blood and
leukocytes is often a
prevent excessive bleeding.
measure of disease.
They make up
approximately 1%
of blood in a
healthy adult. A
change in the
amount of
leukocytes can often
be used to diagnose
disease.
FACT Figure 5.33: Platelets clumping together to form a blood smear. Platelets are largely responsible for
Plasma donations
are important in
wound repair and healing.
blood transfusion.
During World War
2, the blood plasma
Plasma: Plasma is the pale-yellow component of blood that allows the rest of the components
transferred to
wounded soldiers of blood to float in suspension. It makes up about 55% of total blood volume. It contains
was important in dissolved proteins, hormones, urea and carbon dioxide. Its main functions are to transport
saving thousands of nutrients, cells and metabolic waste products and maintain blood volume.
lives.
Activity: Knowing more about tissues: dissection of animal tissue
Aim:
The aim of this dissection is for you to revise the theory behind tissues and apply your
Figure 5.34: knowledge to actual tissues.
American
wounded sol- Instructions:
dier receiving
blood plasma in
August, 1943 You will be working in pairs. Instructions for this activity will be written in italics.
• At the end of the practical you should:

1. Know and be able to use dissecting instruments correctly, especially insertion and
removal of blades.
2. Be able to recognise and use ether responsibly
3. Be familiar with apparatus: petri dish, dissecting tray.
4. Use a scale: zero (calibrate) and record mass
5. Perform simple mathematical calculations: percentage
6. Be able to read a vernier calliper.
7. Clean and dry thoroughly and appropriately.
Materials:
• 1 piece filter paper

• scissors
• forceps
• threader
• pointer

• scalpel
• blade
• dissecting tray
• petri dish
• chicken wing
• 1 ml Ether
• cloths
• roller towel
Method:
1. Skin
• Before you begin, look at the external appearance of the chicken wing.
• Weigh the entire wing and record its mass in the table on the last page.
• Insert the scalpel blade onto the handle in the way you were shown. Lie the wing
upside down on the dissecting board. Cut with scissors from the severed end towards
the wingtip along the midline of the wing. Remove as much of the skin as you can
by freeing it from the underlying tissue with a blunt instrument or pulling with your
fingers. Carefully observe the tissue you are breaking.
– Is skin a tissue or an organ?
– Why is there a ’web’ of skin between the joints?
– What are the ’bumps’ on the skin?
– How easily does the skin come off between the joints?
– Where is the skin most firmly attached?
– Record the mass of the skin in a table as shown on the last page.
2. Connective Tissue
The skin is held to the underlying pink tissue by a type of connective tissue.
• Name this particular type of connective tissue.

• Give two adjectives that accurately describe it.
3. Fatty tissue
Look at the underside of the skin you have removed. You should see clumps of yellow
material. This is fat, or adipose tissue . It is also a type of connective tissue.
Take a small amount of this fatty tissue and squash it gently in a small beaker with some
ether. Pour some of this solution onto a piece of filter paper. Dry the filter paper by waving
it in the air.
This oily stain is known as a translucent stain. From now on collect all the fatty material as
you find — you will need it later (place in a separate beaker)
• What do you think the function of connective tissue is here?

• What do you notice? There is an oily stain on the paper after the ether has evaporated.

4. Muscle
This is the pinky-orange tissue you can see under the skin. The muscles were most likely
severed when the chicken was dismembered in the butchery.
Hold the wing in your left hand. Grip the end of one of the muscles with forceps. Pull it.
Describe what happens and name the type of action it caused by referring to the notes on
levers on the side bench. The wing flexes / bends at the elbow joint when the muscle is
pulled. This action is called FLEXION. (bending a limb)
Let go and pull various other muscles.
Can you get one to cause the opposite movement?
Muscles are all arranged in ’antagonistic pairs’ where the action one muscle does the oppo-
site to its partner.
Carefully dissect out a single muscle in FULL. Remove it from the wing completely.
Draw the wing muscle. You need to follow the convention of drawing diagrams by i) pro-
viding a heading or title ii) adding labels (tendon, muscle, epimysium, fat tissue). All labels
should be on the right hand side of the diagram. iii) providing a scale bar.
What type of tissue lies between the muscles?
5. Blood vessels
As you work, look out for blood vessels. Capillaries are the very smallest blood vessels —
so narrow in fact that erythrocytes can only fit through in single file. It is ONLY between
these vessels and the surrounding tissues where diffusion of substances occurs. Capillaries
will not be visible to the naked eye.
The smallest vessels you will be able to see are small arteries (arterioles) and small veins
(venules). The darker ones are venules; the redder ones are arterioles. In the cut end of
thicker vessels you may be able to see the lumen and vessel wall. If you find one, work the
blunt end of the threader into it and down the vessel and see where it leads.
• Name two substances that will diffuse into the tissues and out of the tissues in this
wing.
6. Nerves
Also keep a look out for nerves. Nerves are bundles of neurons enclosed in a membrane
rather like a piece of electrical flex. Nerves are hard to see but when soaked in ethanol they
become white (If possible check with your teacher if he or she can do this for you). They
tend to be deep in the tissues for protection.
7. Tendons
Muscles are attached to bones by means of tendons.

Tendons are made of a type of connective tissue that contains lots of white fibres made of
collagen. It is this collagen that gives the connective tissue its properties.
Your task now is to remove all the muscles neatly from the bones. As you do so try and pull
one or two off the bone using your fingers or forceps; remove the rest using s/s scissors or
the scalpel.
Look carefully at how the tendon joins the muscle. If necessary dissect into the muscle
tissue.
• How firmly are the muscles attached to bones?

• Approximately how many muscles did you remove?
• Describe how the tendon and muscle join.
• Write down four adjectives to describe collagen from what you can observe.
Collect ALL the muscles you remove. You should now have a pile of fat and a pile of muscle.
Weigh and record the mass of subcutaneous fat and muscle in the table where you recorded
the mass of the wing.
8. Bone
You should now be left with some bones joined together with skin, muscles and ’proper’
connective tissue removed. The bones of most birds are hollow.
Why are hollow bones an advantage for a bird?
Use the miniature hacksaw to cut a bone in half.
Describe what you see.
Use the vernier calliper to measure the thickness of the bone wall.
Label the following parts of the bird
• upper arm
• Forearm
• Wingtip
9. Ligaments
Ligaments look similar to tendons and have a very similar histology with lots of collagen
fibres. Ligaments join bone to bone, and also form protective capsular ligaments around
synovial joints by for instance, keeping in the lubricating synovial fluid . Cut through and
carefully remove the capsular ligament of a large joint using your s/s scissors.
Can you see internal ligaments?
Write down three observable characteristics of the ligament you cut.
10. Cartilage
Look at the end of a bone and find the cartilage it is pearly white in colour.

What type of cartilage is this?
Try to remove it from the bone. Then try to scratch it first with your nail and, then with
something very hard and sharp.
Describe what you observe.
What do you think the function of cartilage is?
What common, man-made material is closest in its properties to cartilage?
Questions:
Data (show all working)
Tissue Mass, correct to 1 decimal place (g)

Entire wing
Skin
Muscle
Subcutaneous Fat
1. Muscle is eaten for its protein. Muscle is made of protein. What percentage of this
wing is muscle?
2. What total percentage of this wing was made up of fat?
3. Calculate the total fat-to-muscle ratio as a percentage.
4. Look at the price per kilo for these wings. Assuming the wings have the same mass,
and there are 6 per pack, how much does one wing cost? You are paying the above
price only to really eat the protein, what is the actual price per kilo you are paying for
the meat in this case.
Cleaning:
Tidy and clean the work station thoroughly after each session. Wash instruments in hot soapy
water with a sponge/scourer, rinse in the cold sink (NOT under running water) and dry with
a cloth. Replace apparatus in the correct containers. Scalpel blades are to be removed,
cleaned, dabbed dry with roller-towel and returned to their envelopes.
Teacher’s Guide
Investigation The aim of this dissection is to investigate animal tissue
Learner Information and Instructions:
The purpose of this dissection is to revise the theory behind tissues and apply it to actual
tissues, and to give build on the learner’s knowledge.
Dissection and other instructions are given in italics.
Adjectives are words that describe ’things’. As a scientist they can be anything you can
detect using your senses, but in this practical especially how they feel and look. Be certain
to choose the BEST adjectives you can think of where you’re asked for them.

Teacher: Materials needed:
Learner: I piece filter paper, scissors (s/s, b/s) forceps (sharp nose and blunt nose), threader,
pointer, scalpel, blade, dissecting tray petri dish.
Bench: 1 ml Ether, cloths, roller towel
Procedure
SKIN [5]
Before the start their dissections they are examine the external appearance of the wing.
1. Organ
2. To help hold them together
3. Feather follicles (sacs that are used to contain feathers.
4. Quite easily, it just lifts off the muscle tissue along the length of the wing.
5. At joints. Very difficult to remove it here.
6. Record the mass of the skin in the table which is at the end of this section.
7. Areolar connective tissue.
8. Soft, flexible, thin, elastic, transparent.
9. To store reserve food in the form of lipids and to insulate the body against heat loss.
10. There is an oily stain on the paper after the either has evaporated.
11. The wing flexes/bends at the elbow joint when the muscle is pulled. This action is called
FLEXON (bending a limb). (2+2)
12. Yes. Pull on a muscle on the other side of the wing. This is called EXTENSION or
straightening of the limb.
13. (2 labels; 8 style). (10)
14. Areolar connective tissue (plus blood vessels and nerves).
15. Into - oxygen and food substances/nutrients out - carbon dioxide and wastes e.g. urea.
16. Gentle pulling action, not sawing back and forth.
17. Very firmly. Very difficult to pull off.
18. Possibly 2? Depends on the actual wing used and their skill in dissection.
20. Tendon gradually extends into muscle at one end and joins to bone at the other end.

22. White, strong, inelastic, flexible, firm elongated fibres.
23. Makes the skeleton lighter for easier flight (but chicken do not fly, they DO have bone
marrow in the bones, so not always hollow)
24. Hard white bone on the inside and some reddish marrow inside the bone.
25. Learners to record measurement.
26. Refer to the book on the side bench. (ensure that this source material is available to
learners)
Upper arm - humerus, forearm - radius and ulna, wing tip - carpals and metacarpals.
27. No, they are directly between the bones.
28. Strong, flexible, whitish-grey, fibrous, inelastic .
29. Hyaline cartilage.
30. It is smooth, firm and flexible and attached to bone.
31. To reduce friction during movement and protect the ends of the bones from wear and
tear.
32. Rubber or plastic.
DATA (SHOW ALL WORKING) [15]
Tissue Mass, correct to 1 decimal place (g)

Entire wing
Skin
Muscle
Subcutaneous Fat (4+1+1)
Muscle is eaten for its protein. Muscle is made of protein. What percentage of this wing is
muscle?
Skin is mostly fat. What total percentage of this wing was made up of fat?
Calculate the total fat-to-muscle ratio as a percentage.
Look at the price per kilo for these wings. Assuming the wings have the same mass, and
there are 6 per pack, how much does one wing cost?
As you are paying the above price only to really eat the protein, what is the actual price per
kilo you are paying for the meat on this wing?
Mark Scheme: Chicken wing

Self-Assessment: MostlyMostly Yes Very
Assess yourself after chatting through each point no no much
with your partner (0) so
I followed the instructions carefully and read
everything
We asked questions where we needed to
We did not ask irrelevant questions
I can now recognize all the tissues mentioned
I can confidently describe the tissues we saw
We worked well together
We stayed focused on the work
Our apparatus was clean and dry after our
practical
I can confidently insert and remove scalpel blades
I used the apparatus well and successfully
Our wing was neatly dissected
Total (out of 33, convert to 15) /33
/15
Drawing [8]
Realistic and in proportion correct label convention (-1 each)
scale convention (-1 each) well headed ( needs 1 adj at least)
Data handling [12]
Symbol given in all answers (not all = 1) gets the 4 simple answers all right gets complex
answer right (half = 1) shows working (most = 1) layout is clear and logical (subj)
Questions: [55]
Self-Assess [15]
TOTAL: [90]
5.5 Applications of indigenous knowledge and biotech-

nology DUMMY
Teacher’s Guide
Section 5: Applications of Indigenous Knowledge Systems and Biotechnology
In this section the following needs to be discussed with the learners to ensure
understanding of Life Science and the related technology.
• Traditional Technology which includes the role of traditional healers using herbal
plants and traditions passed down to members in the community over generations.
• The advances in Medical Biotechnology and the importance of vaccines and antibi-
otics. Technology advance in blood transfusion to prevent complications during trans-
fusions.

FACT • The cloning of plant and animal tissues and stem cell research. The moral, ethical and
In 2007, a research legal issues around cloning needs to be discussed with learners.
team from
University of
KwaZulu-Natal
found that plant Traditional medicines DUMMY
extracts from 16
plants used by local
healers as ’muti’
were highly In The World Health Organisation definition of traditional medicine, they incorporate a list
effective in treating of plant and animal product-based therapies as well as spiritual practices as part of traditional
high blood pressure.
medicine. Up to 80% of people in African and Asian countries rely on traditional medicines
for their basic health care needs. In South Africa, broadly there are two types of practitioners:
herbalists and diviners. Herbalists use plants to prescribe remedies to ailments. Diviners are
said to communicate with ancestral spirits in order to diagnose problems and ailments. In
Africa, traditional healers rely on up to 4000 plants for remedies. Pygneum, a traditional
medicine has been used in Africa and elsewhere to treat early forms of cancer for example.
Due to the high cost of modern Western health care systems and technologies, there has been
a recent focus on researching African traditional remedies and medicines. Traditional African
medicine may well have healing properties that have been recognised through generations
of use, and passed on in a cultural system. Because of the potential to reach greater masses
at lower cost there has been an attempt to combine traditional African medicine into the
continent’s health care systems. An example of this a 48-bed hospital that was opened in
Kwa-Mhlanga, South Africa, in 2010. The hospital treats patients using a combination of
traditional methods and Western healing methods.
Modern biotechnology DUMMY
In this section we will examine some aspects of biotechnology that have been applied in
modern medicine. Modern medicine is informed by medical research, and medical research
is based on the scientific method. Therefore these therapies are based on investigations that
have results that are reproducible. We will examine five achievements of modern medicine
and discuss the underlying ethical issues these new treatments and technologies present:
1. Immunity and vaccines

2. Antibiotics
3. Blood transfusions
4. Cloning
5. Stem cell research
1. Immunity and vaccines
Immunity is the body’s resistance to infection by bacteria and viruses. The body could be
infected by a host of microorganisms including bacteria, protozoa, viruses and fungi. The
body has a host of defences against infections. The body defends itself against infection
through a variety of means, such as physical, chemical and cellular barriers to infection.
• Physical barriers include the skin, saliva, tears and mucus. They also include hairs in
the lining of the respiratory tract known as cilia.
• Chemical barriers include the various allergic responses that result in inflammation
or swelling. These are caused by a chemical response system that results in the body
releasing chemicals to attack any foreign objects entering the body. White blood cells
166 5.5. Applications of indigenous knowledge and biotechnology

known as eosinophils are normally responsible for the allergic response.
• Cellular mechanisms exist to fight bacterial infections. These include neutrophils,
macrophages and which attack pathogens and ”engulf” and eat them through a pro-
cess of phagocytosis.
The above defence mechanisms described are part of the innate immune system. The body
also has an adaptive immune system which ‘remembers’ each pathogen that invades the
body based on the specific markers on the pathogen. These markers are known as antigens.
When a foreign organism invades, the adaptive immune system launches an antigen-specific
response which destroys the infectious agent.
Figure 5.35: Eosinophils are important in controlling the allergic reaction.
Vaccination is the most effective method of eradicating infectious diseases. It has resulted
in the eradication of smallpox throughout the world and has greatly reduced diseases such
as polio, measles and tetanus. Vaccination involves injecting components of the infectious
agent in a non-toxic form in order to stimulate an individual’s adaptive immune system.
An immune response is produced against the vaccine, resulting in the production of T-
lymphocyte memory cells. When a repeat infection occurs, the body is able to mount an
effective and rapid immune response due to the presence of memory cells.
Figure 5.36: A vaccination campaign in the US.
2. Antibiotics
Antibiotics are another example of a biotechnological advance in medicine. Antibiotics stop

or inhibit the growth of certain disease-producing bacteria. These substances were originally
found in organisms such as fungi and can now be chemically manufactured. Antibiotics can
be administered to patients intravenously as injections, or in the form of tables, syrups or
suspensions.

Figure 5.37: Antibiotics.
3. Blood transfusions
Blood transfusions often save the lives of people whom have lost large amounts of blood
due to trauma caused by accidents and surgery. Before a person receives blood from a
blood donor, the blood has to be typed to see if the donor is a match for the recipient.
Blood is classified based on the presence of antigens in the red blood cells. An antigen is a
molecule recognised by the immune system. There are four different types of blood groups.
Recipients can only be given blood which is compatible to their own blood.
• Blood Group A has antigen A only

• Blood Group B has antigen B only
• Blood group AB has both antigen A and B
• Blood Group O has neither antigens A or B
The table below shows the different ABO Blood Groups and compatibility for blood transfu-
sions.
Blood group Blood donor (person Blood recipient (person

giving blood) requiring blood)
A A and AB A and O
B B and AB B and O
AB AB only All groups
O All groups O only
Figure 5.38: Red blood cell compatibility chart. In addition to donating to the same blood group,
type O blood donors can give to A, B and AB; blood donors of types A and B can give to AB.
Furthermore, the Rhesus factor of both the recipient and donor need to be determined. The
Rhesus factor is another type of antigen found on the surface of red blood cells. Approx-
imately 85% of the population has this protein and are know to be Rhesus positive. The

remaining 15% of the population are Rhesus negative because this protein is not present in
their red blood cells.
So, blood group A negative means the recipient has antigen A, but does not have the Rhesus
factor, a recipient who is O positive means the recipient has neither antigen A or B but does
have the Rhesus factor. It is important that a person receiving a blood transfusion receives
blood from a donor that is compatible in both blood group and Rhesus factor.
4. Cloning
Cloning is the process by which a genetically identical copy of an organism is produced. In

nature, cloning occurs when organisms such as plants, insects or bacteria reproduce asexu-
ally. The copied material is referred to as a clone. There are three main types of cloning:
• Gene cloning: involves cloning of small sections or regions of DNA.

• Reproductive cloning: produces copies of whole animals or cells.
• Therapeutic cloning: produces stem cells for experiments to attempt to replace injured
or diseased tissues.
Some plants have been producing identical clones of themselves through natural processes
for millions of years. Through the production of a ‘runner’ (stolon) for instance, strawberry
crops produce genetically identical offspring. The new plant is referred to as a clone. Similar
cloning occurs in grasses, potato crops and onions. Artificial cloning occurs through either
vegetative propagation or through tissue propagation. Propagation is the process by which
existing organisms produce more offspring.
Vegetative propagation is an ancient form of cloning plants. It involves taking a leaf cutting
from a plant and growing it into a new plant. Vegetative propagation occurs because of the
presence of a mass of unspecialised cells known as a callus. Callus cells grow, divide and
form various specialised cells such as roots and stems, eventually producing a grown plant.
Figure 5.39: Growing new Plumeria plants from cuttings.
Tissue culture propagation is a more recent practice which involves taking pieces of spe-
cialised roots, isolating the cells and growing them in a nutrient-rich culture. In the culture,
the specialised cells become transformed into undifferentiated cells. These are similar to the
calluses formed above. The calluses then get treated with chemicals that trigger the growth
of new plants that are identical to the original plant from which the root pieces were taken
as shown in the diagram below. This method of cultivating new plants is known as tissue
culture.
Artificial cloning of organisms

The technique used to clone whole animals, such as sheep is referred to as reproductive
cloning. In reproductive cloning, scientists remove a mature somatic cell. A somatic cell is
any cell in the body that does not serve a reproductive purpose. In these cells, both sets of
chromosomes (from the mother and father) are present. An example of a somatic cell is a
skin cell. The nucleus is removed from the ‘donor’ somatic cell and added to a ‘recipient’
cell in which the nucleus has been removed (a denucleated cell). The clone produced can
then be transferred into a surrogate mother’s womb. A surrogate organism is one which acts
as a substitute for another. In this case, the clone is transferred to a surrogate so the embryo
can develop.
Figure 5.40: The cloning processes for reproductive and therapeutic cloning. Reproductive cloning
is used for cloning of whole organisms e.g Dolly the Sheep.
5. Stem cell research
Stem cells are cells found in all multicellular organisms. Stem cells can differentiate into
any type of cell such as a red blood cell, nerve cell, etc. The two types of stem cells are
embryonic stem cells and adult stem cells. Embryonic stem cells can specialise into any
cell type, while adult stem cells usually have some restrictions as to what type of cell they
can become. Adult stem cells are produced in various tissues including the liver and the
bone marrow. Embryonic stem cells are found in the womb of pregnant animals and can
be created in vitro (in the laboratory). Multiple embryos are generated through in vitro
fertilisation methods. The embryos that are not implanted into a patient are frozen or stored.
Some of them are destroyed. The potential uses for stem cells include:
• spinal cord injury: repairing damaged nerve tissue after paralysis

• brain damage: replacing or regenerating neurons in degenerative conditions like Parkin-
sons disease or after a stroke
• cancer: creating new cells to replace cancerous cells e.g. bone marrow transplants for
people with leukaemia
• burn treatment: new skin cells that match the donor may be grafted onto burn victims
Figure 5.41 shows how embryonic cells differentiate to form nerve cells.

FACT
Recall that in
Chapter 4 you learnt
that individuals with
cancer can be
treated through
chemotherapy.
However,
chemotherapy often
destroys healthy
cells along with
cancerous cells. The
use of adult stem
cells which derive
from the bone
marrow and liver
tissue is important
in replacing the
healthy cells
damaged by
chemotherapy.
Figure 5.41: A) undifferentiated embryonic stem cells and B) nerve cells forming from embryonic FACT
cells. In June 2012, the
South African
plastic surgeon, Dr
Ridwan Mia led a
The use of stem cells and embryonic stem cells in particular, is controversial, with many breakthrough
people opposed to it for moral, religious or philosophical reasons. The objection is largely surgery, saving the
life of a three year
based on what happens to the unused embryos. old burn victim by
transplanting skin
Ethical issues and legislation cells cloned from
the victim’s cells.
Pippie Kruger, the
The use of science in cloning has created a lot of debate and controversy. Mainly, the debate
burn survivor
is whether the methods used for cloning result in cells that have the potential to form full- initially had a 10%
grown organisms. The key ethical questions that arise are therefore: chance of survival.
However, the
doctors obtained
• What to do about fused cells (known as embryos) that are not used for either therapeu- some of her skin
tic or reproductive purposes? cells, transported
them to a laboratory
• By selecting certain genes for reproduction using cloning are we not favouring certain in the USA, where
types of characteristics over others? they were cloned in
• Much of the cloning is conducted by private companies and this raises concerns that order to produce
millions of extra
the public might not be able to benefit from the research being conducted. cells. These cells
• In the case of human cloning, if the embryos created are alive, do they have the rights were transplanted
of a normal human being? into Pippie,
resulting in the
• Are there better alternatives to stem cell research? complete success of
her skin grafting
Legislation around stem cell research
Due to the issue of stem cell research being so controversial, different countries have very
different laws governing how it is to be conducted.
Some European countries such as Finland, Sweden, Belgium, Greece, Britain, Denmark and
Netherlands allow stem cell research using human embryos while some such as Germany,
Austria, Ireland, Italy and Portugal do not.The United States of America has divided opinions
on stem cell research, with some of its States providing funding for stem cell research while
others do not. India, Iran, South Korea, China and Australia are supportive of stem cell
research. South Africa continues to support stem cell research.

surgery. Potential applications of cloned animals
Reproductive cloning may allow copies of animals to be made for benefits in agriculture and
medicine. Sheep such as Dolly have been cloned to overproduce a high quantity of a protein
important for blood clotting in humans. It may soon be possible to clone extinct species of
animals.
Drawbacks of cloning animals may include the fact that most cloned species are unable
to develop into healthy animals. Dolly for example was only one of 277 cloned embryos.
There have been significant health effects of cloning including increase in birth size and a
variety of defects in vital organs such as the liver, brain and heart.
Ethical biotechnology
• In medicine modern biotechnology finds promising applications in such areas as: drug
production, pharmacogenomics (how a person’s genes affects their response to drugs),
and genetic testing (or genetic screening): techniques in molecular biology detect ge-
netic diseases.
• To test the developing foetus for Down syndrome, amniocentesis and chorionic villus
sampling can be used.
Teacher’s Guide
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/harvest/engineer/transgen.html
Takes students on a step-by-step process showing them how to genetically engineer a plant
and bacterium
• http://www.biotechnologyonline.gov.au/biotechnologyonline/topitems/resources.
html
Australian government resource for educators and learners on various aspects of biotechnol-
ogy.
• http://www.scientificamerican.com/biotechnology
All the latest articles on developments in biotechnology written in accessible language.
• http://seedmagazine.com/content/tag/biotechnology/
Discusses latest issues in biotechnology and their political, economic and cultural implica-
tions.
5.6 The leaf as an organ DUMMY
Teacher’s Guide
Section 6: Organs
Learners are reminded of the fact that an organ is a collection of tissues that are joined
together to perform a common function. A group of organs work together to form an organ
172 5.6. The leaf as an organ

system. Organs exist in all higher biological organisms, they are not restricted to animals,
but can also be identified in plants e.g. the leaf is an organ in a plant as is the root, stem,
flowers and fruits. In this section the leaf structure is used as an example of an organ.
The leaf structure to be discussed using a cross section of a dicotyledonous leaf. Structure
needs to be related to function, e.g. transport, gaseous exchange and photosynthesis. Link
this section with the plant tissues already taught, the cell organelles, movement of molecules
across membranes into, through and out of the leaf.
You have learnt about individual tissues found in plants and animals. We will now look at
how tissues join together to form organs. An organ is a collection of tissues joined together
as a structural unit in order to perform a common function. In later chapters we will look
at the various organs found in animals. In this section, we will discuss how a plant leaf
is an example of an organ. We will present its structure with respect to its functions in
photosynthesis, gaseous exchange and transport.
Leaves are typically found in vascular plants, which have lignified tissues allowing them to
conduct water. Leaves are usually flat and thin to allow for maximum gaseous exchange
and capture of light. The organisation of the leaf has evolved to allow maximum exposure
of chloroplasts to light, and to absorb carbon dioxide. Leaves have stomata, pores found
in the leaf epidermis, which allow the plant to regulate the exchange of carbon dioxide,
oxygen and water vapour with the atmosphere. The shape and structure of leaves varies
considerably from one plant to another. This depends on the climate, available light intensity,
presence of grazing animals, nutrients and competition from other plants. Leaves are either
dorsiventral or isobilateral. Dorsiventral leaves have both surfaces differing from each other
in appearance and structure. Isobilateral leaves have both surfaces looking the same. Leaves
can also store food and water and are modified to perform these functions.
Leaf structure DUMMY
The leaf is a collection of tissues which include:
1. The epidermis which covers the upper and lower surfaces.

2. The mesophyll inside the leaf which is rich in chloroplasts.
3. The vascular tissue contains the veins (where xylem and phloem are present).
Epidermis DUMMY
Epidermal cells form the outer layer covering a leaf, separating internal organs from the
external atmosphere.
Epidermis tissue has several functions:
• protection against water loss by way of transpiration (contains guard cells which open
and close)
• regulation of gaseous exchange
• secretion of metabolic compounds
• absorption of water

Mesophyll cells
The mesophyll is located between the upper and lower layers of the leaf epidermis, and is
mostly made up of parenchyma (ground tissue) or chlorenchyma tissue. The mesophyll is
the primary location for photosynthesis and is divided into two layers, the upper palisade
layer and the spongy mesophyll layer.
The upper palisade layer lies beneath the upper epidermis and consists of vertically elon-
gated cells that are tightly packed together to maximise the number of cells exposed to
sunlight. In addition, these cells contain many chloroplasts, thus maximising their photo-
synthetic ability. The palisade layer thickness depends on the extent of exposure to the sun.
Leaves that are exposed to the sun have a thicker palisade layer. Those that are typically
found in the shade have a thinner palisade layer. Beneath the upper palisade layer is the
spongy mesophyll. The cells in the spongy mesophyll are slightly rounder and less densely
packed and have air spaces to allow for gaseous exchange.
Figures below show the leaf and tissue structure of a dicot plant.
Figure 5.42: Leaf structure.

Figure 5.43: Leaf structure. FACT
You will learn more
about the transport
processes in plants
Vascular tissue is made up of the xylem and phloem vessels you have learned about earlier in: Support and
in this chapter. Xylem as you have learned, transports water and minerals to the leaf. Phloem transport systems in
plants.
transports dissolved sucrose made in the leaf out of its site of synthesis to the rest of the leaf.
Transport of substances into and out of the leaf DUMMY
The leaf is devised to transport water, sugars, carbon dioxide and oxygen across its surface.
Each of these involves separate processes and cells which we will discuss below.
Movement of oxygen and carbon dioxide
Stomata are the site of gaseous exchange in the leaf. Carbon dioxide enters the leaf and
oxygen leaves. Waste gases from photosynthesis and respiration leave through the stomata as
well. Oxygen diffuses out of the leaf because the concentration of oxygen is greater outside
the leaf. Similarly, carbon dioxide diffuses into the leaf due to its higher concentration
outside the leaf.
Movement of water into leaf
Water is constantly being lost by the leaf through transpiration processes. This results in the
cells in the mesophyll having a lower water concentration that the vascular bundles. Water
thus moves down a concentration gradient from the xylem vessel into the living cells of the
mesophyll layer and to the surface of the mesophyll cell walls. This causes water to move
up from the stem by means of transpirational pull. The movement of water is maintained
because water molecules constantly evaporate into leaf inter-cellular air space out of the
stomatal pore and into the atmosphere.
Movement of sugars
Sugars are manufactured in the leaves and transported to the rest of the plant. Chloroplasts
found in the palisade layer harvest the energy from the sun to make glucose. Glucose is
subsequently stored in the form of starch. Starch is transported through the phloem vessel
present in the vascular tissue in the leaf.
Opening and closing of stomata: The opening and closing of the stomata is important for
gaseous exchange, transpiration and the movement of sugars. Stomata open when it is bright
and when there is high humidity. When water concentration in the soil is low, indicating
that the plant is try, chemical changes in the plant result in the closing of the stomata.

Figure 5.44: Confocal microscope image of guard cells and stoma. The red-staining region is chloro-
phyll.
Activity: Examining leaf structure under a microscope
Aim:
To identify different tissues found in plant leaf
Questions¿:
Study the image shown and answer the questions given below.
Figure A Figure B
1. Compare Figures A and B. Which of the numbered structures shown in B can you
identify from Figure A?
2. Which of the numbered structures shown in B are absent in A?
3. The image given in Figure A is of a Spiderworts leaf. they grow in a part of Canada
where the sun shines in the morning and it is cloudy in the afternoon. Describe what
changes you would expect to see to the structures in the plant leaf during the day. How
would these changes compare to a plant that grows in a hot, sunny days and cold, dry
nights?

5.7 Summary DUMMY
Teacher’s Guide
Section 7: Chapter Summary
• A tissue is a group of cells grouped together and working together.

• An organ is group of tissues grouped together and working together.
• Plant tissues include xylem, phloem, collenchyma, sclerenchyma, epidermis and meris-
tematic tissue.
• Animal tissues include epithelial tissue, connective tissue, muscle tissue and nerve
tissue.
• Plant and animal tissues are used in traditional technology, medical technology and
cloning processes.
• The leaf is an example of a plant organ and its structure is adapted to its role in photo-
synthesis.
• Cells which are similar in structure group together to form tissues performing a partic-
ular function. Tissues form organs which combine to allow organisms to exist.
• Plant and animal cells have structures related to their functions.
• Plant tissues are broadly divided into Dividing or Meristematic and Permanent tissues.
• Meristematic cells are small, have high amounts of cytoplasm and a large nucleus to
assist in their role in cell division.
• Permanent tissues are further divided into simple permanent (which have only one
type of cell) and complex permanent (which have different types of cell coming to-
gether to perform a particular function). The simple permanent tissues include (with
their function in brackets): Epidermis (protection), Parenchyma (storage), Collenchyma
(support) and Sclerenchyma tissues (strength and structural support). Complex tissues
are made up of the xylem and phloem.
• Xylem tissue is important in the transport of water and mineral salts. Phloem tissue is
structured to allow the transport of organic compounds required for the plant (typically
in the form of sucrose). Together the parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma are
referred to as ground tissue. The xylem and phloem make up the vascular tissue.
• Animal tissues are made up of epithelial, connective, muscle and nerve tissue. Ep-
ithelium is made up of flat squamous cells, cuboidal cells or columnar cells in single
or multiple layers. Epithelial cells are involves in secretion of enzymes, protective
substances such as mucus and they provide a supportive function
• Muscle tissue is made up of cardiac muscle, skeletal muscle and smooth muscle. Car-
diac and skeletal muscle are striated. Smooth muscle and cardiac muscle are involun-
tary muscles whereas skeletal muscle is under voluntary control.
• Connective tissues are composed of areolar, fibrous, cartilage, bone tissue and blood.
They provide strength and support, reduce friction and act as shock absorbers.
• Blood is made up of red blood cells (transport oxygen), white blood cells (responsible
for immune response) and platelets (important in blood clotting).
• Nerve tissue is responsible for receiving stimuli from the environment (sensory neu-
rons), processing it (interneurons) and sending impulses to muscles or glands (motor
neurons) so that we can respond to the stimuli.
• Traditional healers and traditional medicine is an application of indigenous knowledge
of plant and animal tissues.

• Modern Biotechnology is focused on a variety of applications of technology. Vaccines
and antibiotics enhance the body’s immunity.
• Immunity relies on the natural mechanisms (skin, mucus etc) as well as cellular mech-
anisms (T-cells and B-cells) fighting viral and bacterial infections. Vaccines rely on
T-memory-cell derived immunity to fight subsequent infections.
• Blood transfusion is a way of replacing lost blood. It requires accurate blood type
matching.
• Cloning of plant tissues requires either a piece of the plant tissue through vegetative
propagation or chemical treatment to produce calluses in tissue culture propagation.
• Cloning of animal tissues occurs through the process of reproductive cloning. It can
result in the replacement of a whole organism or, through therapeutic cloning the
creation of stem cells.
• There are broad legal and ethical questions regarding cloning of organisms as well as
the use of stem cells. These differ from country to country.
The leaf as an organ
• Plant leaf is an example of an organ, as it consists of a group of tissues that form part
of a structural unit performing a common function.
• Plant leaves are adapted to absorb light in order for photosynthesis to occur as well as
to manufacture sugars for transport to the rest of the plant.
• The major processes for which leaves are therefore adapted are photosynthesis, tran-
spiration and gaseous exchange. Leaves transport oxygen, carbon dioxide, water and
sucrose.
• Water is lost from the plant through transpiration out of stomata in the leaf. The move-
ment of carbon dioxide and oxygen is through diffusion in and out of the leaf.
• Sugar manufactured in the leaf is transported through the phloem vessel.
• Stomata open and close in response to a variety of environmental stimuli.
1. Answer the following questions based on the drawings below.
a) Provide labels for 1, 2, 3 and 4.

Solution:
• 1-chondroblasts
• 2-lacuna
• 3-chondrin
• 4-nucleus of squamous epithelium cell
b) Which tissue, A or B, is found in the rib cage?
178 5.7. Summary

Solution:
Tissue A
c) Which tissue, A or B, is found in the lining of blood vessels?
Solution:
Tissue B
2. Tissues come together to form a/an
a) organ
b) organ system
c) body system
d) organelle
Solution:
a
3. What kind of tissue can parenchyma tissue be described as being?
a) simple tissue
b) complex tissue
c) xylem
d) phloem
Solution:
a
4. Which of the following is not a simple tissue?
a) xylem
b) parenchyma
c) collenchyma
d) sclerenchyma
Solution:
a
5. What is the key difference between meristematic and permanent tissue?
a) the ability to conduct photosynthesis
b) the ability to divide
c) the ability to move
d) the complexity to perform a function
Solution:
b
6. Which type of tissue has lignified walls?
a) Parenchyma
b) Collenchyma
c) Sclerenchyma
d) Cambium
Solution:
c
7. Explain the statement ‘Tissues exhibit division of labour’. Give examples.
Solution:

Multicellular organisms are made up of millions of cells. Specialised cells that perform
a specific task group together to form tissues. Thus different tissues perform different
functions.
In humans, for example, muscle cells contract and relax to produce movement. Nerve
cells are specialised to carry messages, blood flows to transport oxygen, food, hor-
mones etc. In plants, vascular tissues conduct water from one part of the plant to the
other. Thus multi-cellular organisms exhibit division of labour.
8. Why do plants have more dead tissues compared to animals?
Solution:
Plants need the hard, dead cells to remain upright – they don’t have skeletons, and
each cell must support itself or receive direct support from tissues around it, in order
for the plant to remain upright. Most plant tissues are dead, since dead cells can
provide mechanical strength as easily as live ones and therefore need less maintenance.
Also, plants are stationary and hence require less energy. Animals require energy for
movement. Animals are supported by hard (often bony) skeletons and do not need
dead cells to support them.
9. List the characteristics of meristematic tissues.
Solution:
They are actively dividing cells and divide throughout their life; Cells are compactly
arranged with NO intercellular spaces; lack vacuoles; cells have dense cytoplasm and
thin cell walls; have prominent nuclei.
10. Which tissues are responsible for secondary growth in plants?
Solution:
Vascular cambium and cork cambium (also called secondary meristems) are responsi-
ble for secondary growth. They increase the thickness (girth) of the plant body.
11. What are the key features which allow you to tell that a tissue type is collenchyma?
Solution:
Living cells that are elongated and generally contain chloroplasts; cell walls are irreg-
ularly thickened at corners due to deposition of cellulose or pectin; oval, circular or
polygonal in shape; few intercellular spaces.
12. Thando was shown two slides of plant tissues: parenchyma and sclerenchyma. Which
of the features given below would be crucial in identifying sclerenchyma and why?
a) location of nucleus
b) size of cells
c) thickness of cell walls
d) position of vacuoles
Solution:
C, the thickness of the walls. The walls of the sclerenchyma are thickened due to lignin
which thickens the walls. Sclerenchyma cells are dead and will not have vacuoles or
nuclei.
13. Why do meristematic cells lack vacuoles?
Solution:
Vacuoles are responsible for storing food and certain types of waste product. Meris-
tematic cells being young and actively dividing do not participate in food manufacture
and in storage functions. They do not generate waste. Therefore they do not require
vacuoles. Meristematic cells are always young cells that have not had time to form vac-
uoles. They divide constantly so the cells are ‘embryonic’ – vacuoles are characteristic
of mature plant cells.
14. Considering the plant leaf as an organ, describe the main tissues that come together to
180 5.7. Summary

form the organ. What is the role of each tissue type? Why are they all important in the
functioning of the organ?
Solution:
• Epidermis forms the protective outer layer that has the waxy cuticle to prevent
dehydration. It may form trichomes to reflect heat, repel herbivores and trap
water vapour. The epidermis has stomata mainly in the lower epidermis to allow
gaseous exchange without the leaf getting dehydrated. The cells are transparent
to allow sunlight through to the photosynthesising cells.
• Palisade mesophyll consists of vertically elongated cells that all receive individual
sunlight. These cells also have many chloroplasts, as they are below the upper
epidermis and receive most sunlight. All mesophyll cells have large vacuoles to
support the leaf by turgor pressure.
• Spongy mesophyll consists of loosely packed chlorenchyma cells with fewer
chloroplasts, but large intercellular spaces to allow diffusion of gases through-
out the leaf. All mesophyll cells have thin, moist walls to allow faster diffusion
of gases and water. The air chambers in these mesophyll cells link directly to the
stomata.
• Veins contain xylem to bring water into the photosynthesising tissues, as well as
phloem to remove the sugars like glucose. Veins are well supported by a bundle
sheath of sclerenchyma or collenchyma.
Teacher’s Guide
CHAPTER 6: SUPPORT AND TRANSPORT SYSTEMS IN PLANTS
Section 1: Overview
Chapter 5 discussed the structure of plant and animal tissue. This Chapter focuses on the on
the plant tissues that transport food and water around the plant. It is always worth bearing in
mind the relationship between structure and function. As already known that plant leaves use
sunlight and water to make food during photosynthesis. The next concept is understanding
how the phloem and xylem tissue transport food and water within the plant. Which cells
are responsible for moving food throughout the plant? How are the tissues adapted for their
functions in transporting either water or food? What do these cells look like under the
microscope?
We will further explore the relationship between structure and function by studying how the
loss of water from leaves through a process called ‘transpiration’ results in changes to leaf
structure.

Key Concepts:
• The plant is made up of the root and stem where tissues with dividing
(meristematic) cells are contained.
• Secondary growth of trees is measurable by observing the annular
rings within tree trunks and can be used to infer climate change.
• Transpiration, the loss of water vapour from plant leaves is caused by
factors such as temperature, light intensity, wind and humidity.
• Wilting and guttation are processes resulting from loss of water
through transpiration.
• Water and minerals are taken up into the xylem tissue present in roots.
• Water is subsequently transported to leaves in the plant.
• Manufactured food is translocated, via phloem tissue, from sites of
manufacture (in the leaves) to other parts of the plant where sugars
are used or stored.
182 5.7. Summary

CHAPTER 6
Support and transport systems in plants
6.1 Overview 184

6.2 Anatomy of dicotyledonous plants 185
6.3 Transpiration 196
6.4 Uptake of water and minerals in the roots 209
6.5 Summary 215
6 Support and transport systems in plants
6.1 Overview DUMMY
Introduction DUMMY
In the previous chapter, the structure of plant and animal tissue was introduced. This chapter
focuses on the plant tissues that transport food and water around the plant. It is always
worth bearing in mind the relationship between structure and function. As you have learnt,
plant leaves use sunlight and water to make food during photosynthesis. The next concept is
understanding how the phloem and xylem tissue transport food and water within the plant.
Which cells are responsible for moving food throughout the plant? How are the tissues
adapted for their functions in transporting either water or food? What do these cells look like
under the microscope?
We will further explore the relationship between structure and function by studying how the
loss of water from leaves through a process called ‘transpiration’ results in changes to leaf
structure.
Key concepts
• The dicotyledonous plant is made up of the root and stem where tissues containing
dividing (meristematic) cells are located.
• Secondary growth of trees is measurable by observing the annular rings within tree
trunks and can be used to infer climate change.
• Transpiration is the loss of water vapour from plant leaves and is caused by factors such
as temperature, light intensity, wind and humidity.
• Wilting and guttation are processes that result from the loss of water through transpira-
tion.
• Water and minerals are taken up into the xylem tissue present in roots.
• Water is subsequently transported to leaves in the plant.
• Manufactured food is translocated, via phloem tissue, from sites of manufacture (in the
leaves) to other parts of the plant where sugars are used or stored.
Teacher’s Guide
Section 2: Anatomy of Dicotyledonous Plants
This section describes the structure of dicotyledonous roots and stems, followed by a de-
scription of the structure of the cells in the different tissues. Learners can use microscopes
or photomicrographs to observe and draw cross sections of the root and stem. Slides can
be made from celery or pumpkin stalks to view xylem tissue and secondary thickening pat-
terns. This section can also be linked to mitotic cell division when describing the secondary
growth. Link the annual rings in a tree trunk to environmental studies (climate change) which
will be taught later. Annual rings are also used to assess the age of a tree.
184 6.1. Overview

6.2 Anatomy of dicotyledonous plants DUMMY
Differences between Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons DUMMY
All plants are classified as producing seeds or not producing seeds. Those that produce
seeds are divided into flowering (angiosperms) and non-flowering (gymnosperms). Flowering
plants are further divided into monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous (monocot and dicot)
plants.
Figure 6.1: Flowering plants such as the acacia tree.
Figure 6.2: Gymnosperms are non-flowering plants such as pine trees or ”black spruce” shown above.
In angiosperms, the cotyledon is part of the seed of the plant. The number of cotyledons
(mono- or di-) is used to classify flowering plants. Monocotyledonous plants have one cotyle-
don, dicotyledonous plants have two. Plants belonging to each group have a number of
features in common, such as the leaf and root structure, the strength of the stem, the flower
structure and flower parts. Some differences between monocots and dicots are given in
Figure 6.3 and 6.4.
Chapter 6. Support and transport systems in plants 185

Figure 6.3: A comparison between monocots and dicots.
Monocotyledon Dicotyledon first

leaves
first
endosperm leaf
epicotyl hypocotyl cotyledon
cotyledon seed seed
coleoptile
coleoptile coat epicotyl radicle coat hypocotyl
epicotyl
seed
hypocotyl coat
radicle
seed coat radicle hypocotyl root cotyledons radicle root
fused to
ovary wall
Figure 6.4: Comparison of a monocot seedling (left) and dicot seedling (right).
In the previous chapter you learnt about the key plant tissues involved in support and trans-
port functions, namely the xylem, phloem, collenchyma and sclerenchyma. Recall that these
tissues are involved in both transport and supporting roles in plants. In different parts of the
plant, tissues are arranged differently. In this section, we will study the overall structure (or
anatomy) of dicotyledonous plants.
Root anatomy DUMMY
Root systems are responsible for the following functions:
• absorption of water and organic compounds;

• anchoring of the plant body to the ground; and
• storage of food and nutrients.
When a seed germinates, the first structure to appear is the root or the radicle. This becomes
the primary root. Other roots that branch out of the primary root are called secondary
roots (Figure 6.5). The growing root tip is protected by the root cap as it moves through the
coarse soil. The root cap is slimy in nature to facilitate easy movement. Above the root cap
is the apical meristem. In this meristematic region, cells divide continuously by mitosis to
186 6.2. Anatomy of dicotyledonous plants

produce new cells. In addition to mitosis, newly divided cells undergo elongation in the
same direction of root lengthening.
Figure 6.5: Primary and secondary root system of a cotton plant
Above the region of cell elongation, thousands of tiny root hairs are found in the root hair
region. The function of the root hairs is to absorb water and dissolved mineral salts from the
soil. As the root grows, it thickens and may produce lateral roots in the mature region as
shown in Figure 6.6.
Figure 6.6: The dicotyledonous root
There are two major types of root system.
1. Taproot system: root system comprising one primary root and many secondary roots
branching off the primary root. Examples of taproots include carrot and beetroots
where the roots serve a storage function. Tap roots are found in dicotyledonous plants.
2. Fibrous root system: system with no dominant primary root but many secondary roots
of similar size. Fibrous (adventitious) root systems are common in monocotyledons.
Examples include coconuts and grasses.
Tissue distribution in root
The different tissues in the root have a distribution which is common to all dicotyledonous
plants and is shown in Figure 6.7.

Figure 6.7: Dicotyledonous root profile showing the major tissues found in the root system which
also aid in transport.
The epidermis is a single layer of cells on the outside that protects the inner tissues. The
epidermal layer of the root has no waterproof cuticle as this would prevent the absorption of
water. Structurally, the cells of the root hair (shown in Figure 6.8) have large central vacuoles
and cover a large surface area which allows water to enter these cells readily via osmosis.
Figure 6.8: Diagram of a root hair cell
The cortex consists of parenchyma cells. These cells are large which enables them to store
water and food. They also facilitate the movement of water from the root hair cells on the
outside of the plant to the xylem on the inside of the plant.
The endodermis forms the innermost layer of the cortex. It is a layer of tightly-packed,
modified parenchyma cells. The radial and transverse cell walls are thickened with a water-
impermeable, waxy suberin layer, known as the Casparian strip. This layer helps to regulate
the flow of water from the cortex into the stele, rather than allowing the water to spread to
all the root cells.
The stele, or vascular cylinder (responsible for transporting water and minerals), consists
of the pericycle, phloem, cambium and xylem. The pericycle is the outermost layer of the
stele, and consists of one or more rows of thin-walled parenchyma cells. It is in close contact

with the xylem and phloem tissues of the root. Its functions are the formation of lateral roots FACT
and the formation of a lateral meristem to allow secondary growth (thickening) to occur in Confocal
microscopy is an
the root.
advanced kind of
microscopy which
The phloem tissue is responsible for transporting food from the leaves of the plant to the allows us to stain
cells of the root. The cambium separates the xylem and phloem tissues from each other. various cell types or
structures with
This is the area where secondary growth of xylem and phloem tissues occur. Xylem tissue is
different colours,
responsible for transporting water and dissolved mineral salts to the xylem tissue of the stem and visualise them
and leaves. These cells are strengthened with lignin for support. The pits in the cell walls in 3D, using special
allow for the lateral movement of water. Figure 6.9 shows stained root tissues visualised by lasers and computer
confocal microscopy. It shows the internal structure of root cells, including the epidermis, software.
cortex, endodermis and pericycle.
Figure 6.9: Stained root tissues as visualised by confocal microscopy. Colour key: brown, epidermis;
red, cortex; blue, endodermis; green, pericycle.
Stem anatomy DUMMY
Stems usually grow above the soil surface and towards the light from the sun. Depending
on the hardness of the stem, we can distinguish between herbaceous stems, which are leafy
non-woody structures, and woody stems. Woody stems are harder than herbaceous stems.
Stems have four main functions.
• Support for the plant as it holds leaves, flowers and fruits upright above the ground.
Stems keep the leaves in the light and provide a place for the plant to keep its flowers
and fruits.
• Transport of fluids between roots and shoots in the xylem and phloem.
• Storage of nutrients.
• Production of new living tissue: stems contain meristematic tissue which generates
new tissue.
The main stem develops from the plumule of the embryo and the lateral branches develop
from the buds. Nodes and internodes are regions found on the stem. Nodes are the regions
from which leaves and lateral branches develop, and the regions between nodes are known
as internodes (shown in Figure 6.10). Stomata, or pores, can be found in stems of younger
plants. We will subsequently discuss the tissues present in the dicot stem. The trunk of a
tree (shown in Figure 6.11) is the stem.

Figure 6.10: Stem showing internode and nodes plus leaf petioles.
Figure 6.11: Photo of a redwood. The trunk of the tree is its stem.
The internal structure of the dicotyledonous stem
Figure 6.12 shows a schematic arrangement of tissues in a dicotyledonous stem. Details of

each tissue type are described in this section.
Epidermis: a single layer of cells that covers the stem, and is in turn covered by a waxy
cuticle. The waterproof cuticle helps prevent water loss and thus prevents the inner tissues
drying out. Since the function of the epidermis is to protect underlying tissues, epidermal
cells are tightly packed and have thickened walls. The epidermis may contain hair-like out-
growths known as trichomes, and stomata with guard cells. Stomata present in the epidermis
allow for gaseous exchange for respiration and photosynthesis.
Cortex: a region which comprises of collenchyma, parenchyma and the endodermis
• Collenchyma: a few layers of living cells that lie under the epidermis. These cells
are not lignified but do have thickened cell walls which serve to strengthen the stem.
The collenchyma cells contain chloroplasts which produce food for the plant during
photosynthesis.
• Parenchyma: found beneath the collenchyma cells and makes up the bulk of the cor-
tex. The cells are thin-walled, and there are intercellular spaces which are important
in gaseous exchange. Parenchyma stores synthesised organic food (mostly starch) that
the collenchyma produced.
• Endodermis: a single layer of tightly-packed rectangular cells that forms the innermost
layer of the cortex. The endodermis also stores starch and, as the border between the
stele and cortex, regulates the passage of solutions from the vascular bundles to the
cortex.

Cross-section of a Dicotyledonous Stem
epidermis
epidermal hair cortex (parenchyma)
endodermis
collenchyma of the cortex medullary ray

(parenchyma cells in gaps
between vascular bundles)
pith (parenchyma)
xylem
cambium vascular bundle
phloem
sclerenchyma of the vascular bundle
Figure 6.12: Cross-section of a dicotyledonous stem showing tissue distribution.
Vascular cylinder or stele: comprised of the pericycle, vascular bundles and pith
• Pericycle: made up mainly of lignified, dead, fibrous cells known as sclerenchyma

cells. Sclerenchyma cells have end-to-end connections (tapering ends), and have ex-
tremely thick walls that consist of lignin and/or cellulose. These thickened, woody cell
walls are very hard and play an important role in strengthening the stem, and providing
protection for the vascular bundles.
• Vascular bundles: characteristically organised in a ring inside the pericycle of the di-
cot plant. Mature vascular bundles are made up of water-conducting xylem, cambium,
and food-conducting phloem. The phloem is located on the outside of the bundle and
the xylem towards the centre (see Figure 6.12). The phloem and xylem is separated by
meristematic tissue known as cambium, which is responsible for secondary thicken-
ing. Xylem has lignified cell walls which helps it fulfil its two important roles, namely;
strengthening and supporting the stem, and transporting water and minerals from the
root system to the leaves. The function of phloem is to transport synthesised food from
the leaves to other parts of the plant.
• Pith (or medulla): occupies the large, central part of the stem. The pith is made up of
thin-walled parenchyma cells containing intercellular spaces. Where the parenchyma
extends between vascular bundles as thin bands it is known as medullary rays, and
can be continuous with the pith and cortex of the parenchyma. The cells of the pith
store water and starch, while the intercellular spaces allow for gaseous exchange. The
medullary rays facilitate transport of substances from xylem and phloem to the inner
and outer parts of the stem.
Teacher’s Guide
Investigation 6.1 : To examine the structure of the root and stem
This practical can be conducted using various vegetables. Educators can get learners to
discuss various vegetable which have roots, stems and leaves.
This practical requires the use of Iodine, therefore it is important to establish if any learners

are allergic to iodine. If the learners are not sure, any learner that is allergic to shell fish
should not be allowed to do the experiment as they may have an allergic reaction to the
iodine.
Learners will be preparing slides in this practical. This should not be a new skill for the
learners, but it is still important to conduct a demonstration for the students before they do
the practical.
Learners are to make biological diagrams of their specimens and to include the magnifica-
tion, which links to cell calculations that were done in Chapter 2.
Learners are also required to label their diagrams. The learners may require some assistance
when labelling.
Investigation 6.2 : To observe annual tree rings and to assess age and
climatic conditions
In this investigation teachers are to source a tree trunk. These are generally readily
available in the outdoors, but if a tree trunk cannot be sourced, learners can be given
a picture of a tree trunk showing the annual rings.
It is important that the learners read the introductory paragraph as this will assist them in
answering the questions.
At the completion of this activity a class discussion can be held.
An alternative means of assessment is to divide the class into groups. Some learners to be
given different tree samples and other can be different pictures.
Investigation: Examining the structure of the root and stem
Aim:
To examine the structure of the root and stem
Apparatus:
• scalpel or knife
• celery stalk (stem)
• carrot (root)
• glass slide
• iodine solution (Stain) or water
• cover slip
• dissecting needle or tweezers
• paper and pencil
• blotting paper or paper towel or tissue
• for variation you can also try using other vegetables

Method:
Prepare a temporary mount using the irrigation method:
1. Cut a very thin slice (cross section) from the middle of the celery stem and the carrot
root. Although you will not be able to see microscopic details of the carrot tissue under
a microscope, the differentiation by colour will be evident.
2. Place this section on a glass slide, in the centre.
3. Add a drop of iodine solution on top of the sample to stain it. This makes it more
visible under the microscope. Water can be used if iodine is not available.
4. Place the coverslip next to the droplet, as shown in the diagram, then lower it slowly
onto the glass slide. This will prevent bubbles forming under the coverslip. You can
use a dissecting needle to lower the the coverslip into position. The drop will spread
outward and suspend the sample between the slide and the coverslip.
5. Call your teacher.

6. Switch on the microscope making sure the lowest objective is in position (the 4x ob-
jective).
7. Place your slide on the stage.
8. Focus the image under the 4x objective (lowest objective) and view the structure of the
celery stem. Switch to the 10x objective to look a little more closely. To see details of
the structure of plant tissue, use the 40x objective. Carefully observe all of the parts
and different tissues.
9. Once you are able to see specific tissue types, call your teacher.
10. Make a biological drawing of your specimen as viewed under the microscope. Take
note of the magnification and draw a scale bar. Label your diagram according to the
tissues you have learnt about.
Teacher’s Guide

This link gives information about making a wet mount microscope slide and shows an in-
structional video.
http://www.microbehunter.com/2010/08/13/making-a-wet-mount-microscope-slide/
Secondary growth DUMMY
Plants, like other living organisms need to grow, and they do this by mitosis. Cell growth is
limited to the specialised cells that make up meristematic tissue. Meristematic tissue consists
of small cells that are unspecialised. These cells divide by mitosis to form new cells that can
differentiate i.e. undergo changes in their structure. When groups of cells differentiate they
form specialised tissue (e.g. xylem, phloem, epidermal cells). There are different types of
meristematic tissue:
• Primary meristematic tissue is found in the tips of roots, stems and buds. When the
cells divide, new cells are produced which causes the plant to grow in length. This is
referred to as primary growth.
• Secondary meristematic tissue originates from permanent tissue, usually parenchyma
tissue which divides by mitosis. Cambium is secondary meristematic tissue that is
found in roots and stems. When these cells divide by mitosis it results in the plant
becoming wider. This is called secondary growth.
Secondary growth is seen clearly if you examine the stump of a tree. During every growing
season the stem of a plant increases in width. This is known as secondary thickening. To-
wards the end of the first year of growth, the parenchyma cells between the vascular bundles
become meristematic. This means that they actively start dividing by mitosis, and link up
with the cambium that occurs in the vascular bundles to form a cambium ring in the stem
(see Figure 6.13). The cells in the cambium ring start dividing to form secondary phloem
(on the outside of the cambium ring) and secondary xylem (on the inside of the cambium
ring). Each year another ring of secondary phloem and secondary xylem is formed, making
the stem grow wider.
primary phloem
primary xylem
secondary phloem (1st year)
secondary xylem (2nd year)
cork cambium
cork
Figure 6.13: Process of secondary thickening in stems.

It is not possible to see the layers of secondary phloem but the secondary xylem layers
are visible. These form rings called annual or annular rings which can be used to work
out the age of a plant. As new rings are formed each year, the older rings are pushed
inward and the xylem vessels collapse due to the pressure. The wood in the centre becomes
denser and harder than the wood at the surface and is called heartwood. The youngest
annual rings found on the outside transport water. This wood is not as dense and is called
sapwood. The light-coloured rings are called spring wood. They are formed during spring
and summer when the growing conditions are favourable. These rings are therefore relatively
thick and light in colour as the xylem cell walls are thin. The dark-coloured rings are called
autumn wood. They are formed during autumn and winter when the growing conditions
are unfavourable. The rings are therefore relatively thin and dark in colour as the xylem cell
walls are thick. Rings may be thicker in some years than in others, depending on the amount
of rain and nutrients received.
Teacher’s Guide
http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/biobookplantanat.html
This website provides information on plant structure and support.
Figure 6.14: The annular rings in a tree trunk give a measure of the tree’s age as well as the environ-
mental conditions of the tree’s growth.
Investigation: Observing annual tree rings to assess age and climatic conditions
Aim:
Background
Every year a tree forms a new layer of xylem around the trunk. This forms tree rings, which
are visible as circles in a cross section of a tree that has been cut down. Each tree ring, or
wood layer, consists of two colours of wood; light wood that grows in spring and summer
and dark wood that grows in autumn and winter. Tree rings can be counted to give you
a rough estimate of the age of a tree. Occasionally a tree will form many rings in one
year or miss forming rings in a year. The width of the tree rings is greater in years where
good growing conditions occur. In years with droughts or low temperatures, the trees will
produce narrower rings. Therefore, by looking at the tree rings you can get an idea of the

FACT
Turgidity, or turgor weather affecting a tree in a particular year. Scientists can use this information to help
pressure, refers to
determine the weather patterns of the past as well as events such as forest fires, earthquakes,
the water content of
cells and how this and volcanic eruptions. The study of past events using the growth rings of trees is known as
lends structural dendrochronology ( dendros = tree, chronos = time).
support to the plant.
When cells absorb Method:
water, the vacuoles
fill up and the
cytoplasm 1. Examine a section of a tree trunk/stem provided by your teacher and count the tree
increases, pushing
against the cell
rings, starting with the innermost ring. Measure the width of each ring using a ruler, or
membranes, which make a note of whether a ring is narrow or wide. Make a note of any scars caused by
in turn push against events such as fires or pests.
the rigid cell walls.
This makes the cells
2. Draw a bar graph showing the width of your tree rings for every year of the tree’s life.
rigid, or turgid. 3. How old is this tree? What can you say about the climatic conditions throughout the
life of this tree?
Teacher’s Guide
Section 3: Transpiration
This section explains how various environmental factors can change the rate of transpiration,
and also examines how the structure of the leaves has adapted to minimise this water loss.
Transpiration is the relationship between water loss and leaf structure (link this to plant tissue
taught in Chapter 5.
Learners to understand the factors that affect the transpiration rate such as temperature, light
intensity, wind and humidity. Simply experiments can be conducted to demonstrate these
factors.
6.3 Transpiration DUMMY
Transpiration is a process that involves loss of water vapour through the stomata of plants.
Transpiration is thought to be a ’necessary cost or evil’ to allow the plant to absorb water
from the soil. It is an inevitable process.
Transpiration is important in plants for three major reasons:
1. Cooling of the plant: the loss of water vapour from the plant cools down the plant
when the weather is very hot.
2. The transpirational pull: when the plant loses water through transpiration from the
leaves, water from the stem and roots moves, or is ‘pulled’, upwards into the leaves.
Water is therefore taken up from the soil by osmosis and finally exits the plants through
the stomata.
3. Plant structure: young plants or plants without woody stems require water for struc-
tural support. Transpiration helps maintain the turgidity in plants.
The two major features that cause xylem sap to flow within the plant are transpirational pull
and root pressure.
Transpirational pull: results from the evaporation of water from the surfaces of the mesophyll
196 6.3. Transpiration

layer in the leaf to the atmosphere, through the stomata. This results in water being drawn FACT
up the xylem vessel. Capillary action
occurs when the
adhesion of water
Root pressure: results from the water potential of the root cells being more negative than molecules to the
that of the soil so that water moves by osmosis from the soil into the root. This results in root walls of the vessel is
pressure which pushes water up the xylem. stronger than the
cohesive forces
between the water
Capillary action pulls water from the roots to the leaves. Evaporation of water from the molecules. Have
leaves surface causes a negative pressure in the xylem that pulls water from the roots and you ever seen fluid
soil. The primary forces that create the capillary action are adhesion and cohesion. Adhesion in a drinking straw
is the attraction that occurs between water and the surface of the xylem, and cohesion is the move higher than
the level of the fluid
attraction between water molecules. in the glass? This
happens due to
Teacher’s Guide capillary action.
The narrower the
straw, the greater
http://education.uoit.ca/lordec/ID_LORDEC/transpiration_pull/ This interactive the capillary action,
website explains transpiration pull. Plants use the process of transpiration pull to move water and therefore, the
from the soil up into the leaves. This interactive website explains transpiration pull. Plants higher the fluid will
use the process of transpiration pull to move water from the soil up into the leaves. rise in the straw.
FACT
Factors affecting the rate of transpiration DUMMY Cohesion refers to
the intermolecular,
attractive forces that
hold molecules in
solids and liquids
There is a close inter-relationship between transpiration and leaf structure. The rate at which together. Imagine a
transpiration occurs refers to the amount of water lost by plants over a given time period. drop of water on a
Plants regulate the rate of transpiration by opening and closing of stomata (Figure 6.15). waxy surface like
There are, however, a number of external factors that affect the rate of transpiration, namely: wax paper. Even if
the drop slides and
temperature, light intensity, humidity, and wind. rolls around, the
water molecules
will stay together
due to the cohesive
forces. Adhesion is
the ability of a
substance to stick to
an unlike substance.
If you were to take
the same piece of
wax paper and turn
it upside down,
some water droplets
would still adhere to
the paper. This
indicates that there
must be an
attraction between
Figure 6.15: The opening and closing of stomata. Different environmental conditions trigger both the
opening and closing of stomata.
Temperature
Temperature affects the transpiration rate in two ways. Firstly, at warmer temperatures water
molecules move faster, and the rate of evaporation from stomata is therefore much faster.

the water and the Secondly, the water-holding capacity of warm air is greater than that of cold air. Assuming
wax paper. that cold air and warm air contain the same amount of water, the cold air may be saturated,
However, in this
and therefore have a shallow water concentration gradient, while the warm air may will
case the water-water
cohesive force is be able to hold more water vapour, and will therefore have a steeper water concentration
stronger than the gradient.
adhesive force
between the
molecules of the
wax paper and the
water.
Figure 6.16: Temperature vs transpiration rate.
Light intensity
At high light intensity, the rate of photosynthesis increases. As photosynthesis increases, the
amount of stored glucose in the guard cells increases. This lowers the water potential of the
leaf (i.e. the contents of the leaf are less dilute). As the water potential decreases, more water
enters the guard cells making them more turgid. The turgor pressure of the guard cells leads
to an opening up of stomata resulting in transpiration.
Figure 6.17: Transpiration vs light intensity.
Relative humidity
The amount of water vapour in the air is referred to as the humidity. Water always moves
down a concentration gradient. Therefore when the humidity is high (lots of water vapour
in the air) the water potential gradient between the inside of the leaf stomata and the atmo-
sphere is shallow and the rate of transpiration will be low. However, if the atmosphere is dry,
there will be a steep water concentration gradient between the humid inside of the stomata
and the outside air and the rate of transpiration will therefore be fast.

Figure 6.18: Transpiration vs humidity.
Wind
When water is lost from the leaf it forms a thin layer outside the leaf. This reduces the water
potential between the leaf and the atmosphere outside. Thus when there is wind, this layer
is blown away, thus maintaining the water potential gradient across the leaf.
Figure 6.19: Wind speed vs transpiration.
Measuring the rate of transpiration DUMMY
To measure the rate of transpiration we use a piece of equipment called a potometer. A po-
tometer measures how factors such as light, temperature, humidity, light intensity and wind
will affect the rate of transpiration. The main type of potometer is the ’bubble’ potometer
shown in Figure 6.20. The potometer can measure the amount of water lost from a leafy
shoot by monitoring the following variables:
• the change in the mass of the leaf shoot.

• the rate that the air bubble moves along the narrow tube as the leafy shoot sucks up
water to replace the water lost by the transpiration of the plant.
As the leafy twig transpires, the air bubble moves to the left. The quicker the air bubble
moves, the faster the leafy twig is transpiring.

Figure 6.20: Potometer measures the rate of transpiration.
Teacher’s Guide
Investigation 6.3 To determine the effect of environmental conditions on transpiration rate

(using a simple photometer.
Learners can create the various environmental conditions in the laboratory is necessary.
• The control which is normal conditions can be the laboratory

• Wind learners can use a fan/hairdryer onto the apparatus
• A warm place learners can use an electric heater
• Moist place learners can place apparatus under a bell jar with moisture or a moist
translucent plastic bag can be placed over the twig and seal well (remember to place
wet cotton wool inside the bell jar/plastic bag).
Precautionary Measures:
• The stem must be cut under water as this will prevent air obstructions in the xylem
tissue
• The system must be airtight (use Vaseline to ensure this)
• Use the same stem during the whole experiment to get the same readings
Observations and Conclusions:
• The control which is normal laboratory conditions - low rate of transpiration (bubble
moves slowly)
• Windy Conditions (fan or hair dryer) high rate of transpiration (bubble moves quickly
• Heat (electric heater) high rate of transpiration
• Moisture - low rate of transpiration
Questions

1. To prevent air from getting into the xylem. Cut at an angle so there is a large surface area
through which the water can enter the plant. It is important to remember that cutting straight
across the stem may crush and block the xylem
2. The xylem of the stem.
4. Humidity, wind light, moisture
5. Learners to assess their own experiments
6. If the system is not sealed properly an air bubble could get into it and the apparatus will
not work.
Investigation: Determining the effect of environmental conditions on transpiration rate

using a potometer
Aim:
To determine the effect of environmental conditions on transpiration rate (using a simple

potometer).
Apparatus:
• a drinking straw
• a soft green leafy shoot
• Vaseline
• Marking pen
• Play dough / putti/prestix
• Plastic bag
• Elastic band
• Ruler
Method:
A potometer measures the rate of transpiration by measuring the movement of water into a
plant. The following experiment uses a simple hand made potometer.
Learners can be divided into four groups as each group will investigate a different factor and
then all the results can be shared at the end of the investigation.
Perform the following steps under water:
1. Cut the stem of the leafy shoot (at an angle to increase the surface area) under water
. The reason we cut it under water is to prevent air bubbles entering the xylem vessel.
You must use a very sharp knife or new scalpel and cut at an angle in order to increase
surface area for water uptake in the xylem. Florists who cut plants before immersing
them in water follow the same procedure for this reason.
2. Test to make sure the stem of the leafy twig will fit snugly into the top of the straw.
3. Remove the leafy shoot from the straw and set aside.
4. Fill the straw with water. Place your finger over one end of the straw to stop the water

from running out.
5. Put the leafy shoot into the open end and seal it with play dough/ putti/ prestick while
removing it from water KEEPING YOUR FINGER ON THE STRAW! Perform the fol-
lowing steps above water.
6. Seal with Vaseline. Make sure it is air tight and water tight. If not, all the water will
run out when you take your finger off the straw.
7. Mark the water level on the straw.
8. Place your potometer under one of the following conditions for one hour:
• as is, in a warm, sunny place (no wind);
• as is, in a warm, windy place;
• with a plastic bag tied around the leaf, in a warm, sunny place; or
• a shady place.
9. Every 10 minutes use a marking pen to mark the change in water level on the straw.
Continue taking measurements for 1 hour.
10. Measure the distance the water moves during each time interval.
Results:
• Draw a table and record the class’ results.

• Plot a bar graph to compare the distances the water moved in the different straws.
• The class should be divided into four groups, with each group investigating the effect
of a different condition on transpiration. At the end of the experiments, all students
must plot the following graphs:
– the effect of temperature on the rate of transpiration;
– the effect of light intensity on the rate of transpiration;
– the effect of relative humidity on the rate of transpiration; and
– the effect of wind on the rate of transpiration.
Observations:
Record your observation from the table and bar graph.
Conclusions:
• What can you conclude from this investigation?

• Give two ways in which you can improve your experimental results.
Questions:
1. Why is it important to cut the stem at an angle under the water?

2. Which part of the stem does the straw represent?
3. Which three factors are you investigating?
4. Under which condition is the highest rate of transpiration?
5. Name one possible error that could have occurred in your investigation.
6. What are the potential limitations of this investigation?
Teacher’s Guide

More information about potometer experiments can be found on the following websites:
http://www.practicalbiology.org/areas/advanced/exchange-of-materials/
transpiration-in-plants/measuring-rate-of-water-uptake-by-a-plant-shoot-using-a-potometer,
62,EXP.html
http://www.practicalbiology.org/areas/advanced/exchange-of-materials/
transpiration-in-plants/
Investigation: Determining the effect of light intensity on transpiration
Aim:
To determine the effect of light intensity on transpiration
Apparatus:
• plants
• plastic bag
• piece of string
• graduated measuring cylinder
Method:
1. Use at least three plants of the same species and as close to the same size as possible
(think of why this might be important).
2. Ensure that all three plants are exposed to the same amount of light.
3. Use clear plastic bags to completely cover all the leaves of each plant.
4. Tie the bottom of the plastic around the main stem of the plant, allowing the water lost
from the plant to collect inside the bag. Try not to crush the leaves of the plant with
the bag.
5. Place the bags on the plants early in the morning. Leave the bags on all day and check
for signs of water drops inside. If there are water drops, shake the bag so that the water
drops to the bottom of the bag.
6. At the end of the experiment (the following morning), carefully remove the bags to
ensure that you do not lose any water. Collect the water inside a measuring cylinder
and measure how much water the plant has lost. Collect the amount of water lost
every four hours over 12 hours before leaving the plant overnight.
Results:
Record the amount of water lost at each time point.
Plot a bar graph with time of the day on the horizontal axis and the amount of water collected
on the vertical axis.

Plot another graph with the average water loss in millilitres on the y-axis and the time on the
x-axis.
Observations:
Write down anything you observed about the plants, the plastic bags and the rate of water
loss from the plant.
Conclusions:
What can you conclude regarding the rate of transpiration at different light intensities? Was
there higher or lower water loss when you left the plant overnight compared to when you
monitored it throughout the day?
Questions:
How can you improve this experiment to determine the effects of different light intensities
on transpiration?
In this experiment what are the key variables we are controlling for? Have we properly
controlled for these?
Further tasks
• If you have a microscope, dissect the leaf surfaces before and after the experiment to
see how the stomata have changed.
• Do this experiment with a variety of species in order to determine how transpiration
changes across species.
• Calculate the average leaf surface area of all the leaves on a single plant. Work out
the average amount of water loss per leaf surface area for the experiment you have just
completed.
Advantages of transpiration Disadvantages of transpiration

Cools the plant down Excessive water loss causes the plant to
wilt
Assists in the transport of water from the
soil
Important for transport of water through
the xylem
Regulates the concentration of cell sap
Distribution of salts and minerals in the
plant
Table 6.1: Table comparing the advantages and disadvantages of transpiration
Structural adaptations of plants to reduce rate of transpiration DUMMY
When the rate of transpiration is too high, it can have detrimental effects on the plant, as you
will see in the next section on wilting and guttation. For this reason, plants have developed

structural adaptations to minimise the amount of water loss.
• Position of stomata: Stomata are found on both surfaces of the leaf but there are usually
more on the ventral (lower) surface of the leaf. This means that less water vapour is
lost because the ventral side of the leaf is in the shade and therefore does not get as
hot.
• Sunken stomata: some plants such as xerophytes have sunken stomata as a way of
preventing water loss. Xerophytes (pronounced ”zero-phytes”) are plants that are nor-
mally found in hot, dry areas such as deserts. The sunken stomata creates a small
pocket of moist air. The high humidity in the air pocket reduces the water potential
gradient between the leaf air spaces and the exterior, and therefore decreases the rate
of transpiration.
Figure 6.21: Sunken stomata.
• Thickened cuticle: Some plants that occur in dry places have a thick cuticle that re-
duces transpiration.
Figure 6.22: Desert plants like cactus have thick cuticles to avoid water loss.
• Hairs on leaves: Hairs trap a small layer of water that works in three ways to reduce
transpiration: (i) creates a pocket of moist air to reduce the water potential gradient,
(ii) increases the sheen on leaves to make them more reflective. The combination of (i)
and (ii) result in a cooling effect that also decreases transpiration.
Figure 6.23: Hairy leaves to trap water
• Reduction of leaf size: Small leaves have a smaller surface area for transpiration to
occur.
• Leaf spines: Some plants have spines instead of leaves. Spines usually have thicker
cuticles and a very small surface area, which decreases transpiration.

Figure 6.24: Spiny leaves have a small surface area to decrease transpiration.
• Leaf arrangement: vertical leaf arrangement (like proteas) decrease the surface area
exposed to the sun in the heat of the day, In rosette arrangements the upper leaves
shield the lower leaves from the Sun.
• Rolling of leaves: When leaves roll up, water vapour gets trapped in the tunnel made
by the leaf, therefore reducing the water potential gradient, and therefore reducing the
rate of transpiration.
Wilting and guttation DUMMY
We just discussed transpiration, and how leaves are constantly losing water vapour to the
environment. However, what happens when there is not enough water in the soil to replace
the water that was lost? Similarly, what happens when there is too much water? In the next
section we discuss wilting, and why plants wilt and get ‘floppy’ in hot weather or after a long
drought. We will also look at ways that plants can rid themselves of extra water when there
is too much water in the environment and the plant has to cope with high root pressure and
a low transpiration rate.
Teacher’s Guide
Section 5: Wilting and Guttation
This section explains to the learners how excessive loss of water can cause plants to wilt and
lose some of their structural support.
During transpiration the learners learnt how the leaves are constantly losing water vapour
to the environment. However, what happens when there is not enough water in the soil to
replace the water that was lost? Similarly, what happens when there is too much water? In
this unit we discuss wilting, and why plants wilt and get floppy in hot weather or after a long
drought. We will also look at ways that plants can rid themselves of extra water when there
is too much water in the environment and the plant has to cope with high root pressure and
a low transpiration rate.
Wilting
Plants need water to maintain turgor pressure. Turgor pressure is what provides the plant
with much of its structural support. Have a look at Figure 6.25 which shows the effect of
osmosis on the turgidity of cells.

Figure 6.25: Cells in solutions with different concentrations
Wilting refers to the loss of rigidity or structure of non-woody parts of plants (Figure 6.26). It
occurs when turgidity of plant cells is lost. When a cell absorbs water, the cell membrane
pushes against the cell wall. The rigid cell wall pushes back on the cell making the cell
turgid. If there is not enough water in the plant, the large central vacuole of the cell shrinks
and the cytoplasm decreases, resulting in decreased pressure being exerted on the cell mem-
brane, and in turn, on the cell wall. This results in the cell becoming flaccid (floppy). When
the cells of a plant are flaccid, the entire plant begins to wilt.
Figure 6.26: Crops wilt due to a lack of water.
Wilting occurs due to lower availability of water which may be due to:
• Drought conditions: where the soil moisture drops below conditions that allow plants
to grow.
• Low temperatures: which prevent the plants vascular transport system from function-
ing;
• High salinity (salt concentration): which causes water to diffuse from plant cells to the
soil, thus inducing shrinking of cells.
• Saturated soil conditions: where roots are unable to obtain sufficient oxygen for cel-
lular respiration and so are unable to transport water into the plant.
• Bacterial or fungal infections: that block the plant’s vascular system.

Guttation
Guttation is the ”oozing out” or exuding of drops of water on the tips or edges of leaves of
some vascular plants such as grasses visible in Figure 6.27.
Figure 6.27: Guttation in plant leaves
Below is an explanation of how guttation occurs:
• At night, when it is dark, transpiration does not occur since the stomata are closed.
• When soil moisture is very high, water will enter the plant roots because the water
potential of the roots is lower than that of the surrounding soil.
• Thus, water accumulates in the plant, resulting in root pressure.
• The root pressure forces some water to exit the leaf tip or edge structures called hy-
dathodes or water glands, forming drops.
• Root pressure is what drives the flow of water out of the plant leaves, rather than
transpirational pull.
For guttation to occur there must be a high water content in the soil to create the root
pressure. The transpiration rate must be slow in order for the root pressure to be higher
than the transpirational pull. Guttation must not be confused with transpiration. Table 6.2
highlights the differences between guttation and transpiration.
Guttation Transpiration
occurs early morning and at night occurs during the day when it is hot
takes place through hydathodes takes place through the stomata
Water is lost in liquid form through the Water is lost as vapour via the stomata
hydathodes
caused by root pressure caused by high water potential
Water droplets are found on the margin Water vapour transpiration takes place
of the leaf mostly in the lower surface of the leaf
Table 6.2: Table comparing guttation and transpiration
Teacher’s Guide
This website has a ’virtual laboratory’ that allows you to perform the above experiment
online. Perform the experiment and complete the laboratory exercise given on the website.
http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/genbio/virtual_labs_2K8/pages/PlantTranspiration.
html

Teacher’s Guide
Section 4: Movement of manufactured food
This section deals with how sugars are transported from the leaves to the rest of the plant via
specialised phloem cells.
Revise the concept of photosynthesis and that plants use carbon dioxide and water to man-
ufacture glucose and oxygen is the waste product. Sunlight and enzymes are necessary
for photosynthesis to occur. Once the food is manufactured in the leaves it needs to be
distributed to the entire plant so that the glucose can be used by each cell for respiration
(manufacture energy).
Learners to understand that the glucose is manufactured mainly in the palisade cells and then
passes into the phloem. Transport of food material from leaves to other parts of the plant is
called translocation. This food may be stored in roots, stems or fruit.
Section 6: Uptake of Water and Minerals in the Roots
In this section learners need to know how water enters from the soil into the specialised cells
of the root
In the previous section we looked at the structure of the dicotyledonous root and stem and
compared the different cells in the specialised tissues of the plant root and stem.
Learners look at how these specialised cells help the plant to absorb water from the soil and
transport it to the stem, where it can then be transported to the rest of the plant.
6.4 Uptake of water and minerals in the roots DUMMY
In the first section of this chapter, we looked at the structure of the dicotyledonous root and
stem and compared the different cells in the specialised tissues of the plant root and stem.
Now we will look at how these specialised cells help the plant to absorb water from the soil
and transport it to the stem, where it can then be transported to the rest of the plant.
Movement of water through the dicotyledonous root DUMMY
Water is found in the spaces between the soil particles. Water and mineral salts first enter
through the cell wall and cell membrane of the root hair cell by osmosis. Root hair cells are
outgrowths at the tips of plants’ roots (Figure 6.28). They function solely to take up water and
mineral salts. Root hair cells do not perform photosynthesis, and do not contain chloroplasts
as they are underground and not exposed to sunlight. These cells have large vacuoles which
allow storage of water and mineral salts. Their small diameter (5-17 micrometres) and greater
length (1500 micrometres) ensure they have a large surface area over which to absorb water
and mineral salts. Water fills the vacuole of the root hair cell.
Water can now move from the root hair cells and across the parenchyma cells of the cortex
in two major ways. Some water passes through the cells by osmosis. Most water travels
either in, or between the cell walls (of the parenchyma cells) by simple diffusion. The water
must pass through the endodermis to enter the xylem. Once water is in the xylem of the
root, it will pass up the xylem of the stem.

Figure 6.28: Step-by-step transport of water in plants, from the roots to the xylem.
Teacher’s Guide
Transpiration and movement of water: http://www.phschool.com/science/biology_place/

labbench/lab9/xylem.html
This website shows a diagram of how water moves up through the plant.
http://www.neok12.com/Plants.htm
This video shows plant transport and provides some interactive quiz games.
Investigation : To measure the uptake of water by roots
Results
Learners to graph their results. Graph to have a heading, axes labelled correctly.
Mark learner’s graphs to ensure that the plotting of results is accurate.
Observations
Learners to briefly discuss their graphed results.
210 6.4. Uptake of water and minerals in the roots

Conclusion
From their results and observation the learners to write up a conclusion as to whether they
were able to measure the uptake of water by the roots.
Investigation: Measuring the uptake of water by roots
Aim:
To measure the uptake of water by roots.
Apparatus:
• plastic 2 litre Coke bottle

• water
• soil
• scissors
• measuring scale
• tree or plant cuttings
• ruler
Method:
1. Remove the label from the Coke bottle. Cut the top of the bottle off 20cm from the
bottom of the bottle. Poke holes in the bottom of the bottle for drainage. Hold the
plant cutting in the container while you fill the container with soil. Leave one or two
leaf buds about 5cm above the soil.
2. Weigh the container to get the total weight of the bottle, soil and plant.
3. Water the plant with enough water so that it starts to run out of the bottom of the bottle
through the holes.
4. Weigh the container again after the water has stopped running out and subtract the
total weight in step 2 from the weight in step 4 to get the weight of the water. 1 litre
of water is equal to 1 kilogram of water, therefore you can work out exactly how much
water is in the container.
5. Set the containers by the window where they will receive enough sunlight. Wait for
the leaves to start growing (1-3 weeks).
6. Once the leaves have started growing, weigh the containers every 1-3 days for 3 weeks.
Subtract the new weight from the weight calculated in step 4. The new number is the
amount of water that the plant is using. Water the plant as necessary (when the soil
becomes dry), but remember to reweigh the container when you add more water so
that you can still tell how much water the plant is taking up.
7. Draw a graph of the amount of water the plant is using. The X-axis should show the
number of days since the beginning of the experiment and the Y-axis should show the
amount of water that the plant has used.
Results:
Record your results

FACT
Capillarity: refers to Observations and evaluation:
the ability of a
liquid to flow
through narrow 1. What were your observations?
spaces (capillary
pressure). 2. What could you have done to improve the experiment?
Conclusions:
From the results of your graph write up your conclusion.
Teacher’s Guide
Section 7: Transport of Water and Minerals to Leaves
In this section the transport of water and minerals to the leaves is discussed.
Plants must transport water from the roots to the leaves where it is needed for the process
of photosynthesis. Nutrients produced in the leaves by photosynthesis are transported to all
the parts of the plant. The phloem carries nutrients up and down the plant. The xylem only
carries water up the plant.
To understand this section you need to remind learners need to link this to previous units
learnt in the Chapter.
• the internal structure of a dicotyledonous leaf and stem and the structure of the cells
that make up the specialised tissues.
• the movement of water from the soil into the root
• transpiration and the loss of water vapour from the stomata
Transport of water and minerals to leaves DUMMY
We have dealt with the transport of water in plants from the roots to the leaves where it is
needed for the process of photosynthesis. We learnt that three processes are necessary for
the absorption and transport of water, namely; root pressure, capillarity, and transpiration.
To understand this section you also need to remember what you have learnt about:
• the internal structure of a dicotyledon leaf and stem, and the structure of the cells that
make up the specialised tissues
• the movement of water from the soil into the root
• transpiration and the loss of water vapour from the stomata
Investigation: Examining water uptake by the stem
Aim:

To examine water uptake by the stem
Apparatus:
• Water
• Food colouring dye (available at supermarket)
• White flower on a stem, e.g. Impatiens, carnation or chrysanthemum
• Scissors
• Two jars, cups or measuring cylinders
• Plastic tray
• Sticky tape
Method:
1. Fill one jar with plain water, and one with water containing several drops of food
colouring dye.
2. Take the flower and carefully cut the stem lengthwise, either part way up the stem or
right up to the base of the flower (try both, the results will be different!)
3. Put one half of the stem into the jar containing plain water and one half of the stem
into the jar containing food colouring dye. To make it easier to insert the stalks without
breaking them, it helps to wedge paper underneath the jars so that you can tilt them
towards each other. Tape the jars or cylinders down onto a tray so that they do not fall
over.
4. Observe the flowers after a few hours and the next day, and note where the dye ends
up in the flower head. You can leave the flowers up to a week but be sure to make
sure that they have enough water.
Variation: Instead of using one cylinder with water and one with food dye, use two different
colour food dyes (e.g. blue and red). At first the flower will show two separate colours,
but as time goes by the whole flower will show both dyes. This is because water can move
sideways between xylem vessels through openings along their length. The ability of water to
move laterally between vessels is useful for when air becomes trapped in a vessel, causing
a blockage. If you cut the stem right up to the base of the flower, this will limit movement
between the xylem vessels.
Variation:Try using celery stalks with leaves. Cut open the celery stalk (cross-section) and
you will see that the little holes inside are coloured these are the vessels.
Results:
Write down your results
Observations:
Record your observations.
Conclusions:
What did you conclude from this experiment?

Teacher’s Guide
An example of this experiment with photographs can be found at: http://www.practicalbiology.

org/areas/intermediate/cells-to-systems/transport-in-plants/investigating-transport-
70,EXP.html
Investigation: To examine water uptake by the stem
In this investigation learners are to write down their observations.
The class can then discuss their observations and why this occurred, particularly, if learners
used different plants.
Movement of manufactured food DUMMY
Plants use carbon dioxide and water to manufacture glucose, yielding oxygen as a by-
product. Sunlight or radiant light and enzymes are necessary for photosynthesis to occur.
Once the food is manufactured in the leaves it needs to be distributed to the entire plant
so that the glucose can be used by each cell for respiration and some of the photosynthetic
products are then stored for later use.
The glucose is manufactured mainly in the palisade cells where there are more chloroplasts,
and then passes into the phloem. Glucose is transported to where it is needed in the the
plant via phloem sap, and may be stored in roots, stems or fruit. Transport of food material
from leaves to other parts of the plant is called translocation. Understanding the phloem
structure is important to understanding how it transports food.
Teacher’s Guide
Read more: Anatomy of Plants - Biology Encyclopedia - cells, body, function, system, differ-
ent, organs, hormone, structure, types, membrane http://www.biologyreference.com/
A-Ar/Anatomy-of-Plants.html#ixzz1an9JO8yK
Figure 6.29: Aphids feeding on phloem sap which is rich in glucose.
How the phloem functions

While the transport of water is usually unidirectional in xylem (upward or lateral), the move-
ment of sugars in the phloem is multi-directional, and occurs by active transport, an energy-
dependent process. Glucose is actively transported against a concentration gradient into
sieve-tube elements. The sieve-tube elements have no nuclei but the adjacent companion
cells do. Companion cells are closely associated with sieve tubes and carry out all the cel-
lular functions of the sieve tubes. The cytoplasm of sieve tubes and companion cells is con-
nected through numerous channels called plasmodesmata. These cytoplasmic connections
allow the companion cells to regulate the content and activity of the sieve tube cytoplasm.
The companion cells also help load the sieve tube with sugar and the other metabolic prod-
ucts that they transport throughout the plant. This lowers the water potential of the sieve-tube
element, causing water to move in by osmosis, creating a pressure that pushes the sap down
the tube. The metabolising cells of the plant actively transport sugars out of sieve-tube ele-
ments, producing exactly the opposite effect. The diagram below illustrates how the overall
process works.
Figure 6.30: Diagram showing movement in the xylem and phloem vessels. Water movement is
upwards in the xylem and lateral into and out of the phloem. Lateral movement also occurs into and
out of the companion cells accompanying the phloem vessel.
6.5 Summary DUMMY
• Anatomy of dicotyledonous plants: Structures discussed in the previous chapter (col-

lenchyma, sclerenchyma, xylem and phloem) are important in carrying out the trans-
port functions.
• Root anatomy: The root is important in absorption, anchorage and storage of food. It
is made up of the epidermis, cortex, endodermis, stele and pericycle. The epidermis
absorbs water and mineral salts. The cortex serves a storage role. The endodermis

allows water transport. The stele consists of a row of parenchyma cells which act as a
store for the vascular bundle. The pericycle is where secondary growth occurs.
• Stem anatomy: Stems are important for support, transport, storage and production of
living tissue.
• Secondary growth: The thickness of stems and roots is produced by mitosis. The
annual rings found in trees can be used to work out the age of a tree.
• Transpiration: Transpiration is the loss of water from the stomata of plants. It creates
a ’suction’ or transpirational pull that is important for the movement of water through
the plant. Transpiration is affected by environmental conditions e.g wind, temperature,
humidity and light intensity. The rate of transpiration is measured using a potometer.
In order to prevent excessive transpiration, plants have developed adaptations such
as thickened cuticle, position of stomata, hairs on leaves, reduction of leaf size, leaf
spines, leaf arrangements and rolling of leaves.
• Translocation: Translocation is the transport of food material (synthesised in the leaves)
to other parts of the plant via phloem. This mode of transport is multi-directional,
but requires energy as it occurs by active transport against a concentration gradient.
Phloem vessels consist of sieve-tube elements and companion cells which are con-
nected by plasmodesmata. Companion cells act as the regulators and energy stores of
the phloem.
• Wilting and guttation are processes of water loss in the plant. Wilting entails excessive
loss of water through plasmolysis resulting in excessive cell death, at times resulting in
death of the entire plant. Guttation is the release of water via the hydathodes due to
high humidity.
• Manufactured food is moved in the phloem tube. Phloem vessels have attached com-
panion cells which act as energy stores to allow movement in the vessel.
1. The water loss in two plants was recorded over a 12 hour period. Study the information
below and then answer the questions that follow. The results for the two plants were
recorded in the following table.
Time of 06h00 08h00 10h00 12h00 14h00 16h00 18h00

Day
Water 0,0 0,4 1,6 6,0 9,0 8,0 7,6
loss in
Plant A
(cm3 )
Water 0,2 0,7 4,0 14,0 19,0 18,2 17,7
loss in
Plant B
(cm3 )
a) What is the correct biological term for water loss in a plant?

Solution:
TODO
b) From which plant was the greatest amount of water loss recorded?
Solution:
TODO
216 6.5. Summary

c) Which time of day was the greatest water loss recorded for both Plants A and B.
Why do you think this is so?
Solution:
TODO
d) At 18h00 the rate of water loss lower. Why did this occur?
Solution:
TODO
e) What is the apparatus that was used in the laboratory to measure the rate of water
loss in plants A and B.
Solution:
TODO
2. What do you understand by guttation and how does the process of guttation occur?
Solution:
TODO
3. Tabulate the differences between guttation and transpiration.
Solution:
TODO
4. Briefly discuss the movement of water through the dicotyledonous root.
Solution:
TODO
5. Give a short explanation for the following:
• Capilliarity
• Dicotyledon
• Transpiration
• Water potential gradient
Solution:
6. On a hot day in the middle of a drought, what can you expect the leaves of a plant to
look like? Draw a diagram to describe your answer.
Solution:
TODO
7. List the environmental conditions that would result in the highest rate of transpiration.
Solution:
TODO
8. Name four defining characteristics of a dicotyledonous plant.
Solution:
TODO
9. In a short paragraph, explain how secondary thickening in a stem comes about.
Solution:
TODO
10. Name and briefly discuss the adaptation of leaves to minimise transpiration.
Solution:
TODO
11. Name the two main ways that water can travel through the parenchyma of the root.
Solution:
TODO
12. Explain the difference between cohesion and adhesion.

Solution:
TODO
13. Transpiration in plants is driven by:
a) mitosis
b) capillary action
c) osmosis
d) all of the above
Solution:
B
14. Stomata:
a) are found in plant roots
b) permit the intake of carbon dioxide
c) permit the intake of oxygen
d) all of the above
Solution:
B and C (student must give both for credit)
15. Water can be lost by a plant through which process(es)?
a) evaporation
b) transpiration
c) condensation
d) A and B
Solution:
B
16. What environmental condition(s) always lead to an increase in transpiration rate in
each plant tested?
a) heat
b) wind
c) light
d) A and B
e) all of the above
Solution:
E
17. The average temperature of a region in 25 degrees C. If a plant were grown below 21
degrees C you would expect transpiration rates to
a) increase
b) decrease
c) stay the same
Solution:
B
18. Wind appears to increase the rate of transpiration in a plant. This is most likely due to
the fact that:
a) humidity increased
b) evaporation increased
218 6.5. Summary

c) stomata were forced to close
d) all of the above
Solution:
B
19. Describe how light intensity is responsible for an increase or decrease in the transpira-
tion rate.
Solution:
Light intensity increases rate of photosynthesis. This increases the rate of glucose pro-
duction and storage in guard cells. This leads to movement of water into the guard
cells as a result of a lower water potential with respect to outside the guard cells. The
increase in turgor pressure of the guard cells results in the opening up of the stomata
which results in increased transpiration.
20. Study the two graphs below which show water loss from a plant over a period of time,
and answer the following question:
Which graph could show water loss under increasing external humidity? Give reasons
for your answer.
Solution:
Graph 2. When the humidity is low but increasing, water is lost at a decreasing rate
due to the steep water potential gradient between the inside and outside of the leaf. As
humidity increases, the water potential gradient across the inside and outside the leaf
become more equal. At high humidity, the water loss is reduced to zero.
21. Describe how each of the following adaptations results in a decrease in the transpira-
tion rate:
a) Spiny leaves
Solution:
Lower surface area over which water is lost (2 marks)
b) Rolled leaves
Solution:
Have sunken stomata which creates an artificial ’humidity’ layer outside the plant
thereby preventing water loss.
c) Waxy cuticle
Solution:
The thick waxy cuticle layer has few stomata thus preventing water loss by tran-
spiration.
22. Complete the following sentences:
a) Translocation refers to the ...
Solution:

Translocation refers to the movement of manufactured food from the leaves to the
rest of the plant.
b) Xylem tissue in plants is responsible for the transport of ...
Solution:
Xylem tissue in plants is responsible for the transport of water and mineral salts.
c) The roots absorb water through the ...
Solution:
The roots absorb water through the root hairs
23. Draw a table showing how the structure of root hairs is adapted for their function.
Solution:
Structure Function
Thin and long root hairs (5-10 Increase surface area over which
micrometres in diameter, 1500 absorption of water and mineral salts
micrometres in length) can occur
Large vacuole Allows for storage of water and
mineral salts
Several root hairs Increased surface area
Table 6.3: Table showing relationship between structural adaptations of root hairs and their
function
An extra answer that you can give for students who are particularly enthusiastic:
Structure: Root hairs secrete malic acid.
Function: Converts minerals into ionic form thus allowing for easier absorption.
Teacher’s Guide
Section 9: Answers to End of Chapter Exercises
QUESTION 1
1.1 Capillarity refers to the narrowness of xylem vessels, which assists the upward movement
of water in plants. Water molecules exhibit cohesion (they stick to each other) and also
adhesion (they stick to the wall of xylem vessels - both these factors help plants transport
water upwards against gravity in the narrow/capillary tubes.
2. Dicotyledons are flowering plants that have two seed lobes or cotyledons in the em-
bryo. They are usually characterised by leaves with a network of veins, a tap root
system, petioles on the leaves and flower parts in multiples of 4 or 5.
3. Transpiration is the loss of water vapour from the aerial parts of plants, mainly from the
stomata on leaves, but also to a lesser extent through lenticles or directly through the
cuticle (cuticles are never 100% waterproof).
4. A water potential gradient is the difference in the water concentration between solu-
tions such as soil water and cell sap. Osmosis, the movement of water, occurs from
an area of high water potential to an area of lower water potential (i.e. the bigger the
water potential gradient), the faster osmosis occurs. So if the one solution has lots of
dissolved particles (or a higher water potential).
220 6.5. Summary

5. Guttation is the loss of liquid water from special pores at the margins of leaves. These
pores are called hydathodes. Guttation occurs when the air is cool and humid and soil
is very wet, such as early in the morning after rain.
QUESTION 2
Leaves will wilt, i.e. hang down due to a loss of turgor pressure.
QUESTION 3
Hot, dry windy conditions (e.g. Berg wind conditions).
QUESTION 4
The parenchyma cells of the medullary rays become meristematic and form extra cambium
that joins with vascular cambium to form a complete cambium ring. This meristematic tissue
forms secondary xylem to the inside and secondary phloem to the outside, so making the
stem thicker. Secondary xylem is formed faster than secondary phloem, so the whole centre
of many stems is filled with xylem. The central heartwood is often dark and blocked with
resin, but the out sapwood is lighter and carries water upwards. Annual rings develop as the
plant goes through spring and autumn each year. These can be used to determine the age of
the stem. An outer meristematic layer called the cork cambium allows the development of
cork cells on the outside of the stem, which is important part of bark.
QUESTION 5
Accept any five of the following :
• Small or narrow leaves reduce the total surface area over which evaporation occurs.
• Hairy leaves/trichomes trap water vapour.
• Sunken stomata trap water vapour and reduce the water potential gradient.
• Thick cuticle to reduce evaporation.
• Leaves that overlap or are arranged in a rosette/cluster, so more water vapour is trapped
between them.
• Hairs that are silvery to reflect light and heat away from the plant, so it stays cooler and
less water evaporates.
• Small mesophyll cells, so they fit closely together and reduce the total internal surface
area over which water can evaporate.
QUESTION 6
From cell to cell through the vacuoles, or along the cell walls.
QUESTION 7
Cohesion means that water molecules attract each other, so they stay together.
Adhesion means that water molecules stick to other substances like cellulose in the walls of
xylem vessels.
QUESTION 8

QUESTION 9
B and C learners must give both in order to get the two marks)
QUESTION 10
QUESTION 11
QUESTION 12
QUESTION 13
QUESTION 14
Light intensity increases rate of photosynthesis. This increases the rate of glucose production
and storage in guard cells. This leads to movement of water into the guard cells as a result
of a lower water potential with respect to outside the guard cells. The increase in turgor
pressure of the guard cells results in the opening up of the stomata which results in increased
transpiration.
QUESTION 15
Graph 2. When the humidity is low but increasing, water is lost at a decreasing rate due to
the steep water potential gradient between the inside and outside of the leaf. As humidity
increases, the water potential gradient across the inside and outside the leaf becomes more
equal. At high humidity, the water loss is reduced to zero.
QUESTION 16
i) Spiny leaves: lower surface area over which water is lost (2 marks)
ii) Rolled leaves: have sunken stomata which create an artificial ’humidity’ layer
outside the plant thereby preventing water loss

iii) Waxy cuticle: the thick waxy cuticle layer has few stomata thus preventing
water loss by transpiration.
QUESTION 17
Movement of manufactured food from the leaves to the rest of the plant (2)
QUESTION 18
Water and mineral salts.
QUESTION 19
Root hairs.
222 6.5. Summary

QUESTION 20
Structure Function
Thin and long root hairs (5-10 Increase surface area over which
micrometres in diameter, 1500 absorption of water and mineral salts
micrometres in length) can occur
Large vacuole Allows for storage of water and
mineral salts
Several root hairs Increased surface area
An extra answer that you can give for students who are particularly enthusiastic:
Structure: Root hairs secrete malic acid
Function: Converts minerals into ionic form thus allowing for easier absorption.
QUESTION 21
1. Transpiration
2. Plant B
3. 14h00
4. The sun was setting and it was getting darker and cooler.
5. Potometer.
6. Ensure the apparatus is airtight and watertight
The apparatus must be placed on a flat solid surface
The stem of the plant must be cut under water to ensure not air blocks the xylem vessels

CHAPTER 7
Support systems in animals
7.1 Overview 226

7.2 Skeletons 226
7.3 Human skeleton 231
7.4 Musculoskeletal tissues 243
7.5 Human locomotion 248
7.6 Muscle structure and function 248
7.7 Diseases 250
7.8 Summary 252
7 Support systems in animals
7.1 Overview DUMMY
Introduction DUMMY
In this chapter we will be studying the different types of skeletal structures. We will focus
in particular on the human skeleton. In Grade 12 you will come to know how our skeletal
structure evolved. For now, you will be introduced to the main features and functions of
the human skeleton. By focusing on specific structures of the human skeleton, we once
more emphasise a common theme of our study of Life Sciences: that structure is related to
function.
Key concepts
• Some of the main types of skeleton found in living things are the hydrostatic skele-
ton, endoskeleton and exoskeleton. Each of these skeletal types have advantages and
disadvantages.
• Skeletal structures are adapted for the transition from an aquatic to a terrestrial existence
where greater support was required.
• The human skeleton consists of the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton.
• The main functions of the skeleton are to allow for movement, provide protection,
provide support, store minerals, produce blood cells and allow for hearing.
• It is important to understand the relationship between structure and function of bones,
cartilage, tendons and ligaments.
• Joints connect pieces of skeleton and allow independent movement of neighbouring
pieces. Joints are of three types: fixed, partly movable and freely movable (synovial
joints). Synovial joints are of either ball-and-socket, hinge, pivot, or gliding structure.
• Skeletal muscle is attached to the skeleton through tendons and ligaments. The struc-
ture of voluntary skeletal muscle is made up mainly of myofibrils which allow for
muscle contraction. This contraction is used to move part of the skeleton.
• Diseases affecting the skeleton include rickets in children, and osteoporosis and arthri-
tis in adults.
7.2 Skeletons DUMMY
The skeleton is the supporting structure of an organism. There are three different types of
skeletons: hydrostatic skeletons, endoskeletons and exoskeletons.
• Hydrostatic skeleton: water exerts pressure on muscular walls, for example, in jelly-
fish.
• Exoskeleton: the stable chitinous or mineralised outer shell of an organism, for exam-
ple, the shell of a grasshopper or prawn.
226 7.1. Overview

• Endoskeleton: a cartilaginous or mineralized support structure inside the body, for FACT
example, in humans and other vertebrates. As you will learn in
the chapter History
of Life on Earth,
In this chapter we will be looking at support systems in animals and investigating the human many of these
skeletal system in some depth. structural
adaptations allowed
animals to move
from water onto
The evolutionary development of the skeleton DUMMY land.
Body support provided by water
The earliest forms of life evolved in the oceans. The fact that this is an aquatic environment is
key. Water is about 1000 times denser than air. The high density of water allows organisms
to float – a physical, upward force inherent in liquids known as buoyancy. Buoyancy allowed
organisms to grow and reach large sizes due to the force that supported body weight of these
animals. However, the density of water also provides resistance to movement, and animals
had to adapt to ensure that they were able to move efficiently through water.
An early adaptation by organisms was the ability to change the hydrostatic pressure within
different chambers of their bodies to enable quick movement. This resulted in the develop-
ment of hydrostatic skeletons. Animals with this type of skeleton include jellyfish, octopus
and sea anemones. The changing shape of the animal reduces both friction and drag.
Over time, in order to refine movement and improve protection from predators, some or-
ganisms developed a hard chitinous exoskeleton. Exoskeletons first developed in the aquatic
environment in ancient arthropods. Animals with this type of skeleton include crustaceans
like crabs and lobsters.
Eventually, there were some animals that developed a skeletal structure internal to the body,
which would become the vertebrate group of animals. These animals have an endoskeleton.
Initially, all endoskeletons were made of cartilage, which is a dense rubbery type of tissue.
Later, endoskeletons of bone evolved.
The adaptation of the skeleton to a terrestrial environment
The two major requirements for survival on land are the development of a suitable support
system and an air breathing mechanism. One of the biggest problems encountered by ani-
mals moving from water to land was the loss of the effect of buoyancy. In order to counter
this, animals needed to develop strong limbs and had to adapt the skeleton to support their
body weight on land. Moving effectively on land is essential, particularly if one needs to
avoid predators, catch prey, or adapt to a particular habitat. Different skeleton types have
solved these problems in different ways.
Animals with exoskeletons like arthropods (a class of animals including insects, crustaceans
and arachnids) transitioned from sea to land long before the vertebrates (organisms with en-
doskeletons). A major factor in their success was the exoskeleton which provides attachment
for muscles controlling locomotion (movement of appendages). Exoskeletons also provided
some protection from dessication (water loss).
Amphibians with endoskeletons , like frogs and newts, live both on the land and in the wa-
ter. Their skeletons have adapted to give advantages in both conditions. They have calcified
bones to support their body weight under the force of gravity. Their skull is light and flat-
tened, for both motility on land and a streamlined shape for moving easily in water. Their
pectoral girdle is adapted to give support for the forelimbs, which absorb the body weight
Chapter 7. Support systems in animals 227

when landing after a jump.
Depending on their means of locomotion, terrestrial animals needed to adapt their shapes
and skeletons to overcome the effects of gravity. Limbless animals, such as snakes, had to
overcome drag and friction. Flying animals such as birds and bats need light skeletons and
very strong sternums for wing muscle attachment. Animals that support their bodies clear
of the ground needed an energy efficient way of maintaining balance. For this reason, the
leg bones of most animals are held directly underneath the body. In this position they act as
props or struts and it is the bones rather than the muscles that take most of the strain of the
body’s weight.
Hydrostatic skeleton DUMMY
A hydrostatic skeleton is a structure found in many cold-blooded and soft-bodied organisms.

It consists of a fluid-filled cavity, which is surrounded by muscles. The cavity is called a
coelom and in some animals this cavity is filled with a blood-like substance called haemo-
coel. The fluid presses against the muscles, which in turn contract against the pressure of
the fluid. The fluid is incompressible and thus maintains a constant volume against which
the muscles can contract. The hydrostatic skeleton prevents the collapse of the body. The
muscles in the body act against the fluid and in doing so bring about movement. If the body
is segmented, the pressure of the fluid is localised in a few segments at a time. Hydrostatic
skeletons occur in flatworms, round worms, earthworms, starfish and slugs.
Note that starfish and other Echinoderms have an outer skeleton of calcareous (chalky) ossi-
cles (little bones) or spicules which are like little spines for protection. This outer skeleton
encloses a water vascular system with tube feet that are moved by fluid pressure changes (it
serves as a hydrostatic skeleton which controls movement).
Figure 7.1: The animal above is a jellyfish. It uses its muscles to contract against the hydrostatic
skeleton to bring about movement.
228 7.2. Skeletons

Figure 7.2: The animal depicted above is an Echinoderm - a starfish - which uses its tube feet for
movement.
Advantages of a hydrostatic skeleton
• Fluid shape: This allows organisms with hydrostatic skeletons to fit through oddly
shaped passages, which is useful for burrowing or swimming.
• Strength: Creatures with hydrostatic skeletons can squeeze between spaces and ex-
pand, making a ’prying open’ movement which allows them to force their way into
various regions of rock and soil surfaces.
• Healing: Healing takes place faster in organisms with hydrostatic skeletons than in
organisms with bone structures. This is because the haemocoel contained within the
hydrostatic skeleton is made up mostly of water, and thus, can be refilled quickly. This
allows many organisms with hydrostatic skeletons such as earthworms to grow back
their body mass after damage.
• Lightweight: The hydrostatic skeleton allows the animal to move in a more flexible
manner as it requires very little muscle mass for movement.
• Circulation: The fluid cavity allows circulation of nutrients and waste.
• Protection: The hydrostatic skeletons cushions the internal organs of the animal from
shock.
• Suited to environment: Hydrostatic skeletons are suited for life in moist or aquatic
environments, depending on the animal’s adaptations.
Disadvantages of a hydrostatic skeleton
• Structure and surface for attachment: The hydrostatic skeleton lacks a structure and
does not have surfaces for the attachment of muscles or limbs.
• Lack of protection: There is very little protection for the internal organs.
• Dessication: A moist or water habitat is essential for survival of these animals in order
to prevent dessication (drying out).
• Limited strength: Terrestrial animals with hydrostatic skeletons cannot increase their
body size as they would collapse under their own body weight.
Exoskeleton DUMMY
An exoskeleton is an external skeleton that supports and protects an animal’s body. The
skeleton is non-living and consists of a cuticle strengthened by chitin, a substance secreted by
the epidermis (skin). Crustaceans such as crabs have their exoskeleton further strengthened

by calcium carbonate. There are muscles attached to the inside of the exoskeleton which
provides the resistance needed for muscle action.
The exoskeleton is confined to animals such as insects, spiders, scorpions, crabs etc., all of
which belong to the Phylum Arthropoda (jointed-legged and jointed-bodied animals). The
exoskeleton acts as a hard outer covering to animals and is made up of a series of plates
or tubes. We often call large exoskeletons ‘shells’. Exoskeletons first appeared in the fossil
record during the time of the Cambrian explosion and comprises a substantial portion of our
fossil record (as you will learn in Chapter 10).
Figure 7.3: Picture of jumping spider, a type of arthropod.
Advantages of the exoskeleton
• Muscle attachment: The exoskeleton forms the point of attachment of internal muscles
needed for locomotion thereby providing better leverage for muscle action.
• Protection: The exoskeleton protects the soft internal tissues and organs.
• Support: The exoskeleton provides structural support and shape.
• Prevents Dessication: The exoskeleton prevents desiccation (drying out) on land.
• Light-weight: The exoskeleton of insects has a low density and is therefore lightweight,
to allow for flight.
• Diversity: The mouth-parts can be modified for biting, sucking, piercing grasping thus
providing for a diversified diet for organisms possessing an exoskeleton compared to
those that do not.
Disadvantages of the exoskeleton
• Size restriction: The final body size is limited because as the body size increases,
the surface area to volume ratio decreases. The larger the animal, the heavier the
exoskeleton, making movement more difficult.
• Non-living skeleton does not grow with animal: The overall growth of the animal is
restricted due to periodic moulting. Since the exoskeleton restricts growth, moulting is
required to accommodate for increases in the size of the animal.
• Vulnerability during moulting: The animal is vulnerable when it is in the moulting
process, because the new skeleton is very soft until the new exoskeleton has dried and
hardened.
• Sites of structural weakness: Exoskeletons are weaker at the joints.
230 7.2. Skeletons

Endoskeleton DUMMY
Endoskeleton
This skeleton is found inside the body and can consist of bone (all vertebrates except sharks)
or cartilage (sharks) and some endoskeletons consist of both.
Advantages of the endoskeleton
• Living: Endoskeletons consist of living tissue, so it is able to grow steadily within the
animal enabling some to reach a large size.
• Structure and support: The endoskeleton provides shape and structural support.
• Structural diversity and adaptation: The bones can vary in size and shape to support
the animal’s mass.
• Flexible: The endoskeleton is jointed which allows for flexible movement and support.
• Muscle attachment: The muscles attach directly to the skeletal bones to allow for
movement and support.
• Protection: The endoskeleton protects the vital organs such as the heart and lungs
which are protected by the ribcage.
• Diversified locomotion: The development of an endoskeleton has allowed for animals
to become successfully adapted to locomotion in the environment in which they live.
Vertebrates (organisms with a vertebral column and an endoskeleton) have become
adapted to move in a number of different modes of locomotion, e.g. running, jumping,
swimming, and flying.
Disadvantages of the endoskeleton
• Vulnerable to external environment: The endoskeleton does not offer the animal any
protection from the exterior, be it a physical attack or changes in environmental condi-
tions. The animal is therefore very vulnerable.
• Susceptible to disease: The skeleton consists of living tissue so is susceptible to infec-
tions and disease.
7.3 Human skeleton DUMMY
Humans have a living endoskeleton (internal skeleton) made of bone, cartilage and connec-
tive tissue. At birth, the human skeleton consists of over 270 bones. However, in adults this
number has reduced to 206 bones due the fusion of smaller bones into larger structures. The
adult skeleton (Figure 7.4) is made up of the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton
(Figure 7.5).

Figure 7.4: Diagram showing an overview of the main skeletal features of the human skeleton.
232 7.3. Human skeleton

Figure 7.5: There are 206 bones in the adult human skeleton, which can be ’grouped’ into different
categories.
Axial skeleton DUMMY
The axial skeleton forms the central axis of the body and consists of the skull, vertebral
column and rib cage and sternum.
Teacher’s Guide
Axial skeleton animation
http://www.wisc-online.com/objects/ViewObject.aspx?ID=AP12904
The Skull
The skull consists of the cranium and facial bones.
The cranium consists of eight flat bones joined together by immovable joints called sutures.
The cranium surrounds and protects the brain. There is a large opening at the base of the
skull called the foramen magnum through which the spinal cord passes. On either side of
the foramen magnum is a projection which articulates with the first vertebra (called the atlas)
to allow for the nodding movement of the head.
Figure 7.6: The cranium.
There are 15 facial bones. These are irregular bones that include the cheek bones, nasal

FACT bones, temples, upper jaw bone (maxilla)) and lower jaw bones (mandible). The only mov-
A few interesting able bone is the lower jaw. The upper and lower jaws bear the sockets for the 32 permanent
facts about the
teeth. The number, type and arrangement of the teeth in an animal is indicated by a dental
human skeleton:
formula. The human dental formula is: 2.1.2.3/2.1.2.3. This formula represents the numbers
• Humans
have seven
of each type of teeth in half of the upper jaw and half of the lower jaw. This formula tells
neck bones - us that in both the upper and lower halves there are 2 incisors, 1 canine, 2 premolars and 3
the same as molars.
giraffes.
• The strongest The human vertebral column
and longest
bone is the
thigh bone The vertebral column typically consists of 24 articulating vertebrae and 9 fused vertebrae in
(the femur). the sacrum and the coccyx. Between the vertebrae are discs of fibrocartilage which prevent
• One out of friction between vertebrae and act as shock absorbers during walking, running and jumping.
20 people Spinal nerves are able to enter and leave the spinal cord through gaps between adjacent
have an extra vertebrae. Strong ligaments and muscles around the spine stabilise the vertebrae and help
rib.
to control movement. The vertebrae join up to each other in such a way that there is a
continuous spinal canal which runs from the base of the skull to the pelvic girdle. This canal
contains the spinal cord. The entire vertebral canal can be divided into five regions.
• Cervical region
• Thoracic region
• Lumbar region
• Sacral region
• Coccyx
Figure 7.7: Human vertebral column.
The cervical (neck) region consists of 7 vertebrae. The first cervical vertebra, called the atlas,
supports the skull and allows for the nodding movement of the head. The second vertebra,
called the axis, has a projection on which the atlas pivots to give the side to side movement
of the head.

Figure 7.8: Cervical region of the skeleton is highlighted in red.
The thoracic region (chest) consists of 12 vertebrae, which each bear a pair of ribs.
Figure 7.9: The thoracic vertebrae give rise to 12 pairs of ribs.
The lumbar region (lower back) consists of 5 vertebrae. This region has the largest vertebrae
as it carries the weight of the body.
Figure 7.10: The lumbar region is highlighted by the red circle.

FACT The sacral region consists of 5 fused vertebrae, forming a bone called the sacrum. the
In a newborn baby sacrum forms part of the pelvic girdle which provides surfaces for the attachment of muscles
the entire vertebral
and the legs.
column curves
backwards probably
because of the The coccyx is made up of 4 fused bones. These bones form the tail in those mammals that
confines of the have tails.
uterus. Initially a
baby cannot
support the weight Functions of the vertebral column
of its head. When
after about 3
months it is able to
• Supports the skull
support its head, the • Surrounds and protects the spinal cord
cervical forward
curve is complete.
• Provides attachment for ribs, girdles, and back muscles
The lumbar forward • Separate vertebrae and S-shaped curvature provide flexibility allowing humans to bend
curve is complete backwards, forwards and sideways
when the baby is
able to stand on its • Fibrocartilage discs between the vertebrae act as shock absorbers
own and ready to
learn to walk.
The rib cage and sternum
The rib cage is a bony and cartilaginous structure. A typical rib cage consists of 24 ribs
(12 pairs), the sternum (an inverted T-shaped structure connecting the rib bones), costal
cartilages and the 12 thoracic vertebrae shown in the diagram below. The first 7 pairs of
ribs connect directly to the sternum and are referred to as true ribs. The remaining 5 pairs
of ribs do not connect directly to the sternum and are referred to as false ribs. The rib
cage aids in the protection of the heart and lungs. With the help of the diaphragm and the
intercostal muscles, they increase and decrease the volume of the thoracic cavity thereby
allowing inhalation and exhalation to take place.
Figure 7.11: The human rib cage.

Appendicular skeleton DUMMY
The appendicular skeleton consists of the pectoral girdle with the arms and the pelvic girdle
with the legs. The pectoral girdle and arms and pelvic girdle and legs will be explored in
greater detail in the following section.
Figure 7.12: The appendicular skeleton is shaded.
The pectoral girdle and arms
The pectoral girdle consists of 2 clavicles (collar bones) and 2 scapulae (shoulder blades).
Each clavicle is attached to the sternum in the front and the scapulae at the sides and they
help to support the shoulders. The clavicle is the most frequently broken bone in the body
as it often takes the full impact of falls on outstretched arms or of blows to the shoulder.
The pectoral girdle is connected by muscles to the back of the thorax to enable it to have a
supporting structure as well as giving the shoulders greater freedom of movement which in
turn allows greater mobility of the arms. Any limit to movement is provided by the clavicle.
Each upper arm has a single bone called the humerus which fits into the Glenoid cavity on
the scapula to form a ball and socket joint. This cavity is very shallow which allows the arms
to move in almost any direction. The forearm consists of two bones namely the ulna in line
with the little finger and the radius in line with the thumb. The joint at the elbow is a hinge

joint. The wrist consists of 8 small carpal bones arranged in two rows of four. The palm of
the hand consists of 5 metacarpal bones. There are 14 digits (short bones) or phalanges in
each hand, two in each thumb and three in each of the fingers.
Figure 7.13: Skeletal framework of the arm and shoulder region.
Functions of pectoral girdle
• Forms a strong support structure for the attachments of the arms.

• Provides large area of bone for the attachment of muscles.
• Forms ball-and-socket joints with the arms which allows the arms to move freely.
Pelvic girdle and the legs
The pelvic girdle consists of hip bones joined at the front by cartilage called the pubic
symphysis and they are attached to the sacrum at the back. Each hip bone consists of three
fused bones. Portions of all three bones contribute to the formation of the acetabulum, a
deep socket into which the head of the femur (thigh bone) joins to form the hip joint.

FACT
The female pelvic
girdle is wider and
lighter than the
male. This is an
adaptation to allow
for pregnancy and
childbirth.
Figure 7.14: Skeletal framework of pelvic girdle and legs.
The femur in the leg is the largest and strongest bone in the body. The upper end forms
a ball and socket joint with the hip bone while the lower end articulates with the tibia to
form the hinge joint of the knee. The patella or kneecap is a flat triangular bone which is
embedded in the tendon of the thigh muscle and attached by a ligament to the tibia.
There are two bones in the lower leg: the tibia (shin bone) which is the larger of the two
and supports most of the mass. The upper end articulates with the femur while the lower
end articulates with one of the tarsal bones to form the ankle joint. The fibula (calf bone) is
thinner than the tibia and serves mainly for the attachment of muscles. It is attached to the
femur and is articulated to the top and bottom of the tibia.
The structure of the foot is similar to that of the hand. However, the foot supports the weight
of the body, so it is stronger and less mobile than the hand. There are seven tarsals or ankle
bones, only one of which articulates with the tibia. The largest of these is the heel bone
(calcaneum) to which the calf muscle is attached and which presses firmly on the ground
when one stands, walks or runs. There are 5 metatarsal bones which form the ball and arch
of the foot. The 14 phalanges of the toes are the counterparts of those in the fingers, with
the big toe having two phalanges and the other 4 having 3 phalanges each. Together these
structures consist of the bones form the lower limb shown in Figure 7.15.

Figure 7.15: Bones of lower extremity.
Functions of skeleton DUMMY
The human skeleton is living and performs many functions in the body. Some important
functions are summarised below:
1. Movement: muscles attach to the bones of the skeleton, enabling movement.

2. Protection: the skull protects the brain, the ribcage protects the heart and lungs, and
the pelvic bones protect the digestive tract and reproductive organs.
3. Support: provides shape and support to the body.
4. Storage of minerals: bones store minerals such as calcium and phosphate ions.
5. Hearing: bones in the middle ear, called the hammer, anvil and stirrup, amplify sound
waves and assist in the hearing process.
6. Red blood cell production: long bones and flat bones contain red bone marrow to
produce red blood cells.
Structure of long bone DUMMY
Although there are many different types of bones in the skeleton, we will discuss the different
parts of a specific type of bone: the long bone. The femur, tibia and fibula in the leg, and
the humerus, radius and ulna in the arm are all examples of long bones.

Figure 7.16: Parts of a long bone.
Epiphysis: The head of each end of a long bone consists largely of spongy bone and is
covered with hyaline cartilage.
Spongy bone: Found in the epiphysis of long bones and contains red marrow.
Red bone marrow: Found in the spaces between the trabeculae in spongy bone. This is
where the red blood cells are made at the rate of 2 -3 million per second. White blood cell
types are also produced here.
Trabeculae: The struts in the network of irregular bony plates in the epiphysis of bones
which transfer stresses from the epiphysis to the diaphysis which has a much thicker layer of
compact bone and resists stress better.
Diaphysis: Cylindrical shaft of a long bone composed of hard compact bone on the outside.
Periosteum: The membrane of dense fibrous connective tissue which surrounds the outside
surface of the shaft of a long bone. It has blood vessels which enables it to nourish the bone
and repair injuries. It also provides a surface for the attachment of muscles by means of
tendons and ligaments.
Endosteum: The delicate connective tissue layer lining the inside surface of compact bone.
Marrow cavity: This is filled with yellow marrow which consists largely of fat.

Investigation: Optional Investigation: Investigating organic and inorganic components
of bones
Aim:
Experiment A: Remove the inorganic component of bone in order to investigate the organic
component
Experiment B: Remove the organic component of bone in order to observe the properties of
the inorganic component
WARNING!
Bunsen burner and methylated spirits: Wear safety goggles and no loose fitting clothes. Do
not wear synthetic clothes that easily catch fire (cotton and wool clothes are preferable).
Hydrochloric acid: Wear closed shoes, safety goggles, a lab coat and gloves.
Apparatus:
Experiment A
• 2 small chicken bones

• 2 test tubes
• dilute hydrochloric acid/white vinegar
Experiment B
• towel
• 1 small chicken bone
• pipe clay triangle or wire gauze on a tripod stand
• bunsen burner or Methylated spirits burner
Method:
Experiment A
1. Label 2 test tubes with your initials and A and B. Put a bone in each tube.
2. Cover Bone A with water and Bone B with dilute hydrochloric acid. Leave for a few
days. The acid will dissolve out the mineral component of the bone leaving behind
the organic part.
3. Take out Bone A and dry it.
4. Use tweezers to take Bone B out of the acid. Rinse it under the tap and dry it.
5. Compare the two bones and not down how they appear and whether they are soft or
hard, flexible or brittle.
Experiment B
1. Place the chicken bone (Bone C) on a pipe triangle or wire gauze on a tripod stand.

2. Roast the bone strongly for 10 minutes. Roasting will burn off the organic component
of bone (mainly the protein collagen) leaving behind the mineral part.
3. Allow the bone to cool down completely before you touch it.
4. Describe the appearance of Bone C stating whether it is soft or hard, flexible or brittle.
Observations:
Note down your observations in your lab notebook.
Conclusions:
What can you conclude about the different organic and inorganic components of bones?
Questions:
1. What are the main inorganic components of bone?

2. What changes have occurred in Bone A?
3. What properties have been removed from the bone with the loss of it inorganic com-
ponents?
4. Which deficiency disease can have similar effects on bones in children?
5. What is the role of Bone B in this experiment?
6. What protein makes up the main organic component of bone?
7. What changes took place in Bone C during the roasting process?
8. What properties have been removed from Bone C with the loss of its organic compo-
nent?
7.4 Musculoskeletal tissues DUMMY
The tissues which provide structure to the body and enable movement are part of the muscu-
loskeletal system. The tissues in the this system include the bones, cartilage, joint, tendons,
ligaments and muscles. In this section we will examine each of these types of tissues, so that
in the next section on locomotion, we can understand how these structures work together to
bring about movement.
• Bone: hard mineralized tissue that determines the structure of the body and provides
attachments for muscles.
• Cartilage: flexible connective tissue that is usually found in many areas of the body
including the joints between bones.
• Joints: region where bones meet, a variety of joint types allow for a range of move-
ments in a number of different planes.
• Ligament: tissue that connects bones to other bones.
• Tendons: fibrous connective tissue that connects muscle to bone and transfers the force
generated by the muscles into skeletal movement.
• Muscles: made up of fibres that are capable of contraction and therefore capable of
bringing about movement.

FACT
Apart from
Bones DUMMY
osteocytes which
are embedded in
the lacunae of bone
there are two other Bones provide the framework and internal core structure for the attachment of muscles. Bone
types of bone cells. is a living rigid tissue which forms the support structures for the rest of the body. The process
Osteoblasts: Bone of bone formation is called ossification. The matrix of bone contains a dense arrangement
forming cells. These
cells allow the bone
of collagen fibres together with mineral salts of calcium, magnesium and phosphates. The
to change and calcium salts give bone its hardness and rigidity while collagen fibres give bones its flexibility
remodel its shape as and strength.
the organism grows
and responds to
stresses. If a bone is
broken or if
strengthening is
needed, bone cells
lay down new tissue
and repair damaged
tissue
Osteoclasts: Special
bone cells for
destroying and
reabsorbing bone
tissue.
Figure 7.17: A diagram of a section of compact bone showing Haversian canals.
Microscopic structure of a long bone
Numerous hollow tunnels called Haversian canals occur within the matrix of bone tissue
and run parallel to the length of the bone. Under the microscope they appear as black
circles against a lighter background. Each Haversian canal is surrounded by concentric rings
of compact bone called lamellae. Each of these layers contains a ring of fluid-filled cavities
called lacunae. Each of these lacuna will contain a number of bone cells called osteocytes.
The lacunae are linked to each other and to the Haversian canal by a system of very tiny
interconnecting canals called canaliculi. Strands of cytoplasm extend through these canals
which supply the osteocytes with oxygen and nutrients and remove waste products. The
Haversian canals, lacunae, osteocytes and canaliculi together form a unit called an Haversian
System and a number of these systems make up compact bones.
Cartilage DUMMY
Main features
Cartilage is a tough semi-transparent flexible tissue that consists of a tough matrix or jelly-
like substance. The matrix is made up of collagen (a protein) and proteins with special
carbohydrate chains called proteoglycans. Cartilage is enclosed by a fibrous capsule called
244 7.4. Musculoskeletal tissues

the perichondrium. It consists of living cells called chondrocytes which secrete a rubbery
protein matrix called chondrin. Chondrocytes occur in small fluid-filled spaces called lacu-
nae which are scattered throughout the matrix. There are no blood vessels or nerves in the
matrix.
Cartilage and bone
Infant and young children do not have bones like those of adults. Their bones are made
mostly of cartilage - a firm, elastic, fibrous material. As the individual grows and matures,
the cartilage is gradually replaced by bone cells which deposit crystals of calcium carbonate
and calcium phosphate. This process called ossification greatly increases the strength of the
bone.
Cartilage Appearance Location Function

Hyaline cartilage glass-like, at ends of bones, reduces friction at
bluish-white, few forms c-shaped joints, allows
fibres structures in movement of ribs
Trachea, joins ribs during breathing,
to sternum, larynx forms permanent
and tip of nose, structures, allows
temporary cartilage bones to increase
in bones in length
Fibrocartilage many white discs between the acts as shock
collagen fibres vertebrae, in the absorbers, makes
rim of ball and the socket deeper
socket joints, while still allowing
between pubic movement
bones
Elastic many yellow fibres in the pinna of the maintains the
in matrix ear, in the shape of the ear,
epiglottis strengthens the
epiglottis
Joints DUMMY
A joint is a point at which two bones make contact. It allows movement in many planes.
1. Fibrous joints: joins bones where no movement is allowed. An example of this in-
cludes the bones of your cranium (the skull).
2. Cartilaginous joints: These allow slight, restricted movement for example the discs
between the vertebrae of the spine.
3. Synovial joints: These allow free movement in one or more directions to the joints of
the pelvic and pectoral girdles. They also facilitate movements like standing, sitting,
walking and running.
Another way of categorising joints is movable and immovable joints. Most joints in the
skeleton are movable joints. Movable joints are also known as synovial joints. Synovial
joints are characterised by the existence of capsules, which contain synovial fluid. The
synovial fluid helps to prevent friction during movement.

Figure 7.18: Example of a synovial joint.
There are a number of different types of synovial joints. The four main types of synovial
joints include:
1. Ball and socket joint: found in structures such as the shoulder. It allows forwards/back-
wards, up/down and roundabout movement.
2. Hinge joint: found in structures such as the elbow. It allows the forearm to move up
and down and acts like the hinge of a door.
3. Pivot joint: allows turning of the head in a rotational movement from side to side.
4. Gliding joint: found in the foot and allows toes to flex. It allows bones to slide over
one another.
Tendons and ligaments DUMMY
Tendon and ligaments are dense bands of dense connective tissue. Ligaments join bone to
bone, and tendons join muscles to bone. An example of a ligament is the anterior cruciate
ligament (ACL) of the knee, and an example of a tendon is the Achilles tendon, which
attaches your calf muscle to your heel. Tendons and ligaments are similar structures, but
they have some important differences, which are summarized in Table 7.1.
Comparison of ligaments and tendons
Ligaments Tendons
join bone to bone attach muscles to bones
consist of white collagen fibres and a consist of non elastic collagen fibres
network of yellow elastic fibres which give tendons a white shiny
appearance
strong collagen fibres prevent dislocation parallel arrangement of strong collagen
at joints, and yellow elastic fibres allow fibres in order to efficiently convert
flexibility at the joint muscle contraction into movement of the
skeleton
Table 7.1: Table comparing ligaments and tendons
246 7.4. Musculoskeletal tissues

FACT
Antagonistic muscles DUMMY The biceps brachii
muscle gets its
name from being a
two-headed muscle,
Voluntary muscles are normally connected to at least two bones. The point of attachment to attaching to the
scapula at two
the movable bone is called the point of insertion and the point of attachment of a muscle
points. Although it
to the immovable bone is called the origin. Most muscles work in pairs and when a muscle is commonly
works it needs to have an agonist and an antagonist. referred to as a
‘bicep’, biceps is the
An agonist is a muscle that acts to move a limb out of a particular position (contraction). correct form even in
the singular.
An antagonist is a muscle that acts in opposition to the specific movement generated by the Similarly, the triceps
agonist and is responsible for returning the limb back to its original position (relaxation). brachii muscle joins
Antagonistic pairs of muscles are necessary because each muscle can only exert a pulling at three points, and
force. A muscle cannot push itself back to its starting position. Therefore another muscle should be referred
to as the triceps,
is required to pull in the opposite direction in order to return the agonist muscle back to its whether you are
starting position. An example of this can be found in the contraction and relaxation of the talking about one or
biceps and triceps muscles when moving your forearm. both arms.
Example: Biceps and triceps
In the case of the biceps the two bones involved are the scapula (origin) and the humerus
(insertion). The biceps muscle gets its name from having two tendons attached to the scapula.
The biceps joins to form a single muscle body, and the splits again into two tendons, one
of which inserts at the radius, and the other of which inserts at the ulna. When the biceps
muscle contracts, the forearm is lifted or bent, decreasing the angle between the forearm and
humerus and flexing your arm. This ability of the biceps to decrease the angle between the
joints results in it being called a flexor muscle.
Figure 7.19: Illustration of the triceps (extensor) and biceps (flexor) muscles
Straightening of the forearm
When the arm is bent the biceps cannot contract since it is already in a contracted state.
Muscles can only cause movement by pulling as they contract, not by pushing when they
relax. Therefore, the straightening of the arm is brought about by the contraction of the
triceps muscle (an extensor muscle) as it increases the angle between forearm and humerus.

FACT The triceps has three points of origin, two on the humerus and one on the scapula, and a
WATCH:The singlepoint of insertion on the ulna.
mechanics of the
antagonism within
the biceps and
triceps. 7.5 Human locomotion DUMMY
See video:
SHORTCODE at
Locomotion refers to the ability to move. Specifically, it refers to the way in which organisms
travel from one place to another. Examples of types of locomotion include running, swim-
FACT
Learn more about
ming, jumping or flying. Human locomotion is achieved by the use of our limbs. Below we
antagonistic discuss the major organs and structures that bring about movement in humans.
muscles: http://
www.botany.uwc.
ac.za/Sci_Ed/
grade10/manphys/
skel_mus.htm
Figure 7.20: A marathon event in progress: this locomotion is facilitated by the skeletal framework
described in this section.
The structures used during locomotion include:
1. Bones provide the body’s supporting structure. They provide the framework that help
maintain the body’s shape and provide a surface for the attachment of muscles.
2. Joints are points of contact between individual bones. They allow bones to move
against and past each other to enable movement.
3. Ligaments connect bones the ends of bones together in order to form a joint. Most
ligaments limit dislocation, or prevent certain movements that could form breaks. They
hold bones in place so that they work in a coordinated manner.
4. Tendons connect muscle to bone. They transfer the force generated by muscle con-
traction into movement of the skeleton.
5. Muscles work in antagonist pairs to cause bones to move. Muscles are attached to
bone via the tendon. Therefore as the muscle contracts, the bone moves.
7.6 Muscle structure and function DUMMY
You learnt about three types of muscle tissue (skeletal, smooth and cardiac) in Chapter 4. In
this chapter, we will look at striated or skeletal muscle. Skeletal muscle is voluntary muscle
which means it can be controlled by will.They are the muscles that you use to enable you to
run, skip, walk etc.
The basic units of a muscle are called myofibrils. Myofibrils make up the muscle fibre
(muscle cell). Numerous muscle fibres are found in bundles. These bundles are surrounded
248 7.5. Human locomotion

by perimysium. Several of these together make up the fasciculus. Numerous fasciculi are FACT
surrounded by epimysium. These structures combine to form a muscle. WATCH: a video
about the anatomy
of a muscle cell:
See video:
SHORTCODE at
Learn more about
myosin and actin:
See video:
SHORTCODE at
Learn about the role
of sarcoplasmic
reticulum in muscle
cell:
See video:
SHORTCODE at
FACT
ATP stands for
adenosine
Figure 7.21: Different structural components of the voluntary muscle. triphosphate. It is
the energy reserve
of the body.
Muscle contraction
Each muscle cell (muscle fibre) is made up of many myofibrils. Myofibrils are responsible for
the muscle contraction. Each myofibril consists of units called sarcomeres (there are many
sarcomeres joined end to end in each myofibril). Sarcomeres consist of thin actin filaments
and thick myosin filaments. When muscle fibres contract these filaments slide across each
other. The actin filaments shorten, but the length of the myosin filaments do not change.
This causes the sarcomeres to shorten, resulting in the shortening of the whole muscle. The
contraction of the muscle fibres requires energy in the form of ATP. The energy is supplied
by the process of cellular respiration.

FACT Figure 7.22: Diagram showing a sarcomere made up up thick and thin filament that slide past each
WATCH: Summary other to enable muscle contraction.
of the workings of
the muscle:
See video:
SHORTCODE at
7.7
www.everythingscience.co.za Diseases DUMMY
FACT
Osteoporosis is
As a result of wear-and-tear over time and due to lack of proper nutrition, individuals can
derived from the
Greek words for develop bone problems. Common bone problems include rickets, osteoporosis and arthritis.
bone (ostoun), and
pore (poros). It is Rickets
common in older
people, especially
women. Rickets is a disease that is most commonly caused by a lack of vitamin D, however it can also
be caused by deficiencies in phosphorous or calcium. Deficiencies in these key nutrients
FACT results in a softening of the bone tissue, leading to fractures and bone deformities in children.
Osteoporosis is Rickets is a widespread childhood disease in many developing countries.
common in older
women whose
oestrogen levels
drop after
menopause.
Oestrogen usually
suppresses
osteoclast activity
(bone resorption).
When oestogen
levels drop, the
activity of
osteoclasts is no
longer inhibited and
bone breakdown
exceeds bone
formation. This
results in an overall
loss of bone mass.
Figure 7.23: The diagram shows the difference between a normal patient and a rickets patient.
Osteoporosis
Bones are constantly being broken down by osteoclasts and built up by osteoblasts. When
the process of breakdown and deposition are evenly matched bone mass is maintained.
However, when there is a shortage of calcium in the body or when a bone is inactive (e.g leg
in plaster or immobilised), calcium is withdrawn from the bone for use in other parts of the
body. This results in an increased breakdown of bone tissue without an increase in deposit
of new bone by osteoblasts. Excessive breakdown without new bone deposition results in
the development of holes/pores in the bone (hence the name of the disease). A decrease in
bone density makes the bone weak and prone to fractures. The most typical fractures are of
the spine, wrist and hip.
250 7.7. Diseases

FACT
WATCH: Visualise
osteoarthritis
See video:
SHORTCODE at
Figure 7.24: Bone marrow derived cells with bone below it showing the typical distinguishing char-
acteristics of the osteoporosis cells: large cells with multiple nuclei and a ‘foamy’ cytosol.
Figure 7.25: Pictures illustrating the onset of osteoporosis.
Arthritis
Figure 7.26: The hands shown have been affected by arthritis.
Arthritis is a diseases caused by disorders of joints or inflammation of them. There are

several types of arthritis. The hand of an individual affected by a particular form of arthritis
called rheumatoid arthritis can be seen in Figure 7.26. It is caused by an individual’s cells
being attacked by their own immune system and is known as an auto-immune disorder.
The immune system attacks the body tissues and most damage occurs in the cartilage found
between joints.
Arthritis can also be caused by the daily wear-and-tear of a joint, when bones constantly rub
against each other. It can affect the hands, the knee, feet, hip and back. It usually affects
the elderly but can also result from an injury. The disease can also result from a lifestyle
characterised by lack of exercise.
Arthritis cannot be cured. However, in rare cases joint replacement is available.
Teacher’s Guide

Further reading on the web: http://depts.washington.edu/bonebio/ASBMRed/diseases.
html
Types of arthritis: http://www.vimovo.com/types-of-arthritis.aspx
7.8 Summary DUMMY
• There are 3 types of skeletons:

1. Hydrostatic skeleton
2. Endoskeleton
3. Exoskeleton
• When animals moved from water to land, there was a need for the development of
strong limbs and a skeleton to provide support to the bodies, which had previously
been provided by water.
• Humans have an endoskeleton consisting of:
1. Axial skeleton (cranium, facial bones, foramen magnum, palate and jaws, verte-
bral column, rib cage and breastbone/sternum)
2. Appendicular skeleton (pectoral girdle with arms and pelvic girdle with legs)
• Functions of the human skeleton are:
1. Movement
2. Protection
3. Support
4. Storage of minerals
5. Hearing
• The tissues associated with the human skeleton are bone, cartilage, tendons and liga-
ments.
• Joints
A joint is formed when two or more bones come into contact.
There are three types of joints:
1. Immovable joints
2. Partly movable joints
3. Synovial joints (Hinge joints, ball and socket joints, pivot joints, gliding joints)
• Human locomotion requires the use and coordination of bones, joints, ligaments, ten-
dons and antagonistic muscles.
• Muscles
There are three types of muscle tissue:
1. Smooth/involuntary
2. Skeletal/voluntary
3. Cardiac muscle
Myofibrils are responsible for muscle contraction.
• There are many diseases that affect the skeleton, such as rickets, osteoporosis and
arthritis.
252 7.8. Summary

1. Draw a table showing the three types of skeletons and provide one advantage and one
disadvantage of each. Tabulate your answer.
Solution:
Skeleton Advantage Disadvantage

Hydrostatic - Allows animal to be very - Not very strong easily
flexible moves easily; not damaged or lost if the
restricted in terms of enclosed cavity around it is
possible movements. pierced.
- Give support without - Generally not suitable to
adding much weight. terrestrial animals and
- Allows rapid diffusion of offers no protection against
gases through the body dehydration.
wall, so a transport system - Limits the size of the
is often unnecessary, e.g. animal – large animals
jellyfish. would not be feasible.
Exoskeleton - Very strong and provides - Heavy, so it prevents the
good protection against animal getting very large.
physical damage. (small animals are easy
- Can be present in great prey)
variety of colours to - Necessitates moulting,
provide protection via making the animal very
camouflage. vulnerable.
- Offer good protection - Movement is only
against dehydration. possible at thinner joints,
but these are more
vulnerable than thick areas.
Endoskeleton - Bone is very hard, so - Broken bones take a long
gives excellent protection time to heal and are
of vital organs e.g. brain. painful.
- Bone marrow inside - Bones inside the body
bones forms blood cells. offer no protection to some
- Allows animal to become soft tissues, e.g. intestine.
bigger – large animals have
fewer enemies
2. State where the Haversian canal is located and state its function.
Solution:
Haversian canal is in the centre of an Haversian system in compact bone. It contains a
nerve to carry impulses, blood vessels to transport gases, food and wastes and a lymph
duct to drain tissue fluid. (one for where it is, + 2 for any two functions of parts in it)
[3]
3. State four functions of bone tissue.
Solution:
1.2 Any four of the following:
• Is hard to support the body part and protect vital organs
• Forms a store of calcium and phosphates in the body
• Can undergo mitosis to repair damage, e.g. breaks
• Grows to make the body bigger as we age
• Provides firm attachment place for muscles

• Protects bone marrow that produces blood cells
• Allows fast diffusion to and from osteoblasts via liquid-filled canaliculi [4]
4. Tabulate two differences between tendons and ligaments.
Solution:
Tendons Ligaments
Attach muscles to bones Attach bones to other bones or to
fibrocartilage
Contain more collagen compared to Contain less collagen compared to
elastin so they are inelastic elastin so have elasticity
Fibre in tendons are all along the long The fibres in ligaments are woven
axis for strength together, not arranged longitudinally
(One for the table and one each for two differences between them) [5]
5. Supply the biological term for each of these bones:
a) thigh bone
b) knee cap
c) shin bone
d) ankle bones
e) heel bone
f) upper arm bone
g) wrist bones
h) breast bone
Solution:
a) femur
b) patella
c) tibia
d) talus (in foot), malleolus (extension of the tibia)
e) calcaneum
f) humerus
g) carpals
h) TODO: missing entry
6. State four functions of the human skeleton.
Solution:
Any four of the following:
• Protection of vital organs, e.g. brain, heart
• Attachment place for muscles and resistance for muscle contraction
• Gives shape to the body, e.g. facial features
• Supports body parts and keeps us upright
• Bones form levers for locomotion
• Bone marrow forms blood cells
• Middle ears bones are vital for hearing
[4]
7. State the number of:
a) bones in the human vertebral column.
254 7.8. Summary

b) pairs of true ribs
c) lumbar vertebrae
Solution:
a) 33
b) 7
c) 5
[3]
8. Study the following diagrams showing the main bones of the pectoral girdle and the
human arm (forelimb) and answer the questions that follow:
a) Identify bone X.
b) Parts of some of these bones meet at certain joints. By using the letters (A–H)
only, state which parts of the bones form the shoulder joint.
c) Name the type of synovial joint that is located at the following parts of the body:
i. At the elbow
ii. Where the lower limb joins the pelvis
iii. In the wrist
Solution:
a) Scapula [1]
b) Bone end B joins to part F [2]
c) i. hinge joint
ii. ball and socket joint
iii. gliding joint
[3]
9. The diagram below shows the legs of an athlete while he is waiting for a race to start.
The letters A to F show some of the muscles as well as joints that will be used during
the race.

a) When the Starter’s gun is fired, the athlete’s right leg will straighten, pushing the
athlete upwards and forwards. Which of the letters (A to F) indicate muscles that
will:
i. Relax
ii. Contract
b) The leg shown in the diagram has different types of joints. Which of the following
letters (A to F) indicates:
i. A hinge joint
ii. A ball and socket joint
Solution:
a) i. B and F [2]
ii. C and E [2]
b) i. D
ii. A
[2]
10. Skeleton and Movement – True or False? If it is false provide a reason for why you
think the statement is false.
a) The skeleton’s role is to provide support, protection and capacity for movement.
b) The skeleton is divided into the axial and appendicular skeleton.
c) The axial skeleton consists of the pectoral and pelvic girdles and their attached
limbs.
d) Carpals are found in the ankles and tarsals in the wrists.
e) The biceps muscle raises the arm while the triceps lowers it in an antagonistic
pair.
f) Synovial liquid lubricates joints and keeps them friction free.
g) Bone joints in the cranium are examples of fibrous joints.
h) The neck contains 7 lumbar vertebrae.
i) Tendons join muscles to bone and are elastic while ligaments join bone to bone
and are non-elastic.
j) Bone is composed of flexible minerals such as Calcium and Phosphate with rigid
fibres of Collagen.
k) Osteocyte is another word for bone cell.
Solution:
256 7.8. Summary

a) True
b) True
c) False (should be appendicular skeleton)
d) False (other way round carpals are in the wrist, tarsals in the ankle)
e) False (the biceps and triceps respectively raise and lower the LOWER arm or
forearm, not whole arm)
f) True (not entirely ’friction-free’, but close)
g) True
h) False (neck has cervical vertebrae)
i) False (joining functions are correct, but tendons are inelastic and ligaments are
more elastic)
j) False (Ca and P are inflexible minerals and collagen is a flexible protein)
k) True (but bone cells can also be called osteoblasts)
[11]
11. Compare the biceps and triceps muscles with respect to:
a) Point of origin
b) Point of insertion
c) Function
Solution:
a) Biceps and triceps both originate at the shoulder (remember the origin is the part
that does not move when the muscle contracts). Biceps has two tendons attached
to the shoulder (two at origin), triceps has three attached to the shoulder (three at
origin)
b) Biceps is inserted on the radius and triceps on the ulna (remember the insertion
is the part that moves when the muscle contracts)
c) The biceps contracts to bend the arm at the elbow, the triceps contracts to
straighten the arm at the elbow.

CHAPTER 8
Transport systems in animals
8.1 Overview 260

8.2 Circulatory systems in animals 260
8.3 Lymphatic circulatory system 279
8.4 Cardiovascular diseases 283
8.5 Summary 288
8 Transport systems in animals
8.1 Overview DUMMY
Introduction DUMMY
All living organisms require oxygen and nutrients, and a method of removing carbon diox-
ide and waste products. However, the circulatory system is not limited to the delivery of
nutrients, gas exchange, and waste removal. Hormones, too, rely on the circulatory system
to reach target organs, and the immune system depends on the transport of white blood cells
and antibodies. This chapter discusses transport systems found in mammalian systems, with
a focus on transport systems found in humans.
Key concepts
• There are open and closed circulatory systems. In an open circulatory system blood
enters a cavity, in a closed circulatory system blood remains in vessels.
• A double closed circulation system consists of the pulmonary and systemic circulatory
systems.
• The direction of blood flow is significant. In the systemic circulatory system oxy-
genated blood is transported to the body and deoxygenated returns to the heart. In
the pulmonary circulatory system, deoxygenated blood is sent to the lungs, and oxy-
genated blood is returned to the heart.
• Specialised cells (sinoatrial node) send signals to the atrioventricular node to cause the
atria and ventricles to contact and control the cardiac cycle and heart rate.
• The structure of blood vessels such as arteries, veins and capillaries are suited to their
function.
• The lymphatic system transports lymph around the body and returns fluid to the blood
circulatory system.
• The lymphatic system also plays an important role in immunity.
• Conditions and diseases of the heart and circulatory system include high and low
blood pressure, heart attacks and strokes. Treatments include stents, valve replace-
ments, bypass surgery, pacemakers, and heart transplants.
8.2 Circulatory systems in animals DUMMY
Transport systems are crucial to survival. Unicellular organisms rely on simple diffusion for
transport of nutrients and removal of waste. Multicellular organisms have developed more
complex circulatory systems.
260 8.1. Overview

Open and closed circulation systems DUMMY
There are two types of circulatory systems found in animals: open and closed circulatory
systems.
Open circulatory systems
In an open circulatory system, blood vessels transport all fluids into a cavity. When the
animal moves, the blood inside the cavity moves freely around the body in all directions.
The blood bathes the organs directly, thus supplying oxygen and removing waste from the
organs. Blood flows at a very slow speed due to the absence of smooth muscles, which, as
you learnt previously, are responsible for contraction of blood vessels. Most invertebrates
(crabs, insects, snails etc.) have an open circulatory system. Figure 8.1 shows a schematic of
an open circulatory system delivering blood directly to tissues.
Figure 8.1: Open circulatory system.
Closed circulatory systems
Closed circulatory systems are different to open circulatory systems because blood never
leaves the blood vessels. Instead, it is transferred from one blood vessel to another con-
tinuously without entering a cavity. Blood is transported in a single direction, delivering
oxygen and nutrients to cells and removing waste products. Closed circulatory systems can
be further divided into single circulatory systems and double circulatory systems.
Single and double circulation systems DUMMY
The circulatory system is a broad term that encompasses the cardiovascular and lymphatic
systems. The lymphatic system will be discussed later in this chapter. The cardiovascular
system consists of the heart (cardio) and the vessels required for transport of blood (vascu-
lar). The vascular system consists of arteries, veins and capillaries. Vertebrates (animals with
backbones like fish, birds, reptiles, etc.), including most mammals, have closed cardiovas-
cular systems. The two main circulation pathways in invertebrates are the single and double
circulation pathways.
Single circulatory pathways
Single circulatory pathways as shown in the diagram below consist of a double chambered
heart with an atrium and ventricle (the heart structure will be described in detail later in this
chapter). Fish possess single circulation pathways. The heart pumps deoxygenated blood to
Chapter 8. Transport systems in animals 261

the gills where it gets oxygenated. Oxygenated blood is then supplied to the entire fish body,
with deoxygenated blood returned to the heart.
Figure 8.2: Single circulation system as found in a typical fish species. The red represents oxygen-rich
or oxygenated blood, the blue represents oxygen-deficient or deoxygenated blood.
Double circulatory systems
Double circulation pathways are found in birds and mammals. Animals with this type of
circulatory system have a four-chambered heart.
262 8.2. Circulatory systems in animals

FACT
Humans, birds, and
mammals have a
four-chambered
heart. Fish have a
two-chambered
heart, one atrium
and one ventricle.
Amphibians have a
three-chambered
heart with two atria
and one ventricle.
The advantage of a
four chambered
heart is that there is
no mixture of the
oxygenated and
deoxygenated
blood.
Figure 8.3: Double circulation system showing pulmonary and systemic circuits.
The left atrium receives deoxygenated from the body and the left ventricle sends it to the
lungs to be oxygenated. The right atrium receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and sends
it to the rest of the body. Most mammals, including humans, have this type of circulatory
system. These circulatory systems are called ’double’ circulatory systems because they are
made up of two circuits, referred to as the pulmonary and systemic circulatory systems.
Human circulatory systems DUMMY
The human circulatory system involves the pulmonary and systemic circulatory systems. The
pulmonary circulatory system consists of blood vessels that transport deoxygenated blood
from the heart to the lungs and return oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart. In
the systemic circulatory system, blood vessels transport oxygenated blood from the heart to
various organs in the body and return deoxygenated blood to the heart.
Pulmonary circulation system
In the pulmonary circulation system, deoxygenated blood leaves the heart through the right
ventricle and is transported to the lungs via the pulmonary artery. The pulmonary artery
is the only artery that carries deoxygenated blood. It carries blood to the capillaries where
carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood into the alveoli (lung cells) and then into the lungs,
where it is exhaled. At the same time, oxygen diffuses into the alveoli, and then enters the
blood and is returned to the heart via the pulmonary vein.

Figure 8.4: Pulmonary circulation system. Oxygen rich blood is shown in red; oxygen-depleted blood
is shown in blue.
Systemic circulation
Systemic circulation refers to the part of the circulation system that leaves the heart, carrying
oxygenated blood to the body’s cells, and returning deoxygenated blood to the heart. Blood
leaves through the left ventricle into the aorta, the body’s largest artery. The aorta leads
to smaller arteries that supply all organs of the body. These arteries finally branch into
capillaries. In the capillaries, oxygen diffuses from the blood into the cells, and waste and
carbon dioxide diffuse out of cells and into blood. Deoxygenated blood in capillaries then
moves into venules that merge into veins, and the blood is transported back to the heart.
These veins merge into two major veins, namely the superior vena cava and the inferior
vena cava (Figure 8.9). The movement of blood is indicated by arrows on the diagram. The
deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium via the the superior vena cava. Major arteries
supply blood to the brain, small intestine, liver and kidneys. However, systemic circulation
also reaches the other organs, including the muscles and skin. The following diagram (Figure
8.5) shows the circulatory system in humans.

Figure 8.5: The systemic circulatory system supplies blood to the entire body.

FACT See video: SHORTCODE at www.everythingscience.co.za
Clench your fist -
the size of your fist
is more or less the
size of your heart.
Teacher’s Guide
Cardiovascular system: http://www.biologyinmotion.com/cardio/index.html
Blood flow animation: http://health.howstuffworks.com/human-body/systems/circulatory/

adam-200078.htm
Blood Flow animation: http://www.sumanasinc.com/webcontent/animations/content/

human_heart.html
The heart and circulation (interactive activity): http://www.kett6.net/adulteducation/

heartanimations.html
Circulation animation: http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/pe/appliedanatomy/

0_anatomy_circulatorysys_rev1.shtml
The heart and associated blood vessels DUMMY
External structure of the heart
The heart is a large muscle, about the size of your clenched fist, that pumps blood through
repeated rhythmic contractions. The heart is situated in your thorax, just behind your breast-
bone, in a space called the pericardial cavity. The heart is enclosed by a double protective
membrane, called the pericardium. The region between the two pericardium layers is filled
with pericardial fluid which protects the heart from shock and enables the heart to contract
without friction.
The heart is a muscle (myocardium) and consists of four chambers. The upper two chambers
of the heart are called atria (singular= atrium). The two atria are separated by the inter-atrial
septum. The lower two chambers of the heart are known as ventricles and are separated
from each other by the interventricular septum. The ventricles have more muscular walls
than the atria, and the walls of the right ventricle, which supplies blood to the lungs is less
muscular than the walls of the left ventricle, which must pump blood to the whole body.
In addition, there are a number of large blood vessels that carry blood towards and away
from the heart. The terms ‘artery’ and ‘vein’ are not determined by what the vessel transports
(oxygenated blood or deoxygenated) but by whether the vessel flows to or from the heart.
Arteries take blood away from the heart and generally carry oxygenated blood, with the
exception of the pulmonary artery. Veins transport blood towards the heart and generally
carry deoxygenated blood, except the pulmonary vein. On the right side of the heart, the
superior vena cava transports deoxygenated blood from the head and arms and the inferior
vena cava transports deoxygenated blood from the lower part of the body back to the heart,
where it enters the right atrium. The pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood away

from the right ventricle of the heart towards the lungs to be oxygenated. On the left side FACT
of the heart, the pulmonary vein brings oxygenated blood from the lungs towards the left In humans, the left
lung is smaller than
atrium of the heart and the oxygenated blood exits the left ventricle via the aorta and is
the right lung to
transported to all parts of the body. make room in the
chest cavity for the
Since the heart is a muscle, and therefore requires oxygen and nutrients itself to keep beat- heart.
ing, it receives blood from the coronary arteries, and returns deoxygenated blood via the
coronary veins.
Figure 8.6: The external structure of the heart: the major part of the heart consists of muscles and is
known as the myocardium. The region in which the heart is found is known as the pericardial cavity,
which is enclosed by the pericardium.
Internal structure of the heart
As previously mentioned, the heart is made up of four chambers. There are two atria at the
top of the heart which receive blood and two ventricles at the bottom of the heart which
pump blood out of the heart. The septum divides the left and right sides of the heart. In order
to make sure that blood flows in only one direction (forward) to prevent backflow of blood,
there are valves between the atria and ventricles (atrioventricular valves). These valves only
open in one direction, to let blood into the ventricles, and are flapped shut by the pressure
of the blood when the ventricles contract.
The tricuspid valve is situated between the right atrium and the right ventricle while the bi-
cuspid/ mitral valve is found between the left atrium and the left ventricle. Strong tendinous
cords (chordae tendineae) attached to valves prevent them from turning inside out when they
close. The semi-lunar valves are located at the bottom of the aorta and pulmonary artery,
and prevent blood from re-entering the ventricles after it has been pumped out of the heart.

Figure 8.7: The internal structure of the mammalian heart.
In the previous sections we have discussed pulmonary and systemic circulation, and we have
described the four chamber structure of the heart as well as some of the major arteries and
veins that transport blood towards and away from the heart. In order to summarise all this
information, study the flow diagram below which describes the passage of deoxygenated
blood through one full cycle.

FACT
Memory trick: the
tRI cuspid valve is
found on the RIght
side of the heart.
Figure 8.8: Flow diagram depicting movement of blood from the heart through the circulatory system.
The blue boxes represent deoxygenated blood, the purple boxes represent capillary networks where
gaseous exchange occurs and the red boxes represent stages at which the blood is oxygenated.
Major organs and systemic circulation DUMMY
All the organs of the body are supplied with blood. This is necessary so that the cells can
obtain the necessary nutrients as well as oxygen which is required for cellular respiration.
Each organ has an artery that supplies it with blood from the heart. Metabolic wastes,
including carbon dioxide, need to be removed from cells and returned to the heart. These
move into the capillaries which enter into veins that eventually enters either the superior or
inferior vena cava which then enters the right atrium.
Arteries and veins have been named according to the organ to which they supply blood.
The liver receives oxygenated blood from the heart via the hepatic artery. This artery runs
alongside the hepatic portal vein. The hepatic portal vein contains nutrients that have been
absorbed by the digestive system. This nutrient-rich blood must first pass through the liver,
so that the nutrient composition of the blood can be controlled. Blood passes from the liver
to the heart through the hepatic vein. Metabolic waste is circulated in the blood, and if
allowed to accumulate, would eventually reach toxic levels. The kidneys are supplied with
blood (which contain waste) via the renal arteries. The kidneys filter metabolic waste from
the blood, passing it to urine to be excreted safely. Blood leaves the kidney via the renal
vein.
The brain is supplied with blood via the carotid arteries and the vertebral arteries. The blood
from the brain is drained via the jugular veins. The brain is supplied with 15% of the total
amount of blood pumped by the heart. The heart is also a muscle (myocardium) that requires
blood flow to work. Blood is supplied to the heart via two coronary arteries, and leaves the
heart via four cardiac veins.

Figure 8.9: Major blood vessels of the circulatory system.
Investigation: Dissecting a mammalian heart
Aim:
To dissect a mammalian heart (sheep or ox heart).
You will work in groups of four.
Apparatus:
• your teacher will give each group a heart to dissect

• a scalpel handle with a blade or a sharp non-serrated knife
• a sharp pair of scissors
• a pair of forceps
• gloves
• paper towel
• pictures of the external and internal views of the heart
Method:

1. Place the heart on the dissecting board with the atria at the top and the ventricles
facing downwards.
2. Carefully examine the external view of the heart. Try identify the vertical and horizon-
tal groves on the heart. This is the position of the internal walls between the chambers
of the heart.
3. Examine and note the difference in the walls of the ventricles and atria. Also note the
difference in appearance between the walls of the ventricles and atria.
4. With the scalpel or sharp knife carefully cut the heart open across the left atrium.
5. Compare the thickness and the size of the right ventricle and atrium.
6. Identify the valves and examine the tendinous cords which are attached to the valves.
7. Identify the semi-lunar valves at the bottom of the pulmonary artery.
8. Now cut through the left side of the heart in the same way as you did the right side of
the heart.
9. Carefully cut through the septum of the heart so that you have two halves.
Questions:
1. What is the smooth outer layer of the heart called?

2. Did you notice any fat around the heart?
3. Did you notice a difference between the atria and ventricles externally?
4. Name the blood vessels visible on the outside of the heart?
5. Compare the thickness of the walls of the atria and ventricles. Explain why they are
different.
6. Explain the difference between the left and right ventricular walls.
The cardiac cycle DUMMY
A cardiac cycle refers to the sequence of events that happens in the heart from the start of
one heartbeat to the start of the subsequent heartbeat. During a cardiac cycle the atria and
the ventricles work separately. The sinoatrial node (pacemaker) is located in the right atrium
and regulates the contraction and relaxing of the atria.
• At rest, each heartbeat takes approximately 0,8seconds.

• The normal heart rate at rest is approximately 72 beats per minute.
• During systole the heart muscle contracts.
• During diastole the heart muscle relaxes.
The phases of the cardiac cycle will be broken down and explained in the following section:
Phase 1: Atrial systole (Atrium contracts)
• Blood from the superior and inferior vena cava flows into the right atrium.
• Blood from the pulmonary veins flows into the left atrium.
• The atria contract at the same time.
• This contraction lasts for about 0,1 seconds.

• Blood is forced through the tricuspid and bicuspid valves into the ventricles.
Phase 2: Ventricular systole (Ventricle contracts)
• Ventricles relax and fill with blood.

• The ventricles contract for 0,3 seconds.
• Blood is forced upwards, closing the bicuspid and tricuspid valves (lubb sound).
• The blood travels up into the pulmonary artery (on the right) and the aorta (on the left).
• The atria are relaxed during ventricular systole.
Phase 3: General diastole: (General relaxation of the heart)
• The ventricles relax, thus decreasing the flow from the ventricles.
• Once there is no pressure the blood flow closes the semi-lunar valves in the aorta and
the pulmonary artery (dubb sound).
• General diastole lasts for about 0,4 seconds.
Figure 8.10: The cardiac cycle of contraction and relaxation of heart muscles during pumping of
blood throughout the body.
The sound the heart makes

The heart makes two beating sounds. One is loud and one is soft. We call this the lubb dubb
sound. The lubb sound is caused by the pressure of the ventricles contracting, forcing the
atrioventricular valves shut. The dubb sound is caused by the lack of pressure in the ventri-
cles which causes the blood to flow back and close the semi-lunar valves in the pulmonary
artery and aorta. A doctor uses a stethoscope to listen to the heartbeats. Alternatively, a
person’s pulse can be measured by pressing a finger (other than the thumb which already
has a pulse) against the brachial artery in the wrist or the carotid artery next to the trachea.
The pulse of the heart allows us to measure the heart rate which is the number of heartbeats
per unit time.
Mechanisms for controlling cardiac cycle and heart rate (pulse)
The cardiac cycle is controlled by nerve fibres extending from nodes of nerve bundles
through the heart muscle. There are two nodes, namely the sinoatrial node (SA node) and
the atrioventricular node (AV node). The SA node is located within the wall of the right
atrium while the AV node is located between the atria and the ventricles. Electrical impulses
generated in the SA node cause the right and left atria to contract first, initiating the cardiac
cycle. The electrical signal reaches the AV node, where the signal pauses, before spreading
through conductive tissues called the bundles of His and Purkinje fibres. These fibres branch
into pathways which supply the right and left ventricles, causing the ventricles to contract.
The SA node is the pacemaker of the heart since electrical signals are normally generated
there - without any stimulation from the nervous system (automaticity). However, although
the heart rate is automatic, it changes during exercise or when experiencing intense emo-
tions like fear, anger and excitement. This is as a result of added stimulation from the nervous
system and hormones, such as adrenaline.
Electrical activity
The electrical activity in the heart is so strong that it can be measured from the surface of the
body as an electrocardiogram (ECG). A normal heart has a very regular rhythm. Arrhythmia
is a condition where the heart has an abnormal rhythm, as shown in the figures. Tachycardia
is when the resting heart rate is too fast (more than 100 beats per minute), and bradycardia
is when the heart rate is too slow (less than 60 beats per minute).
Figure 8.11: Electrocardiogram indicating normal heart rate.

Investigation: Investigating heart rates before, during and after strenuous exercise
Aim:
To investigate your heart rate before, during and after strenuous exercise
Apparatus:
• Have a stopwatch
Method:
1. Work in pairs on the field and ensure you have a stop watch.
2. One partner performs the experiment and the other records the results. Partners then
swap roles.
3. Take the resting pulse (known as the ’radial pulse’) rate before exercising.
4. One partner runs quickly around the field twice.
5. Immediately after the run take his/her pulse.
6. Continue to take his pulse every minute for 5 minutes.
7. Record the results and plot a graph using the data pertaining to you.
Results:
Record your results here:
Time Heart rate (beats/minute)

Before exercise (resting)
0 min(immediately after exercise)
1 min (after exercise)
2 min
3 min
4 min
5 min
Observations:
Draw a line graph to illustrate your results on the following axis (show the resting pulse rate
as a separate dotted line on the axis).
Conclusions:
Write your conclusion
Questions:
1. Write a hypothesis for this investigation.

2. Write down the independent variable.
3. Write down the dependent variable.
4. Name ONE factor that must be kept constant during this investigation.

FACT
5. Write down TWO ways in which the accuracy of this investigation can be improved. Cardiac output is
the volume of blood
6. What conclusions can be made about your cardiovascular fitness? that is pumped by
7. Explain why the heart rate increases during exercise? the heart in
one-minute.
Cardiac output is
equal to the stroke
volume (SV)
Teacher’s Guide multiplied by the
heart rate (HR).
Measuring pulse rate: http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003399.

htm
Stroke Volume
The stroke volume is the amount of blood pumped through the heart during each cardiac
cycle. The stroke volume can change depending on the needs of the body. During exercise,
muscles need more oxygen and glucose in order to produce energy in the form of ATP.
Therefore the heart increases its stroke volume and stroke rate to meet this demand. This
is a temporary change to maintain homeostasis, and after exercise the heart rate and stroke
volume return to normal.
When a person exercises regularly, and is fit, the heart undergoes certain long-term adapta-
tions. The heart muscle gets stronger, and expels more blood with each contraction. There
is therefore a greater stroke volume with each heartbeat. Since the heart expels more blood
with each stroke, the heart has to beat less often in order to maintain the same volume of
blood flow. Therefore, fit people often have lower resting heart rates.
Blood Pressure
Blood pressure refers to the force that the blood exerts on the blood vessel walls. Blood
pressure is determined by the size of the blood vessels and ensures that blood flows to all
the parts of the body. Normal blood pressure is 120/80 (120 over 80) measured in units of
mercury. The 120 represents the systolic pressure, which is when the ventricles contract.
The 80 represents the diastolic pressure, which is when general diastole occurs.
Blood pressure can be increased by smoking, stress, adrenalin surges, water retention, high
cholesterol, obesity and lack of exercise. High blood pressure (hypertension) is dangerous
and increases the risk of an aneurysm, stroke or heart attack. Low blood pressure (hypoten-
sion) can lead to light-headedness and fainting because of insufficient blood supply to the
brain.
Blood vessels DUMMY
Structure and functioning of arteries, capillaries, veins and valves
Arteries
Arteries carry blood Away from the heart. The pressure created by the pumping heart forces
blood down the arteries. Arteries have three layers. They have an outside layer made up
of connective tissue, a middle layer made up of smooth muscle to allow contraction of the
arteries and regulate the pressure of blood flow and an inside layer of tightly connected

FACT simple squamous endothelial cells. The large arteries close to the heart branch into smaller
Laughing is good arterioles (smaller arteries) and eventually branch into capillaries.
exercise for your
heart. Whenever
you laugh, the
blood vessels dilate
(open up), causing
the blood flow to
increase, thus
keeping your heart
healthy.
Figure 8.12: Micrograph of artery.
Capillaries
Capillaries are little more than a single layer or endothelial cells. Capillaries form intricate
networks throughout the tissues. They allow water, nutrients and gases to diffuse out of
the blood and waste materials to diffuse into the blood. This exchange occurs between the
blood and the tissue fluid. The tissue fluid is the fluid surrounding the cells. The blood cells
never come into contact with the cells. The blood and tissue fluid exchange material, and
the tissue fluid then exchanges material with the cells.
Veins
The intricate networks formed by the capillaries eventually converge to form venules, (small
veins). The venules then converge to form veins which return the blood to the heart. Vein
walls only consist of two layers. The outer layer is made up of connective tissue whereas the
inner layer is made up of endothelial cells.

Figure 8.13: Schematic diagram of a vein.
Figure 8.14: Diagram representing the branching of an artery into arterioles. These subsequently
form the capillary bed which empties into several venules, leading to the vein.
Valves
Once the blood has passed through the capillaries very little blood pressure remains to
return blood to the heart.Instead of pressure from the heart veins use a series of valves to
force blood to return to the heart. Contraction of the muscles squeezes the veins, pushing
the blood through them. The valves cause the blood to flow in only one direction, back to
the heart.
Teacher’s Guide
Figure showing capillaries as the transition between arteries and veins
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Illu_capillary.jpg

Interactive diagram illustrating arterial and venous structure.: http://www.phschool.com/
science/biology_place/biocoach/cardio2/structure.html
Figure 8.15: Valves ensure that blood flows one only way though veins.
Comparison between arteries, veins and capillaries DUMMY
Arteries Capillaries Veins

blood moves away from blood supply at tissue level blood returned to the heart
the heart
thick middle layer of one layer of endothelium thin middle layer as
involuntary muscle to with very small diameter pressure is reduced
increase or decrease
diameter
inner layer of endothelium only endothelium layer larger diameter of inner
which reduces friction present cavity, lined with
endothelium to reduce
friction
situated deeper in the situated at tissue level only situated near the surface of
tissue to maintain body the skin to release heat
temperature
no valves except in the no valves present semi-lunar valves are
base of the aorta and the present at intervals, to
pulmonary arteries prevent back flow of blood
blood always under high blood is under high blood is under low
pressure pressure where red blood pressure
cells are forced to flow
through in single file
a pulse can be felt as blood no pulse no pulse can be detected
flows
Table 8.1: Table comparing arteries, capillaries, and veins
Teacher’s Guide
Cardiac Magnetic Resonance imaging of Beating heart: Large magnets are used to create
images of the heart inside the body, without the need for surgery.
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Four_chamber_cardiovascular_
magnetic_resonance_imaging.gif

View from the top FACT
The average adult
heart beats:
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Beating_Heart_axial.gif
• 72 times a
minute
View from the side
• 100 000
times a day
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cardiac_mri_ani_sagittal_bionerd.gif
• 3 600 000
times a year
• A billion
times during
a lifetime.
Figure 8.16: Cross-section showing the differences between a) arteries, b) veins and c) capillaries.
8.3 Lymphatic circulatory system DUMMY
The lymphatic system is part of the circulatory system, comprising a network of inter-connected
tubes known as lymphatic vessels that carry a clear fluid called lymph towards the heart.
The lymphatic organs play an important part in the immune system. The lymphatic sys-
tem transports the white blood cells which are important in the immune response against
pathogens.
Teacher’s Guide
Comparison of lymph and blood system: http://www.lymphnotes.com/article.php/id/

150/

Composition of the lymphatic system DUMMY
Figure 8.17: Diagram of human lymphatic system.
The lymphatic system is composed of lymph vessels, lymph ducts, lymph nodes and organs.
The organs associated with the lymphatic system are the spleen and thymus. The spleen is
the boundary between the blood and the lymphatic system. Knots of lymphatic tissue in the
spleen add lymphocytes to the blood. The spleen also acts as a filter for the blood, and helps
to destroy worn out red-blood cells. In the event of damage to the spleen, it can be removed
and its functions will be carried out by the liver, the bone marrow and the lymph nodes.
Lymph vessels are located as a network throughout all tissues in the body. Lymph vessels
assist the circulatory system and all the cells of the body by removing wastes, germs and
excess water from the tissue fluid. Lymph vessels carry lymph fluid from the bottom of the
body up towards the heart and also drains from the head and shoulders as well as the arms.
Muscle contractions help push the lymph fluid upwards, and valves prevent the lymph fluid
from flowing backwards. Many lymph vessels eventually merge into two large lymphatic
280 8.3. Lymphatic circulatory system

vessels, called lymphatic ducts which empty into veins in the neck. The thoracic duct
collects from the left side of the body and the lower right side of the body and empties into
the left subclavian vein. The right thoracic duct collects from the right arm, thorax, neck and
head, and drains into the right subclavian vein.
Most of the disease-fighting function of the adult mammal is carried out by the lymph nodes
which occur along the lymph ducts. Lymph nodes are small, irregularly-shaped masses
through which lymph vessels flow. Clusters of nodes occur in the armpits, groin, and neck.
Cells of the immune system line channels through the nodes and attack bacteria and viruses
travelling in the lymph, so they basically act as tiny filters.
Figure 8.18: Interaction between lymphatic and cardiovascular circulatory systems.
Functions of lymphatic system DUMMY
The main functions of the lymphatic system are as follows:
• The main function of the lymphatic system is to collect and transport tissue fluids
from the intercellular spaces in all the tissues of the body, back to the veins in the
blood system.

• Lymph plays an important role in returning plasma proteins to the bloodstream.
• Digested fats are absorbed and then transported from the villi in the small intestine to
the bloodstream via the lymph vessels.
• Lymphocytes are manufactured in the lymph nodes
• Antibodies manufactured in the lymph nodes assist the body to build up an effective
immunity to infectious diseases.
• Lymph nodes play an important role in the defence mechanism of the body. They
filter out micro-organisms (such as bacteria) and foreign substances such as toxins.
• Lymph transports large molecular compounds (such as enzymes and hormones) from
their manufactured sites to the bloodstream.
NOTE:
Elephantiasis is a disease characterised by thickening of the skin and underlying tissues,
especially in the legs and genitals. It occurs when the body becomes infected by parasitic
infections, which target the lymphatic system.
Figure 8.19: An Ethiopian farmer affected by elephantiasis after being infected by a worm that settled
in the lymphatic system thereby causing the disease.
Cardiovascular System Lymphatic System

Blood is responsible for collecting and Lymph is responsible for collecting
distributing oxygen, nutrients and and removing waste products left
hormones to the tissues of entire body. behind in the tissues.
Blood flows in the arteries, capillaries, Lymph flows in an open circuit from
and veins. the tissues into lymphatic vessels.
Blood flows towards the heart and Lymph flows in one direction only
away from the heart. (towards the heart).
Blood is pumped by the heart to all Lymph is not pumped. It passively
parts of the body. flows from the tissues into the lymph
capillaries.
Blood consists of the liquid plasma Lymph that has been filtered and is
that transports the red and white blood ready to return to the cardiovascular
cells and platelets. system is a clear or milky white fluid.
Blood is visible and damage to blood Lymph is colourless or translucent and
vessels causes obvious signs such as damage to the lymphatic system is
bleeding or bruising. difficult to detect until swelling occurs.
Blood is filtered by the kidneys. Lymph is filtered by lymph nodes
located throughout the body.
Table 8.2: Comparison between the cardiovascular system and the lymphatic system
282 8.3. Lymphatic circulatory system

8.4 Cardiovascular diseases DUMMY
Cardiovascular diseases affect the heart or blood vessels (arteries, veins and capillaries).
Cardiovascular diseases are the biggest cause of deaths worldwide and the incidence of
these diseases is rising rapidly in countries like South Africa. Cardiovascular diseases can be
avoided through improvements in eating habits and through regular exercise. In this section
we will study the causes of heart attacks and strokes as well as how these may be treated.
We will also study the causes of high and low blood pressure and how these have an effect
on our well-being. We will finally discuss the types of treatments that are available such as
stents, valve replacements, bypass surgery, pacemakers and heart transplants.
Heart attack
This is also referred to as a myocardial infarction. Heart muscles are provided with oxy-
genated blood by a system of coronary arteries. Blocked flow of blood can cause the death
of cardiac muscle due to lack of oxygen. Arteries get blocked as a result of the gradual build-
up of lipids and cholesterol, which form a plaque. This condition of plaque build up in the
arteries is referred to as atherosclerosis. When a plaque bursts, it causes blood to clot at the
site of the rupture and obstructs the artery (see diagram in Figure ??). Often there are no
symptoms of atherosclerosis. However, some people who have narrowed coronary arteries
experience chest pain, (angina), when blood flow to the heart is insufficient.

Figure 8.20: 1. Normal arteries have a wide diameter through which blood can easily flow. 2. Plaque
forms on the walls of the artery, narrowing the lumen. 3. When the plaques bursts, platelets form a
blood clot at the site of rupture, which can obstruct the artery.
284 8.4. Cardiovascular diseases

Figure 8.21: Heart attack: the blood clot blocks the coronary arteries and cardiac muscle dies from
lack of oxygen.
Hypertension
As previously mentioned blood pressure is the pressure exerted by the blood against the walls
of the blood vessels, especially the arteries. Normal blood pressure at rest is within the range
of 100–140 mm Hg systolic (top reading) and 60–90 mm Hg (bottom reading). High blood
pressure (hypertension) is said to be present if it is persistently at or above 140/90 mm Hg.
Hypertension is a major risk factor for strokes, heart attacks and bursting of blood vessels
(aneurysms). Hypertension is essentially caused by a resistance to blood flow in blood
vessels.
Figure 8.22: The instrument used to measure blood pressure is a sphygmomanometer. This figure
shows an automated arm blood pressure meter showing arterial hypertension. From the top reading
systolic pressure is 158 mm Hg and diastolic reading is 99 mm Hg and the heart rate is 80 beats per
minute.
Hypotension
Hypotension refers to abnormally low blood pressure, especially in the arteries of the sys-
temic circulation. A patient is considered hypotensive if he/she has a systolic blood pressure

less than 90 millimetres of mercury (mm Hg) or diastolic pressure being less than 60 mm Hg.
However, in practice, blood pressure is considered too low only if noticeable symptoms are
present, such as feeling light headed. If the blood pressure is sufficiently low, fainting and
often seizures will occur. Severely low blood pressure can deprive the brain and other vital
organs of oxygen and nutrients, leading to a life-threatening condition called shock.
Stroke
A stroke results when a clot, burst artery or blood vessel interrupts flow of blood to the brain,
resulting in glucose and oxygen not reaching the brain. This causes impairment in speech,
movement and memory. Larger strokes can result in paralysis or death.
Aneurysm
An aneurysm is a localised blood-filled bubble in an artery wall. These bubbles form due
to a weakness in the blood vessel wall and can grow quite large. Aneurysms can occur in
many places in the body, including the brain, abdomen or aorta. When aneurysms burst,
they result in massive internal blood loss and death.
Treatment of heart diseases DUMMY
We will now examine some of the treatment of cardiovascular diseases.
Teacher’s Guide
http://www.pharmadynamics.co.za/ for treatments of heart disease
Stents
This is when a thin wire coil with an inflatable balloon at the one end is inserted into the
blocked coronary artery to open up the blockage. The stent, balloon end, is inserted into the
coronary artery. Once in position where the blockage in the balloon is then gently inflated
to open the artery and remove the blockage. The stent is left in the artery so that the artery
does not block again.
286 8.4. Cardiovascular diseases

Figure 8.23: Stent replacement in heart patients.
Pacemaker
Pacemakers are small electrical devices that get implanted into the chest or abdomen of
patients in order to help control arrhythmias (abnormal heart rhythms). Modern devices are
quite advanced and can learn a patient’s normal heart-beat patterns and detect when the
heart enters an abnormal rhythm ( e.g. skips a beat). The device will then send out a little
electrical pulse to stimulate the heart to beat and restore a normal heart beat.
Valve replacement
Valve replacement surgery is the replacement of one or more of the heart valves with an
artificial valve. There are two types of valves presently being used: Biological valves are
manufactured from animal or human tissue. These valves have a life span of approximately
12 to 15 years. If biological valves are used the patient generally does not require additional
blood thinning medication. Mechanical valves are manufactured from synthetic materials.
These valves, because they are made of synthetic materials last longer, but the patient needs
to take anti-coagulant medication for the rest of their lives.
Coronary Bypass Surgery
This is the most common type of surgery used for the treatment of coronary heart disease.
The surgeon removes a section of a vein from the patient’s leg and then carefully grafts the
removed vein (attaches) onto the aorta to bypass the blocked part of the artery.
Heart Transplant
A heart transplant is the surgical removal of a person’s diseased heart and replacement with
a healthy heart from a donor. Heart failure is a condition in which the heart is damaged or

FACT weak. As a result, it cannot pump enough blood to meet the body’s needs. Heart transplants
The survival after are done as a life-saving measure for end-stage heart failure. Donor hearts are in short supply,
heart transplant
patients who need heart transplants go through a very careful selection process. They must
surgery is about
88% after the first be sick enough to need a new heart, yet healthy enough to receive it. Survival rates for people
year, 75% after 5 receiving heart transplants have improved, especially in the first year after the transplant.
years and 56% after
10 years.
FACT
The first human
heart transplant was
performed on the
3rd December 1967
by Professor
Christiaan Barnard,
a South African
heart surgeon. The
patient, Mr Louis
Washkansky
unfortunately only
survived for 18 days Figure 8.24: Heart transplant by Dr Christiaan Barnard.
after the surgery.
However the cause
of death was
pneumonia, and not
his new heart,
which beat strongly 8.5 Summary DUMMY
till his death.
• Nutrients and oxygen are required by cells for cellular respiration. These are trans-
ported by blood to the various cells.
• Carbon dioxide and other waste products need to be transported from the cells to the
exterior. This is also transported via blood.
• Blood is pumped through the heart under high pressure to the various parts of the
body.
• The left side of the heart receives deoxygenated blood from the body via veins and
sends it to the lungs to be oxygenated.
• The right side of the heart receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and sends it via
arteries to all parts of the body.
• The lymphatic system is composed of lymph vessels, lymph nodes, and organs.
• Lymph vessels assist the circulatory system and all the cells of the body by removing
wastes, germs and excess water from the tissue fluid.
• There are many diseases that affect the heart and circulatory system and many treat-
ments are available.
1. The following diagrams show the heart during the cardiac cycle. The arrows represent
the flow of blood. Study the diagrams and answer the questions that follow:
288 8.5. Summary

a) Identify the structures labelled A and B respectively.
b) Name and explain what happens in each of the phases of the cardiac cycle rep-
resented in:
i. Diagram I
ii. Diagram II
iii. Diagram III
Solution:
2. Loss of a lot of blood, vomiting and diarrhoea often causes a decrease in blood volume.
As a result, blood cannot move normally around the body, as blood vessels are not
completely full. The tissues do not get enough blood, leading to possible death of
cells and hence damage to organs.
a) Explain why severe vomiting and diarrhoea would cause a decrease in the blood
volume.
b) What is the relationship between blood volume and blood pressure?
Solution:
3. Read the passage below and then answer the questions based on it.
When the ventricles of the heart pump blood into the arteries, the pressure of the blood
in the arteries is high. This is called systolic pressure (average 120 mm Hg). When the
heart muscle relaxes, the pressure in the arteries is much less. This is called diastolic
pressure (average 80 mm Hg). The average blood pressure of a healthy person is 120
over 80.
It is normal for a person’s blood pressure to differ slightly from the average. If blood
pressure is too high or too low there is medication that can be used to control this.
High blood pressure is called ’hypertension’ and low blood pressure is called ’hy-
potension’. There are several contributing factors to heart disease, namely hyperten-
sion, strokes, lack of exercise, smoking, rich fatty diets, obesity and diabetes. Research
has shown that 25% of the South African population suffer from hypertension and that
this is on the increase.
The treatment for hypertension is expensive and has a great impact on the health
system and on the economy.
a) Explain what causes the pressure in the arteries to rise and fall.
b) Why is it essential that blood pressure in the capillary vessels be much lower than
that in the artery?
c) List THREE reasons why heart disease is on the increase in South Africa.
d) Suggest ONE way in which the government could reduce the number of people
with heart disease.
Solution:
4. Study the diagrams which show two cross-sections of mammalian blood vessels and

a) Which vessel, A or B is the artery?
b) Provide TWO reasons for your answer to the previous question.
c) Which vessel carries blood at low pressure?
d) Provide an explanation for your answer to the previous question.
e) Identify the parts numbered 1 to 4.
f) How do capillaries differ from larger blood vessels?
g) In which vessel, A or B would you expect to find valves?
h) What is the function of the valves in the previous question?
i) Name the blood vessel that:
i. carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs
ii. carries oxygenated blood from the heart for systemic circulation
iii. carries blood from the digestive system to the liver
Solution:
5. Study the diagram of the lymphatic system and answer the questions that follow:
290 8.5. Summary

a) Name the components of the lymphatic system.
b) Identify the:
i. blood vessel numbered 3
ii. duct numbered 4
iii. structure numbered 6
c) Name TWO factors that assist movement of the lymph fluid.
d) State FOUR functions of lymph in the human body.
Solution:
6. Multiple-choice questions
a) The left side of the heart

i. transports deoxygenated blood to the lungs
ii. is more muscular than the right-hand side
iii. has a built in pacemaker
iv. is a mixture of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood
Solution:
b) Angina is
i. a panic attack caused by the release of too much adrenalin
ii. a fatal heart attack
iii. a serious heart cramp caused by a lack of oxygen in the cardiac muscles
iv. the result of a clot in the blood vessels going to the brain
Solution:
c) The stage in the cardiac cycle when the blood is pumped into the aorta and the
pulmonary artery is
i. atrial systole
ii. ventricular diastole
iii. general diastole
iv. ventricular systole
Solution:
d) The valve between the left ventricle and the left atrium of the heart is called the
i. mitral valve
ii. tricuspid valve
iii. aortic semi-lunar valve
iv. pulmonary semi-lunar valve
Solution:
e) The accompanying graph indicates that changes in adrenalin secretion and the
pulse rate, before, during (0 to 10 minutes) and after a cigarette was smoked.
Use the given graph to indicate which one of the following deduction is a valid
interpretation of the graph.

i. Smoking directly causes an increase in the basal metabolic rate.
ii. The cardiac muscles relax during smoking.
iii. Smoking directly stimulates the pulse rate.
iv. There is a no relationship between adrenalin secretion and pulse rate
Explain WHY there is a relationships between smoking and adrenalin secretion
Solution:
7. Study the accompanying diagram of the ventral view of the external structure of the
heart and answer the questions that follow.
a) Label parts numbered 1, 2, 7, 8.2 and 9.2

b) What type of blood (oxygenated or deoxygenated) is transported by blood vessels
1, 3 and 6?
c) What possible danger to human health exists if the lumen of structure 4 is ob-
structed with a thick layer of cholesterol
d) Discuss what happens during ventricular systole in the cardiac cycle.
292 8.5. Summary

Solution:
8. Study the diagrams below illustrating the structure of different types of blood vessels.
Graph A shows the average blood pressure in different blood vessels in the human
body, while graph B indicates the rate of blood flow in the different blood vessels.
Tabulate three structural differences between an artery and a vein.

Solution:
Artery Vein
thick muscle wall Thin muscle wall
Round in cross section Flatter in cross section
No valves, except bases of pulmonary Semi-lunar valves present at regular
artery and aorta intervals
Max 5 if not done on a table:

Study graph B and give a reason why the rate of blood flow in the capillaries is very
low.
What is the systolic and diastolic pressure in the aorta? (graph A)
9. The accompanying diagram represents the basic human blood circulation. Study the
diagram and answer the questions.

Name the chamber of the heart illustrated as R and T.
Name the arteries indicated as I and K. (organ C is the liver and organ E is the kidney)
Name the vein indicated as J.
Solution:
10. Answer the following questions with a word or phrase that corresponds to the descrip-
tion given.
a) The membrane surrounding the heart.
b) The valve situated between the left atrium and left ventricle.
c) The phase in the cardiac cycle when the atria contract.
d) The name of the artery taking deoxygenated blood to the lungs.
e) The blood circulatory system that supplies the heart muscle with oxygenated
blood.
f) The disorder / condition that results from a blockage in a blood vessel in the
brain.
g) The instrument used to measure blood pressure.
294 8.5. Summary

h) The blood system that supplies oxygen to body cells
i) The structure that separates the left and right sides of the heart.
j) The ability of the heart to contract at its own inherent rhythm.
k) The layer found on the inside of veins.
l) The blood vessel connecting the stomach and intestine to the liver.
m) Veins that have lost their elasticity and form small sacs of blood.
n) The smallest blood vessels in the body.
o) The pacemaker of the heart
Solution:

CHAPTER 9
Biospheres to ecosystems
9.1 Overview 298

9.2 Biosphere 300
9.3 Biomes 301
9.4 Environment 313
9.5 Ecosystems 313
9.6 Energy flow 324
9.7 Nutrient cycles 329
9.8 Ecotourism 334
9.9 Summary 336
9 Biospheres to ecosystems
9.1 Overview DUMMY
Introduction DUMMY
In this chapter we will study the way the biosphere interacts with the atmosphere, lithosphere
and hydrosphere. This will be followed by a description of the major aquatic and terrestrial
biomes in South Africa. We will then learn about the abiotic and biotic factors that make up
an ecosystem and examine how these factors interact. This will be followed by a discussion
on energy flow and the different trophic levels in an ecosystem that can be represented
by either a chain, pyramid or web. We will next look at how all the important nutrients
are cycled through the environment. We will conclude this chapter with a discussion of
ecotourism in South Africa.
Teacher’s Guide
STRAND 3: ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
CHAPTER 9: Biosphere to Ecosystems
Section 1: Overview
This Chapter introduces the learners to how organisms interact with other organisms and
with the environment in which they live in order to survive and produce offspring. This is
interaction of organisms and their environment is known as the study of ecology. Learners
are introduced to some of the interactions that occur in nature and to the terminology that
describes them. This links to Grade 11 across all the appropriate strands. Learners learn to
contextualise the meaning of these terms and concepts to familiar contexts of both Southern
Africa and the local area. This section builds on the knowledge that was taught in the Senior
Phase.
Learners are introduced to the concept of the biosphere. The inter-connections with and
component of global ecosystems (the hydrosphere, lithosphere and atmosphere (Grade 8).
The biomes enable the learners to study the terrestrial and aquatic biomes of Southern Africa.
They understand how climate, different types of soil and vegetation influence the organisms
found in each biome. The learners also need to know the location of the different biomes in
South Africa.
The concept of environmental showing how human activities within the environment and
the interactions with the natural are discussed with the learners. An understanding of the
biotic and abiotic factors needs to be revised. It is important to have a class discussion on
the effects of the community on the environment.
The concept, structure and functioning of ecosystems needs to be discussed in detail with the
learners. These include the Abiotic factors : physiographic factors, soil, light, temperature,
water and atmospheric gases. The biotic factors, which can be linked to the Grade 9 syllabus:
298 9.1. Overview

producers, consumers, decomposers.
Energy flow through the ecosystems and the relationship to trophic structure is covered in
this section. Here the learners are introduced to the different trophic levels. Skills in drawing
flow diagrams can be included in this section.
Finally ecotourism and its impact on the economy. The ethics and opportunities can be held
as a class discussion.
Key Concepts:
• The biosphere consists of an interconnected group of living or-
ganisms. It is connected with components of the global ecosys-
tem: the hydrosphere, the lithosphere and the atmosphere.
• Biomes are natural habitats for flora and fauna that extend to
both aquatic and terrestrial regions.
• The location of biomes across southern Africa and in South
Africa itself is governed by climate soils and vegetation.
• The environment consists of interactions between humans with
the natural environment.
• The ecosystem brings together the various interactions between
living organisms
• Abiotic factors affect the nature of an ecosystem. Such factors
include physiographic factors (altitude, aspect and slope), soil
quality (pH, humus content, texture, water retention capacity
and air content); light (day length and seasonal changes); tem-
perature (effect of day/night, seasons), water (the water cycle, as
well as the nature of wetlands), atmospheric gases, wind
• Biotic factors that affect the ecosystem include producers, con-
sumers and decomposers
• Energy flows through the trophic levels of an ecosystem and
trace the relationships that exist in an ecosystem.
• Oxygen, carbon, nitrogen and water also cycle through the
ecosystem.
• Ecotourism presents both opportunities and challenges for the
preservation of our ecosystems.
Section 3: Biomes
In this section learners will focus on summarising the importance of terrestrial and aquatic
biomes of Southern Africa. They will study how climate, soil and vegetation influence the
organisms found in each. Location of the different biomes in South Africa will also be
introduced to learners.
Key concepts
• The biosphere consists of all the living organisms on Earth.

• The biosphere interacts with the hydrosphere, the lithosphere and the atmosphere.
• Biomes are natural habitats for flora and fauna that extend to both aquatic and terrestrial
regions.
• The location of biomes across southern Africa and in South Africa itself is governed by
climate, soils and vegetation.
Chapter 9. Biospheres to ecosystems 299

• The environment consists of living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) components which
interact.
• The ecosystem brings together the various interactions between living organisms.
• Abiotic factors affect the nature of an ecosystem. Such factors include physiographic
factors, soil quality, light, temperature, water, atmospheric gases and wind.
• Biotic factors that affect the ecosystem include producers, consumers and decom-
posers.
• Energy flows through the trophic levels of an ecosystem tracing the relationships that
exist in an ecosystem.
• Oxygen, carbon, nitrogen and water also cycle through the ecosystem.
• Ecotourism presents both opportunities and challenges for the preservation of our
ecosystems.
9.2 Biosphere DUMMY
The biosphere refers to all living organisms on Earth and is often called the global ecosys-
tem. The biosphere interacts with other spheres, such as the lithosphere, atmosphere and
hydrosphere. Each of these spheres is discussed briefly below:
• Biosphere: is the sphere that includes all living organisms, from plants to bacteria to
multicellular organisms.
• Hydrosphere: is the combined mass of water found on, under and above the surface
of the earth. The hydrosphere is made up of lakes, rivers and springs and can be called
freshwater and salt water. The hydrosphere is home to a wide diversity of aquatic plant
and animal life.
• Lithosphere: refers to the outermost surface of the Earth, the Earth’s crust. The oceanic
lithosphere is associated with the oceanic crust and exists in oceanic basins. Continen-
tal lithosphere is associated with continental crust which covers the Earth’s landmass.
The lithosphere shields living organisms from the heat of the Earth’s core and contains
ionic compounds which allow plant and animal life to exist.
• Atmosphere: is the layer of gases surrounding the earth. The atmosphere’s ability to
absorb the ultraviolet rays of the sun is what allows life on earth to survive.
300 9.2. Biosphere

Spheres on Earth
Biosphere Hydrosphere
Lithosphere Atmosphere
The connections between spheres imply that disturbances in one sphere affect the other
spheres. For example, excessive deforestation (biosphere) results in increased erosion of soil
(the upper layer of the lithosphere- pedosphere) into rivers (hydrosphere). Deforestation also
results in an increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide (atmosphere). Deforestation therefore is
an example of how disturbances in one sphere produces effects in the hydrosphere, upper-
lithosphere and atmosphere.
Figure 9.1: The various spheres within the biosphere are connected.
9.3 Biomes DUMMY
The biosphere is divided up into a number of biomes. Biomes are regions with similar cli-
mate and geography. The key factors determining climate are average annual precipitation
(rainfall) and temperature. These factors, in turn, depend on the geography of the region,
such as the latitude and altitude of the region, and mountainous barriers. The specific con-
ditions of biomes determine the plant and animal life found within them. The communities

of plants, animals and soil organisms in a particular biome are collectively referred to as an
ecosystem. Biomes can be aquatic or terrestrial.
Aquatic biomes DUMMY
Water covers a major portion of the Earth’s surface, so aquatic biomes contain a rich diversity
of plants and animals. Aquatic biomes are divided into two main groups depending on the
amount of salt present in the water: freshwater and marine biomes.
1. Freshwater
Freshwater biomes are defined by their low salt concentration (usually less than 1%). Exam-
ples include: ponds, lakes, streams, rivers and wetlands.
2. Marine biomes
Marine bodies are salty, having approximately 35 grams of dissolved salt per litre of water
(3,5%). Marine biomes are divided into oceans, coral reefs and estuaries. The vegetation of
the marine biome is made of of the different types of algae which is one the major source of
oxygen in the world. The green algae also also plays a role in the removal of carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere.
• Oceans: are very large marine bodies that dominate the earth’s surface and hold the
largest ecosystems. The open ocean or sea covers nearly three-quarters of the earth’s
surface and contain a rich diversity of living organisms. Examples of animals in the
ocean biome include whales, sharks, octopuses, perlemoen, crabs and crayfish. Figure
9.2 shows a typical ocean ecosystem.
Figure 9.2: Ocean ecosystem.
• Coral reefs: are found in the warm, clear, shallow waters of tropical oceans around
islands or along continental coastlines. Coral reefs are mostly formed underwater from
calcium carbonate produced by living coral. Reefs provide food and shelter for other
organisms and protect shorelines from erosion. South Africa has only one coral reef
in the subtropical ocean waters north of Lake St. Lucia in northern KwaZulu Natal.
Figure 9.3 shows a typical coral reef system.
302 9.3. Biomes

Figure 9.3: Coral reef.
• Estuaries: are partially enclosed areas of fresh water and silt, from streams or rivers
which mix with salty ocean water. Estuaries represent a transition from land to sea
and from freshwater to saltwater. Estuaries are biologically very productive areas and
provide homes for a wide variety of plants, birds and animals.
Marine biomes of South Africa
South Africa’s long coastline stretches for over 3000 kilometres, from Namibia in the West to
Mozambique in the East. There are a few key features to note about South Africa’s coastline
and marine biomes. South Africa’s coastline is rugged, as rocky shores are exposed to high
wave energy. Coastline generally experiences high wind for most of the year. There are up
to 343 estuaries found along the coast, two thirds of which are found on East Coast between
Cape Padrone in the Eastern Cape Province and Mtunzini in KwaZulu-Natal. The Eastern
region receives the highest rainfall, mostly during summer. South Africa’s east coast has rel-
atively warm waters (20-25 degrees C), the West by colder Atlantic waters (9-14 degrees C)
and South by intermediate temperatures (16-21 degrees C). The Benguela Upwelling System
on the South-West coast supports large numbers of marine animals. Agulhas current off the
East Coast has a smaller quantity of fish but a greater diversity of species. Abundant oppor-
tunities exist for tourism, recreation, food, export and associated economic development.
Terrestrial biomes DUMMY
Terrestrial biomes occur on land and can be of many types. Examples include: thicket,
tundra, forest, grassland and desert. Terrestrial biomes are usually classified based on the
dominant vegetation, climate or geographic location. The location and characteristics of the
various biomes is mostly influenced by climatic conditions such as rainfall and temperature.
South African Biomes DUMMY
The most recent classification of the terrestrial biomes in South Africa divides the region into
the following eight biomes:
1. Grassland
2. Savanna
3. Succulent Karoo
4. Nama Karoo
5. Forest

6. Fynbos
7. Desert
8. Thicket
The biome regions are mapped in Figure 9.4 as found in South Africa.
Figure 9.4: Biomes of South Africa.
1. Grassland Biome
• Location: grasslands are found on the Highveld.

• Climate: they typically have summer rainfall of 400 mm to 2000 mm. Winters are
cold, and frost can occur.
• Soil and geography: in grasslands, the soil is red/yellow/grey or red/black clay. Grass-
land soil has rich fertile upper layers.
• Flora: vegetation is mainly grass, but trees can grow on the hills and along river beds.
• Fauna: many types of grass-eating herbivores can be found in this habitat, such as
black wildebeest, blesbok and eland. Rodents are also common in grasslands which
makes this biome an ideal hunting ground for birds of prey. The diverse plant species
also support many plant-eating insects such as butterflies, grasshoppers, crickets and
ants.
304 9.3. Biomes

Figure 9.5: Grasslands are regions where the vegetation is dominated by grasses.
Activity: Burning of grassland
Reason:
Burning of grassland impacts on the environment in important ways. These can be positive
or negative.
Materials:
Internet, Articles, Books
Instructions:
Using these resources, write down the advantages and disadvantages of burning grassland
Teacher’s Guide
ADVANTAGES OF BURNING DISADVANTAGES OF BURNING

Hard seedpods that cover seeds crack Air pollution smoke
open
Species are rediscovered, e.g., the Animals and plants are injured and
mountain rose damaged, or killed
Plants that grow aggressively are Organisms in the soil are destroyed
restricted humus is reduced
Younger plants provide better nutrition Grasses are weakened if burning is
(green grass after a severe winter) practised or occurs at the wrong time
2. Savanna biome
• Location: the Savanna biome is the largest biome in Southern Africa. It is found mainly
in the Northern Cape, North West Province, Northern Province and KwaZulu Natal.
• Climate: summers are hot and wet and the winters are cool with little or no rain. Frost
occurs in winter.
• Soil and geography: the soil is red/black clay, red/yellow, grey soil and is often sandy.
• Flora: this biome is also known as the bushveld, where grasses are mainly found and
regular fires prevent the trees from dominating. Herbaceous plants and woody plants
can be found in different areas. Plants are able to withstand fire.
• Fauna: big game species such as kudu and Springbok, lion, buffalo and elephant are
found in the Savanna Biome. This is also a malaria-prone area.

FACT
‘Karoo’ comes from
the Khoi word
Karusa, which
means dry, barren,
thirstland. Karoo is
an apt description
for this arid region.
Figure 9.6: Savanna biome.
3. Succulent Karoo biome
• Location: the Succulent Karoo biome can be found along the west coast of the North-
ern Cape Province and the northern parts of the Western Cape Province.
• Climate: this biome is hot in summer and cold in winter and the rainfall in this area is
very low. Fog is common, and frost is seldom severe enough to cause damage.
• Soil and geography: lime-rich weakly developed soils on rocks and sands is easily
eroded.
• Flora: forty percent of plant species found here are endemic to this biome. The Na-
maqualand region of this biome is famous for its colourful wild flowers. Succulent
plants are able to live through dry seasons by using water stored in their leaves or
stems.
• Fauna: insects are common and the plants provide grazing for sheep and goats.
Figure 9.7: Karoo biome.
4. Nama Karoo
• Location: the Nama Karoo is the second largest biome in South Africa. It forms the
major part of the Northern Cape Province and the Free State.
• Climate: it is regarded as a semi-desert area receiving very little rain. The summers are
very hot and the winters are very cold and frost often occurs.
• Soil and geography: soil occurring on rocks is weakly developed. The area is also
characterised by sands, rocky and red clay, making erosion occur easily.
• Flora: it is characterised by grassy dwarf shrub land.
• Fauna: the flora provides good grazing for sheep and goats.
306 9.3. Biomes

FACT
Trees are not only
producers, but as a
result of their size
they also create a
habitat for other
species. The leaf
cover of trees
provides shelter for
animals, while the
bark and fissures in
Figure 9.8: Nama Karoo found in the Northern Cape province. the trees also
provide a habitat for
insects. The leaf
cover also creates a
5. Forest Biome shady environment
in which
shade-loving,
• Location: the forest biome in South Africa occurs in patches, in areas such as Knysna of low-growing plants
the Western Cape as well as KwaZulu Natal, the Eastern Cape, Limpopo and Mpumalanga. can flourish.
• Climate: some of these forests experience rain only in winter, while others get rainfall
FACT
throughout the year. When leaves or fruit
• Soil and geography: forests range in altitude from sea level to above 2000 metres, soil fall from the trees
and collect at the
is drained and virtually all soil types are present.
feet of the trees,
• Flora: forests are dominated by trees of which the Yellowwood is the largest. There another series of
are many herbaceous and bulbous plants that also occur. organisms can
appear. By breaking
• Fauna: numerous insect species, small mammals such as bushpig, bushbuck and mon- down organic
keys. the canopy is a perfect habitat for birds such as the Knysna Loeries, pigeons and material,
eagle. decomposers such
as microorganisms
return the organic
nutrients to the soil.
Humus is formed in
this way. Humus is
dead organic
material. Other
creatures that live
off decayed organic
material, namely the
detritivores, also
promote this
process of
decomposition by
breaking up dead
plant matter into its
component
nutrients.
Figure 9.9: Forest biome.
Project: Poster project to illustrate the role players in a tree ecosystem
Bring pictures of animals, trees and other plants to class. The teacher will divide the class
into groups.
Each group will prepare a poster to illustrate the mutual dependence of the trees, other plants
and animals. Each group must present their poster to the rest of the class.
Answer the following questions / follow the instructions arising from the class discussion:

Questions
1. Supposing the tree on your poster was to fall over.
1.1 Which organisms would die?
1.2 Which organisms would move away?
1.3 Which organisms would increase in number?
2. Describe the role played by trees in an ecosystem.
3. Ecologically speaking, why is it bad practice to rake up leaves under trees?
4. Name three more examples where humans harm ecosystems.
5. Identify components of the ecosystem, including each trophic level. Represent this in the
form of a diagram.
Teacher’s Guide
Project: To do a poster to illustrate the role-players in a Tree Ecosystem
Learners to bring the relevant information.
The answers to the questions will depend on the poster the learners have done. Each poster
should have different answers to the questions.
Project: Learners to write an essay on the fynbos using the source information provided
Write an essay on the ’Fynbos’ biome and discuss the following aspects.
• What is the meaning of the term ’fynbos’?

• Identify features of families/indicator species that make up this vegetation type
• Describe it ecological role in the environment
• Biological impacts on the environment of destroying this type of vegetation.
• Economic importance of it for the people of the Western Cape.
• Management strategies involved in protecting it.
Essay may be written or typed. Marks will be awarded for originality and own interpretation.
Include a bibliography of three of more resources.
No marks will be awarded for plagiarism.
Factual information : 6 x 5
Total : 30
Fynbos Biome
• Fynbos, meaning ”fine bush”, is a unique and strikingly beautiful group of flora en-
308 9.3. Biomes

demic to a small section of the Western Cape of South Africa. FACT
The Fynbos
• Fynbos grows in a 100-to-200-km-wide coastal belt stretching from Clanwilliam on contains
the West coast to Port Elizabeth on the Southeast coast forms part of the Cape floral approximately 75%
kingdom, where it accounts for half of the surface area and 80% of the plant varieties. of South Africa’s
rare and threatened
• The fynbos in the western regions is richer and more varied than in the eastern regions
plants.
of South Africa.
• Of the world’s six floral kingdoms, this is the smallest and richest per area unit. The
diversity of fynbos plants is extremely high, with over 9000 species of plants occurring
in the area, around 6200 of which are endemic, i.e. they do not grow anywhere else
in the world.
• Soil is made of rock and sandstone.
• Fire is required for seed germination and is also important to clear accumulated growth.
• Ants are important for seed dispersal and birds assist in pollination.
• Other animals found in the fynbos biome are the cape golden mole, geometric tortoise
and ostrich.
6. Fynbos
• Location: fynbos is the natural shrub found in the Western Cape of South Africa.
• Climate: characterised by cold, wet winters and hot, dry summers (Mediterranean
climate conditions).
• Soil and geography: poor, acid and coarse-grained soil.
• Flora: fynbos is widely known for its widespread biodiversity. Important plant types
found in the fynbos include proteas, ’silver trees’ and ’pincushions’. Plants growing
here do not lose their leaves. Proteas have striking flowers. It has the highest fynbos
variety in the world, with over 9000 species of fynbos found here.
• Fauna: fynbos is home to many bird species, insects and small mammals.
Figure 9.10: Mountain Fynbos found in Hermanus, Western Cape.
The flora of the fynbos has a high degree of endemism. This is the ecological state of being
specific to a geographic location such as an island, country or in this case, a defined biome
such as the fynbos.
Fire is a necessary stage in the life-cycle of nearly all fynbos plants, and is common during
the dry summer months. Many of the seeds germinate only after the intense heat of a fire.
As proteas ’prepare’ for the fire, they retain their seeds on the bush for at least a year, a habit
known as serotiny.

Figure 9.11: Fynbos in Cape Peninsula.
The lowlands of the fynbos have been developed for agriculture and wine farming. Due to
this, various species of fynbos have been threatened. For this reason, the fynbos region must
be protected and preserved. It is a major tourist destination.
Project: Discovering fynbos in South Africa
The astonishing richness and diversity of the Western Cape’s natural resources is matched
only by the resourcefulness and diversity of its many people. Historical patterns of unsustain-
able use of resources have led to the Cape Floristic Region (CFR) being listed as one of the
world’s threatened bioregions, and the scars are deeply etched in the land and its people.
Western Cape residents are exploring new and sustainable ways to value and benefit from
these globally important assets.
South Africa’s Cape Floristic region is legendary, and the unique nature of the fynbos biome
has been celebrated by biologists, conservationists, development experts, and ecologist
worldwide.
(Adapted from speech by Tasneem Essop the Western Cape Provincial Minister for Environ-
ment, Planning and Economic Development)
Write an essay on the “Fynbos” biome and discuss the following aspects.
• What is the meaning of the term “fynbos”?

• Identify features of families/indicator species that make up this vegetation type
• Describe it ecological role in the environment
• Biological impacts on the environment of destroying this type of vegetation.
• Economical importance of it for the people of the Western Cape.
• Management strategies involved in protecting it.
Your essay may be written or typed. Marks will be awarded for originality and own inter-
pretation. Include a bibliography of three of more resources. No marks will be awarded for
plagiarism.
Factual info : 5x5
Synthesis :
310 9.3. Biomes

Total : 30
7. Thicket
• Location: the thicket biome occurs along the coasts of KwaZulu Natal and the Eastern
Cape.
• Climate: thickets develop in areas where the rainfall is fairly high however; there may
be dry periods that prevent the vegetation from developing into forests.
• Soil and geography: most thickets occur in river valleys.
• Flora: the vegetation of this biome includes short trees, low intertwining shrubs and
vines .There are no distinct layers of trees and shrubs, with many large open spaces
found in the thicket biome. thickets in the Eastern Cape are comprised of dense im-
penetrable vegetation dominated by spiny, often succulent trees and shrubs.
• Fauna: kudu, monkey, bushbuck, elephant.
Figure 9.12: Thicket vegetation near Uitenhage, Eastern Cape.
8. Desert Biome
• Location: the Desert Biome is found largely in the Namib Desert along the coast of
Namibia.The transition regions between deserts and grasslands are sometimes called
semi-arid deserts.
• Climate: deserts are dry areas where evaporation usually exceeds precipitation. Rain-
fall is low, less than 25 centimetres per year, and can be highly variable and sea-
sonal.The low humidity results in temperature extremes between day and night. Deserts
can be hot or cold. Hot deserts (e.g. the Namib and Kalahari) are very hot in the
summer and have relatively high temperatures throughout the year and have seasonal
rainfall. This combination of low rainfall and high temperatures keeps the air very dry,
increasing its evaporating power.

FACT • Soil and geography: the soil consists mostly of sand, gravel or rocks.
Did you know that
most of the animals
• Flora: deserts have relatively little vegetation.
in the desert can • Fauna: many insects and reptiles (lizards and snakes) occur in the desert biome.
live without water
for a long time. they
have adapted in
many ways to do
this. For instance,
they can store water
internally, take
water out of their
prey, or peck at
cacti and and suck
out the water stored
inside them.
Figure 9.13: Kalahari desert in Namibia.
Activity: Understanding biomes
Aim:
Getting to know famous biomes of South Africa
Materials:
Posters, maps, reference books, adverts, brochures, Internet. (Study some advertisements for
ideas).
Instructions:
You work for an Advertising Agency that is bidding for the account of a top travel agency.
The bid includes designing a full page advert (A4) for the Getaway Magazine. Presentation,
appeal and accuracy will therefore be of top priority.
The travel agency has specified that they would like the following to be included in the ad,
which is geared towards people looking for a different and fascinating holiday in a specific
biome :
• A region in the biome of your choice, including cities and/or towns worth a visit
• Climate (of interest to tourists)
• Well-known geographical features in the region
• Mention of some interesting wildlife (i.e. birds, animals, plants) that may be seen
• Pictures
• Tour dates
• The name of the travel agency, with contact information
312 9.3. Biomes

Project:
FACT
WATCH: learn more
about biotic and
The following activity is to be done in groups of four abiotic components:
See video:
SHORTCODE at
Instructions
1. Brainstorm a suitable set of criteria for assessment for poster and verbal report
2. Select one biome from the list given and do the following:
3. Use suitable references to obtain as much information as possible on the plant and
animals found in your selected biome.
4. Make notes about the climate, landscape, stating how some of these are adapted to
their environment.
5. Design an attractive poster to illustrate the landscape as well as the dominant plants
and animals that make up a food chain.
6. Display your poster on the classroom wall and each person of the group is to give a
verbal presentation on an aspect of the biome you studied.
9.4 Environment DUMMY
The environment refers to everything that surrounds us, including the place where we live.
We usually use the term ”environment” to refer to the physical aspects of our surroundings,
which may be living (biotic) or non-living (abiotic). This means that if you live in a city, the
environment consists of the buildings, roads and other infrastructure, while if you live on a
farm, your environment consists of you pastures, farm house, pastures etc.
Although an environment consists of non-living and living things, the term environment the
term ’environment” really just describes one’s surroundings, but does not really define the
relationships, connectedness or dynamic nature of those surroundings. To study how the
living and non-living parts of the environment depend on and are influenced on each other,
we need to understand a different concept- the ecosystem.
9.5 Ecosystems DUMMY
An ecosystem is complex system that consists of all the living organisms in a particular
area as well as the environment with which the organisms interact. The living organisms
and non-living components of the ecosystem interact in such a way as to maintain balance.
Ecosystems are divided into biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components respectively.
Each component is discussed in detail below.
Biotic components DUMMY
Biotic components are living things that shape the ecosystem. Each biotic factor needs energy
to do work and for proper growth. To get this energy, organisms either need to produce their
own energy using abiotic factors, or interact with other organisms by consuming them. Biotic
components typically include:

• Producers: also known as autotrophs include all green plants. producers make their
own food using chemicals and energy sources from their environment. The producers
include land and aquatic plants, algae and microscopic phytoplankton in the ocean.
Plants use photosynthesis to manufacture sugar (glucose) from carbon dioxide and
water. Using this sugar and other nutrients (e.g. nitrogen, phosphorus) assimilated
(taken up) by their roots, plants produce a variety of organic materials. These materials
include starches,lipids, proteins and nucleic acids.
• Consumers: are also known as heterotrophs. They eat other organisms, living or dead,
and cannot produce their own food. Consumers are classed into different groups de-
pending on the source of their food. Herbivores (e.g. buck) feed on plants and are
known as primary consumers. Carnivores (e.g. lions, hawks, killer whales) feed on
other consumers and can be classified as secondary consumers. They feed on primary
consumers. Tertiary consumers feed on other carnivores. Some organisms known as
omnivores (e.g.crocodiles, rats and humans) feed on both plants and animals. Organ-
isms that feed on dead animals are called scavengers (e.g., vultures, ants and flies).
Detritivores (detritus feeders, e.g. earthworms, termites, crabs) feed on organic wastes
or fragments of dead organisms.
• Decomposers: (e.g. bacteria, fungi) also feed on organic waste and dead organisms,
but they can digest the materials outside their bodies. The decomposers play a crucial
role in recycling nutrients, as they reduce complex organic matter into inorganic nu-
trients that can be used by producers. If an organic substance can be broken down by
decomposers, it is called biodegradable.
Abiotic components DUMMY
Abiotic components are the non-living chemical and physical factors in the environment that
affect ecosystems. Abiotic components play a crucial role in all of biology. Abiotic factors are
broadly grouped into physiographic, edaphic and climactic factors and atmospheric gases.
1. Physiographic factors
Physiographic factors are those associated with the physical nature of the area. The main
physiographic factors we will look at are slopes, aspect and altitude.
• Slope: is the gradient or steepness of a particular surface of the Earth. The slope affects
the rate of water run-off. A steep slope encourages fast run-off of water and can cause
soil erosion. The soil tends to be shallow and infertile with reduced plant growth.
Plants are small and few animals present. A gentle slope favours slower flow of surface
water, reduces erosion, and increases availability of water to plants. The direction and
steepness of a slope also influences the surface temperature of the soil.
• Altitude: is the height of the land above sea level. At high altitudes the temperature is
lower, the wind speed is greater, and the rainfall less. Environments at higher altitudes
are also more likely to experience snow conditions. Altitude plays a role in vegetation
zones. At high altitudes, less plant and animal species are found Plants growing at
mid-altitudes experience more stunted growth. Plants at sea-level are abundant.
• Aspect: refers to the position of an area in relation to the sun or wind or wave action.
It is the direction that the slope faces i.e. North, East, West. In South Africa rain fall is
more common on the south-eastern slopes, therefore these tend to be forested or rich
in vegetation. The slopes facing the other way (north west) tend to be drier.
2. Edaphic factors
314 9.5. Ecosystems

Edaphic factors are those factors related to the soil. The qualities that may characterise the
soil include drainage, texture, or chemical properties such as pH. Edaphic factors affect the
organisms (bacteria, plant life etc.) that define certain types of ecosystems. There are certain
plant and animal types that are specific to areas of a particular soil type. The particular
factors we will consider include the pH of the soil and soil structure.
• pH of soil is a measure of how acid or alkaline soil is and can be measured by the pH
scale. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14. Neutral solutions have a pH value of 7. Acid
solutions have a pH value of less than 7 and alkaline solutions greater than 7. Litmus
paper or universal indicator can be used to determine whether a solution is acid or
alkaline.
Figure 9.14: pH scale for soil.
NOTE:
Did you know that some species of Hydrangea flowers are natural pH indicators? The flowers
of the Hydrangea macrophylla and Hydrangea serrata cultivars, can changes colour depend-
ing on the relative acidity of the soil in which they are planted. In an acidic soil with a pH
below 6, the flowers will usually be blue. However in an alkaline soil with a pH above 6,
the flowers will be more pink. Moving the plant from one soil to another results in a change
in flower colour if the pH of the soil is different (see Figure 9.16).
Figure 9.15: Hydrangeas.
• Soil Structure: the decomposed organic matter, called humus gives topsoil its dark
colour. It supplies plants with nutrients and helps the soil retain water. Soils rich in
humus are fertile soils. The specific soil type is determined by the size of particles e.g
sand has very large sized particles, clay has very small sized particles and loam has a
mixture of particle sizes. If you moist soil between your fingers, clay soil feels sticky,
sandy soil feels gritty and loam soil feels soapy. The water retention capacity of soils is
the ability of soil to retain different amounts of water. Clay soil retains a large amount
of water. Sandy soil retains very little water. Loam soil retains a moderate amount of
water.

Investigation:
Aim:
To investigate the water retaining properties of three soil types and the rate at which the
water flows through the soil samples.
Apparatus:
loam, sand and clay soil samples
filter funnels and filter paper
measuring cylinders
water
stop watches
Method:
1. Set up the three different measuring cylinders each with a funnel and filter paper in the
funnel.
2. Label each of the measuring cylinders either loam, sand, clay
3. Add the same amount of soil sample to the labelled measuring cylinder.
4. Carefully pour the same amount of water into each funnel.
5. Allow the water to pass through the water sample.
Results:
Write down your results
Observations:
Which sample of water retained the most water?
Which sample of water retained the least water?
Conclusions:
Explain your observations and which soil would you recommend for your pot plants.
Teacher’s Guide
Investigation: To investigate the water retaining properties of three soil types and the rate
at which the water flows through the soil samples.
METHOD:
1. Place 30 g of each soil type in a filter funnel which is lined with filter paper
2. Place each funnel on top of a 100ml measuring cylinder
316 9.5. Ecosystems

3. Pour 50ml of water into each funnel (slowly until all the water has been added
to the soil)
4. Leave to stand for 2 minutes - record how much water is in the measuring cylinder
5. After a further 2 minutes record any change to the amount of water in the cylinder
6. After a further 2 minutes record any changes to the amount of water in the cylinder
Record your results in a table. Add an extra column in which you calculate the amount of
water retained. (8)
Heading
Column heading
Row heading
Units in headings
Extra column for amount retained
Data
Name the dependent and independent variables. (2)
Dependent = amount of water retained
Independent = type of soil used
State which variable you controlled and how you controlled them (6)
Variable How controlled

Amount of water 50ml with measuring cylinder
Amount of soil 30g with electronic scale
Time of experiment 2 minute intervals with
watch/clock
Which soil retained the most water? (1)
Clay
Which soil retained the least water? (1)
Sand
Give three reasons for the difference in the water retention capacities of the soil types. (3)
Size of the soil particles, air spaces between the particles, organic matter (humus)
Which soil type is the best for plant growth? Give 2 reasons. (3)
Loam, retains fair amount of water but doesn’t become water logged.

FACT Draw a graph showing the amount of water retained by each type of soil after 6 min. (10)
Endothermic (warm
blooded) animals
Bar graph to show the amount of water retained by three types of soil
are able to regulate
their body
temperature so they Clay
are not affected by
extreme
Loam
temperatures, and
are able to live in
habitats over a wide Sand
range of
temperature. In cold Soil types
regions, animals
have developed a
layer of insulating TOTAL: 34
fat or hibernate
during the colder 3. Climatic factors
months. In very hot
regions animals
have adapted by • Sunlight: is essential for the process of photosynthesis. Heterotrophs, such as ani-
becoming nocturnal
mals, use light from the sun indirectly by consuming plants or other heterotrophs. All
in their habitats.
Cold blooded organisms receive the energy required for survival through the break down of sugars
animals and other molecular components that are produced by the autotrophs which are then
(ectotherms) are broken to release the energy stored in them, by the process of cellular respiration.
unable to regulate
their body • Temperature: varies greatly across various parts of earth and throughout the year. Tem-
temperature, and perature affects the rate of evaporation and transpiration and causes seasonal changes
therefore the change in weather. Seasonal variation in vegetation also occurs as the germination of seeds
in environmental requires warm temperatures. Plants and animals have special adaptations that make
temperature will
affect their them suited to the temperature of their specific environment. Temperature affects the
distribution and rate at which photosynthesis, cellular respiration and decomposition take place. As
activities. you learnt in the earlier section on enzymes, this is linked to the optimal temperature
profile for enzymes. The rate of reaction increases with increasing temperature and
FACT decreases at lower temperatures.
In northern
hemisphere • Water: is one of the most important factors in the ecosystem. It is the main component
countries where the of living cells and is essential for all living organisms. About 80% of the human body
day length is and 90% of the plant body consists of water. Water is not evenly distributed over the
substantially longer earth. It is abundant in aquatic ecosystems and least abundant in deserts. Plants are
in the summer the
rate of growth of adapted to the available amount of water in the following ways:
plants is very high.
– Xerophytes are plants that are able to live in dry habitats, or in regions with
low annual rainfall. These plants are resistant to drought, have to cope with
shortage of water, high temperatures and light intensities and dry warm winds.
We discussed in detail the adaptations developed by xerophytes in order to avoid
water loss in the earlier chapter on plant structure.
– Mesophytes are plants that need an average, regular supply of water.
– Hydrophytes are plants that are able to live entirely or partially in submerged
water or in very wet soil. These plants have to cope with a water surplus as found
in wetlands discussed in the earlier section of this chapter, dealing with biomes.
4. Air/gases
• Wind: speeds up evaporation and assists in pollination of plants and the dispersal of
their seeds.
• Air: is composed of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 4% carbon dioxide and water vapour.
Look ahead to section on nutrient cycles to read more detail. Oxygen is used in
cellular respiration and combustion and is returned to the environment by the process
of photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide is a product of cellular respiration and decayed
318 9.5. Ecosystems

organic matter. It is removed from the atmosphere by plants during the process of
photosynthesis. Nitrogen is needed by all living organisms for the synthesis of proteins.
The amount of water vapour found in the air remains constant on average, however, it
can vary greatly from one place to another. Some parts of the earth are prone to high
humidity levels, while other locations have very dry air. Much of what we consider
weather is caused by water vapour. The clouds in the sky are largely made up of it,
and it is the condensation of this vapour into droplets that creates rain and snow.
Project: Identifying abiotic, biotic and cultural characteristics of a natural environment
Aim:
Identify abiotic, biotic and cultural characteristics of a natural environment near you. To
make your profile, follow the instructions below:
Instructions:
1. Select an area that is undeveloped (e.g. no buildings, no pavement, no bulldozing, no

spraying of pesticides, no farming, no grazing, etc.). Your area must be at least the size
of a soccer field. Make a map of your province and show, approximately, where your
area is located.
2. Identify at least 10 abiotic features of your area. Consider factors such as:
• Landforms (mesa, mountain, valley, etc.)

• Altitude
Identify at least 15 biotic features of the area. Consider things such as:
• Plants (trees, shrubs, grasses, flowers etc.)

• Insects (ants, bees, praying mantis etc.)
• Amphibians, reptiles, and/or fish
• Mammals
Identify at least 3 cultural components. Look for evidence of human influence. Consider
things such as:
• Recycling and conservation efforts

• Pollution
• Introduced species
Analysis:
Examine the data you collected when making your profile. Use your collected data to answer
the following questions. Discuss your answers afterwards in your group/with your partner.
1. What effect does the environment (abiotic) have on the organisms (biotic) living there?
Give FIVE specific examples from your profile. [For example: Lily pads (biotic) are
able to grow in my area because it is a natural wetland that has standing, stagnant
water (abiotic) all year long.]

2. What effect do the organisms (biotic) have on the environment (abiotic)? Give THREE
specific examples from your profile. [For example: The area is heavily shaded by
spruce trees (biotic). The shade keeps the soil moist (abiotic) and reduces the air
temperature.]
3. How do natural forces affect the area? Give ONE specific example from your profile.
Consider the direction of the prevailing winds, the direction from which the sun’s rays
come, gravity (if you are on a slope) etc.
4. How have humans affected your area? Give ONE specific example.
5. Predict how your area would change if the amount of rainfall doubled. Be sure to
mention how this increase in rainfall would affect the abiotic and biotic factors.
Investigation: Studying a terrestrial ecosystem
Aim and background information
Soil
The type of soil found in your ecosystem will have an influence on the types of plant that will
grow in that ecosystem. It is important to identify the types of soil found in your ecosystem
by doing the following soil tests.
Instructions
1. How to identify soil texture
• Roll some wet soil into a ball.

• Then try to roll the ball into a sausage shape.
• Bend the sausage into a ring.
How to interpret your observations:
• if the sausage breaks as you bend it, the soil is sandy

• if the sausage bend slightly, and then breaks, the soil is loamy
• if the sausage bends easily the soil contains a lot of clay
2. How to measure pH
You will need the following materials:
• spoon
• water
• jar with a lid
• plastic teaspoon
• soil sample
• red and blue litmus paper or universal litmus paper
320 9.5. Ecosystems

1. Collect a small sample of soil to test.
2. Place a teaspoon of soil into the jar, stir it to loosen all the particles
3. Carefully add water to fill the jar approximately half way.
4. Screw the lid onto the jar and shake the jar gently.
5. Stand the jar on a flat surface and wait until the soil settles and the water becomes
clear. This may take a few days.
6. Unscrew the cap and using the plastic spoon and carefully remove some water from
the jar.
7. Using the litmus paper test the pH of the water.
How to interpret litmus paper observations
Remember that:
• blue litmus paper will turn red when placed in an acid solution
• red litmus paper will turn blue when placed in an alkaline solution
• if using universal litmus paper read the pH of the pH scale.
3. Measure the water-holding capacity of your soil sample/samples
You will need the following apparatus:
• filter paper
• water
• soil sample (note the soil must preferably be dry)
• a two litre plastic cool drink bottle with the top of the bottle cut off, but leave the cap
on the bottle. (Keep the bottom half of the bottle)
• Place the piece of filter paper into the neck of the bottle and fill the top of the bottle
with soil.
• Add water to the bottle.
• NOTE: If testing more than one soil sample, the same amount of soil and water must
be added to each bottle top.
• Carefully remove the bottle cap and place the bottom of the bottle under the top of the
bottle.
• Observe how much water runs through the soil into the bottom of the bottle.
• Once the soil has drained of the water, using a measuring cylinder the amount of water
filtered can be measured.
4. Temperature
• Measure the air temperature using a thermometer. Record the temperature in your
ecosystem for a two week period at different times of day.
• A table similar to the table below needs to be completed for your temperature record-
ings.
Date Time Daily Temperature

• Use the information in the table to draw a line graph of the temperature over the study
period.
• Draw a second line graph showing the temperatures at different times of the day. Com-
ment on the pattern observed in the different temperature recordings.
5. Light
• To measure the photoperiod of your ecosystem, you are required to keep a record of
the times of sunrise and sunset over a two-week period.
• Record the effects of the photoperiod on the behaviour of plants. An example is:
daisies open during the day and close at night. Record what happens to your plants.
Complete a table similar to the table below.
Date Time Flower Opens Time Flower Closes
• Draw two line graphs showing the times the flowers open and the time the flowers
close.
• Also record the times of sunrise and sunset.
• From your graph discuss if the opening and closing of the flowers are related to sunrise
and sunset.
6. Physiographic Factors
• If your ecosystem is on a slope, record the direction of the slope.
7. Studying biotic factors
If the ecosystem you are studying covers a large area, it may be difficult to observe all the
living organisms. If this is the case, you can get some idea of the plant and animal diversity
in the ecosystem you are studying by choosing a smaller sample area to study.
You will need:
• pencil
• wooden sticks
• string
• metre stick or measuring tape or string
• field guide to plants and animals in you ecosystem (if necessary)
• Mark out an area of 4 square metres in your ecosystem.
• Choose an area you think will contain the most plants and animals.
• Wind the string around the wooden sticks so that you create a grid to study within your
ecosystem.
• Make a list of all the plants and animals found in your ecosystem.
• Try and name the plants and animals. Use a reference book or the internet to identify
the plants and animals in your ecosystem.
322 9.5. Ecosystems

• Draw a distribution map showing where the different organisms were found in the
ecosystem.
• Give each organism you found a code.
• Use the codes to make a map by showing where in the grid each organism was found.
• Record how many different plants and animals were found in your ecosystem.
• Which parts of your grid recorded the most plants and animals?
• Briefly discuss which abiotic factors influenced your ecosystem.
• Investigate what the animals in your ecosystem eat and then draw a food web for the
ecosystem.
• Why do the organisms you found in your ecosystem live in this habitat?
• Write a short paragraph describing the ecological niche of one of the organisms you
observed.
Write a scientific report on the ecosystem you have studied.
Your report should include the following:
• A title
• Introduction
• Equipment or materials used.
• Results (including tables)
• Observations
• Discussion
• Conclusion
• References
• You can use drawings and photographs to illustrate your report.
Teacher’s Guide
INTERACTIVE QUIZ
http://www.oercommons.org/courses/ecology-quiz
This link is useful for consolidating the concepts of ecology.
http://www.oercommons.org/courses/ecology-and-the-ecosystem-quiz
This link is useful for consolidating the concepts of ecosystems.
http://www.oercommons.org/courses/ecological-footprint-calculator
In this exercise, you will utilize an online calculator to examine your ecological footprint,
compare it to the average footprint in your country and other countries, and critically exam-
ine ways to reduce it.

http://www.curriki.org/xwiki/bin/view/Coll_NROCscience/APBiologyIIChapter33Lesson64Co
bc=;Coll_NROCscience.APBiologyIIChapter33PopulationsandEcosystems
Video that examines the types of interactions that exist among organisms in a community,
from competition between consumers for specific resources to the relationship between
predators and prey.
http://www.curriki.org/xwiki/bin/view/Coll_NROCscience/APBiologyIIChapter34Ecosystems
In this Interactive Exercise, you will use a marine ecosystem to investigate the dynamic nature
of ecosystems. You will explore the various regions of the bay, and then investigate some of
the natural and human-imposed changes to which the bay responds.
9.6 Energy flow DUMMY
Teacher’s Guide
Activity: Understanding food chains and pyramids
With reference to activity given in ”Energy flow” section
1. Food chain with three trophic levels: acacia arrow giraffe arrow lion
2. Food chain with four tropic levels: algae arrow fish arrow frog arrow crane
3.1 Two producers: acacia, algae, aquatic plants
3.2. Primary consumers: insects fish snail
3.3 Rat frog and fish
4. Snake crane duck and sparrow
4. Energy decreases as one moves up the trophic levels, so there are too few secondary
consumers to support a large population of tertiary consumers
5. In the first instance the tertiary consumer number would increase and in so doing the
secondary consumers would decrease
In ecology, energy flow refers to the flow of energy through a food chain. In an ecosystem,
we attempt to establish the feeding relationships between organisms living together. Each
organism belongs to a ’trophic level’ which refers to the position occupied by an organism in
the food chain. Energy is passed on from every trophic level to the next and each time about
90% of the energy is lost with some being lost as heat into the environment and some being
incompletely digested food. So primary consumers get about 10% of the energy produced by
autotrophs while secondary consumers get 1% and tertiary consumers get 0,1%. A general
energy flow scenario is as follows:
• Autotrophs: solar energy is fixed by autotrophs such as green plants, using a process
known as photosynthesis into energy in the form of carbohydrates.
• Primary consumers: part of the food made available by plants is consumed by primary
consumers known as herbivores. The energy gained is converted to body heat or used
to grow, reproduce, etc. Energy loss also occurs in the expulsion of undigested food
324 9.6. Energy flow

by excretion. FACT
WATCH: A catchy
• Secondary consumers: carnivores and omnivores consume the primary consumers song about food
using the energy obtained to grow, move, respire etc. chains to help you
• Tertiary consumers: may be the major predators of an ecosystem, and feed on the remember:
See video:
producers and secondary consumers with some energy passed on and some lost as
SHORTCODE at
with other levels of the food chain. www.everythingscience.
• Decomposers: A final link in any food chain are the decomposers which break down
the organic matter of the tertiary consumers and release the nutrients into the soil.
They also break down plants, herbivores and other dead organic matter.
The flow of energy in an ecosystem can be explained in the form of a chain, web or pyramid.
Food chain DUMMY
A food chain is a series of nutrient and energy changes that moves through a chain of or-
ganisms. It always begins with a producer and terminates with decomposers. Below is an
example of a simple food chain in a grassland. The arrows show the movement of energy
from one organism to another.
green plant → impala → leopard → bacteria
producer → primary consumer → secondary consumer → decomposer
Activity:
Activity 1:
Trace a food chain of the vegetables, fruit, cheese, eggs or meat that you had for breakfast or
will have for dinner.
Activity 2:
1. In the food chain shown in the text which of the three organisms is the
a) Herbivore
b) Carnivore
c) Producer
2. Draw in the decomposers in the above food chain. Ensure that the direction of the
arrows is correct.
3. What organism(s) will feed on the leopard?
4. Construct a new food chain showing at least 4 organisms.
5. Producers use sunlight to manufacture their own food. Write a word equation to de-
pict this process. [Hint: think of the requirements and outcomes of the process of
photosynthesis]

Food pyramid DUMMY
A food pyramid is another way of representing the relationships between organisms in an

ecosystem.
Trophic levels and the food pyramid
• Producers: Plants are on the first level, or bottom of the pyramid, because they produce
their own organic food using energy from the sun and therefore have a lot of energy to
pass on.
• Primary Consumers: Herbivores are on the second level because they feed off plants,
and there are less of them.
• Secondary Consumers: Carnivores feed on herbivores so they get their energy from
plants indirectly and are on the third level.
Figure 9.16: Food pyramid.
Trophic levels can be drawn as one of the following :
• pyramid of numbers: which shows the total number of organisms in each trophic level.
• pyramid of biomass: which shows the total amount of biomass ( living matter ) at each
trophic level.
• pyramid of energy: which shows the total amount of energy contents in the biomass
of each trophic level.
Most pyramids are drawn as energy pyramids, and are always triangular, whereas number
pyramids are not.

Figure 9.17: Pyramid of numbers.
Food web DUMMY
A food web is made up of a number of food chains. It represents the different feeding
relationships in an ecosystem or a biome. It is usually more complicated than a food chain
because organisms can get their energy or food from more than one source. The presence
of a number of food sources makes the system more stable. If one organism is removed,
the whole system will not collapse, unlike in a single food chain. A food web in a typical
Savanna environment is shown in Figure 9.18.
Figure 9.18: The figure shows a food web in a typical Savannah environment.
Teacher’s Guide
Source : http://www.tutorvista.com/content/biology/biology-iv/ecosystem/food-web.
php
Activity: Understanding food chains and pyramids
Aim:

FACT
WATCH: Bill Nye Gain conceptual understanding of food chain
the science guy
talks about the food
web: Materials:
See video:
SHORTCODE at Textbook
Instructions:
Look at the food web and the diagram showing the different trophic levels.
Questions:
1. Identify a food chain that has three trophic levels.

2. Identify a food chain that has four trophic levels.
3. Name 2:
a) Producers
b) Primary consumers
c) Secondary consumers
d) Tertiary consumers
4. There are very few tertiary consumers compared to the primary consumers. Why?
5. What will happen if the hyena is removed from the food web?
Teacher’s Guide
(source: http://www.learner.org/courses/envsci/interactives/ecology/)
Teacher’s Guide
With reference to activity given in “Energy flow” section
1.Food chain with three trophic levels: acacia arrow giraffe arrow lion
2.Food chain with four tropic levels: algae arrow fish arrow frog arrow crane
3.Two producers: acacia, algae, aquatic plants
2.Primary consumers: insects fish snail
3.Rat frog and fish
4.Snake crane duck and sparrow
4.Energy decreases as one moves up the trophic levels, so there are too few secondary
consumers to support a large population of tertiary consumers
5.In the first instance the tertiary consumer number would increase and in so doing the
secondary consumers would decrease

FACT
9.7 Nutrient cycles DUMMY WATCH: A simple
video explaining
nutrient cycling:
See video:
A nutrient cycle refers to the movement and exchange of organic and inorganic matter back SHORTCODE at
into the production of living matter. The process is regulated by the food web pathways www.everythingscience.
previously presented, which decompose organic matter into inorganic nutrients. Nutrient
cycles occur within ecosystems. Nutrient cycles that we will examine in this section include
water, carbon, oxygen and nitrogen cycles.
Water cycle DUMMY
Over two thirds of the earth’s surface is covered by water. It forms an important component
of most life forms, with up to 70% of plants and animals being composed of water. Vast
quantities of water cycle through Earth’s atmosphere, oceans, land and biosphere. This
cycling of water is called the water or hydrological cycle. The cycling of water is important
in determining our weather and climate, supports plant growth and makes life possible.
• Evaporation: most water evaporates from the oceans, where water is found in highest
abundance. However some evaporation also occurs from lakes, rivers, streams and
following rain.
• Transpiration: is the water loss from the surface area (particularly the stomata) of plants.
Transpiration accounts for a massive 50
• Evapotranspiration: the processes of evaporation and transpiration are often collec-
tively referred to as evapotranspiration.
• Condensation: the process by which water vapour is converted back into liquid is
called condensation. You may have observed a similar process occurring when dew
drops form on a blade of grass or on cold glass. Water in the atmosphere condenses to
form clouds.
• Precipitation: water returns to earth through precipitation in the form of rain, sleet,
snow or ice (hail). When rain occurs due to precipitation, most of it runs off into lakes
and rivers while a significant portion of it sinks into the ground.
• Infiltration: the process through which water sinks into the ground is known as infiltra-
tion and is determined by the soil or rock type through which water moves. During the
process of sinking into the Earth’s surface, water is filtered and purified. Depending on
the soil type and the depth to which the water has sunk, the ground water becomes
increasingly purified: the deeper the water, the cleaner it becomes.
• Melting and freezing: some water freezes and is ”locked up in ice, such as in glaciers,
and ice sheets. Similarly, water sometimes melts and is returned to oceans and seas.
The processes involved in the water cycle are shown in Figure 9.19.

Figure 9.19: The water cycle.
Teacher’s Guide
The Hydrologic Cycle http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/8b.html
This page is a part of PhysicalGeography.net, an educational website maintained by Dr.

Michael Powdery, a member of the Geography Department at Okanagan University in British
Columbia. In addition to this excellent introduction with tables and diagrams, the site also
includes a glossary of terms, additional readings, and links to outside resources.
US Geological Survey: The Water Cycle http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/watercycle.html
The Georgia state office of the USGS provides a very basic and kid-oriented site to explain
various aspects of the water cycle, including following a single drop of water through the
cycle’s main stages.
NASA Observatorium: The Hydrologic Cycle http://physics.ship.edu/ mrc/astro/NASA Space Science/obse
This NASA site contains a nicely illustrated and easy-to-read guide to the water cycle.
The Groundwater Foundation Kid’s Corner http://www.groundwater.org/kc/kc.html
This site includes a vast array of information on both groundwater issues and how ground-
water relates to the hydrologic cycle. The site also provides information and activities aimed
at both students and educators.
The Hydrologic Cycle Online Meteorology Guide http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/8b.htm
This University of Illinois WW2010 site gives a nicely illustrated presentation of the hydro-
logic cycle with links explaining each step.
USGS: Science in Your Watershed http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/watercycle.html
The US Geological Survey provides a site to help find scientific information of watershed s
across the United States. This information includes links to help locate a watershed in your
area, science and information related to each watershed, and various data measurements to
help learn more and understand a particular watershed.
330 9.7. Nutrient cycles

The Urban Water Cycle http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/hyd/home.rxml
This diagram illustrates how humans affect water cycle functions in an urban city setting, and
shows the unique features it encompasses, including sewage, irrigation, and water treatment.
DATA AND MAPS EPA: Surf Your Watershed (http://cfpub.epa.gov/surf/locate/map2.cfm)
This EPA website has a clickable map of the United States to help locate information about
all the watersheds in the nation, with links with additional information regarding the profile
and health of each one.
FOR THE CLASSROOM
The Whole Water Cycle (http://www-k12.atmos.washington.edu/k12/pilot/water_

cycle/whole_cycle.html)
This activity, by the University of Washington ’s Department of Atmospheric Sciences K-12

pages, allows students both young and old to perform an experiment using a plant to observe
the entire water cycle.
The National Health Museum Activities Exchange: Who Dirtied the Water (http://www.
accessexcellence.org/AE/AEC/AEF/1996/hood_water.html)
Middle and high school students will learn about water pollution and filtration in this hands-
on activity modified by Carmen Hood from the SEER Water Project and Ginger Hawhee
and Sandy McCreight from Omaha North High School. The activity also improves problem-
solving skills by having students create their own filtration techniques and discuss possible
solutions for water pollution.
Teacher’s Guide
ANIMATION: http://www.epa.gov/ogwdw/kids/flash/flash_watercycle.html
This is an animation of the water cycle
Oxygen cycle DUMMY
Oxygen is one of the main gases found in the air, along with nitrogen. Oxygen is re-cycled
between the air and living organisms in the following ways:
• Breathing and respiration: organisms such as animals and plants take in oxygen from
the air, during breathing and gaseous exchange processes. The oxygen is used for
cellular respiration to release energy from organic nutrients such as glucose.
• Photosynthesis: during photosynthesis, plants absorb carbon dioxide from the air to
synthesize sugars, and release oxygen.
• There is a complementary relationship between photosynthesis and respiration in that
the former produces oxygen and the latter consumes oxygen.
The oxygen cycle is shown in Figure 9.20.

FACT
WATCH:a video
about he oxygen
cycle. Focus on the
first part of the
video clip and the
summary at the end.
See video:
SHORTCODE at
Figure 9.20: Oxygen cycle
Carbon cycle DUMMY
Carbon is the basic building block of all organic materials, and therefore, of living organisms.
Most of the carbon on earth can be found in the crust. Other reservoirs of carbon include
the oceans and atmosphere.
Carbon moves from one reservoir to another by these processes:
• Combustion: burning of wood and fossil fuels by factory and auto emissions transfers
carbon to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide.
• Photosynthesis: carbon dioxide is taken up by plants during photosynthesis and is
converted into energy rich sources, such as glucose, which contains carbon.
• Cellular respiration: animals eat plants for food, taking up the carbon. Plants and ani-
mals release carbon into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide during gaseous exchange
• Metabolism: organisms convert carbon into organic molecules like fats, carbohydrates
and proteins when they eat plants or animals.
• Precipitate: carbon dioxide in the atmosphere can also precipitate as carbonate in
ocean sediments.
• Decay: carbon dioxide gas is also released into the atmosphere during the decay of all
organisms.
Photosynthesis and gaseous exchange are the main carbon cycling processes involving living
organisms. Figure 9.21 depicts the carbon cycle.
332 9.7. Nutrient cycles

Figure 9.21: The carbon cycle.
Teacher’s Guide
Carbon cycle
GAME: http://www.windows2universe.org/earth/climate/carbon_cycle.html
This is a game you can play to learn more about the carbon cycle
Nitrogen cycle DUMMY
Nitrogen (N2 ) makes up most of the gas in the atmosphere (about 78%). Nitrogen is impor-
tant to living organisms and is used in the production of amino acids, proteins and nucleic
acids (DNA, RNA).
• Nitrogen gas present in the air is NOT available to organisms and thus has to be made
available in a form absorbable by plants and animals.
• Only a few single-cell organisms, like bacteria can use nitrogen from the atmosphere
directly.
• For multicellular organisms, like plants and animals, nitrogen has to be changed into
other forms, eg. nitrates or ammonia. This process is known as nitrogen fixation.
The nitrogen cycle involves the following steps:
• Lightning: nitrogen can be changed to nitrates directly by lightning. The rapid growth
of fungi and algae after thunderstorms is because of this process, which increases the
amount of nitrates that fall onto the earth in rain water, acting as fertilizer.
• Decomposition: during decomposition, bacteria and fungi break down proteins and
amino acids from plants and animals.
• Ammonification: the nitrogenous breakdown products of amino acids are converted
to into ammonia (NH3 ) by these decomposing bacteria.
• Nitrification: is the conversion of the ammonia to nitrate (NO3 − ) by nitrifying bacte-
ria.

• Absorption: ammonia and nitrates are absorbed by plants through their roots.
• Ingestion: humans and animals get their nitrogen supplies by eating plants or plant-
eating animals.
• Denitrification: in a process called denitrification, bacteria convert ammonia and ni-
trate into nitrogen and nitrous oxide (N2 O). Nitrogen is returned to the atmosphere to
start the cycle over again.
The nitrogen cycle is shown in Figure 9.22.
Figure 9.22: The nitrogen cycle.
Teacher’s Guide
Animation
Here are some animations of the nitrogen cycle:
http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/genbio/tlw3/eBridge/Chp29/animations/ch29/1_nitrogen_
cycle.swf
https://www.classzone.com/books/ml_science_share/vis_sim/em05_pg20_nitrogen/
em05_pg20_nitrogen.html
9.8 Ecotourism DUMMY
Teacher’s Guide
Section 8 : Ecotourism
This section enables learners to discuss the positive aspects of our country as a means for
attracting tourists. Learners need to critically assess whether sustainable management of our
environment and resources are managed according to sound principles.
The attraction of tourists can boost the economy and create employment for the South African
citizens. Tourism need not only be seen as a cover for money making ventures for visitors
to our country, but a means to boost awareness our indigenous plants and animals and the
importance of conservation.
334 9.8. Ecotourism

FACT
The attractions of touring South Africa DUMMY South Africa is
home to: The largest
bird — ostrich
South Africa is a beautiful country that boasts great diversity in its flora and fauna. There are
many interesting cultural, historical and environmental places that people from South Africa
and other countries want to visit.
From what you learnt from the different ecosystems, you can see that South Africa has a
range of systems from desert, wetland, mountains, sea and our own unique Fynbos biome.
South Africa is one of the most biodiverse countries in the world. Although it only encom-
passes about 1,200,000 km2 , it is home to 10% of all plant species on earth. South Africa
is considered mega diverse, along with 17 other countries, which means that together these
countries contain 70% of the planet’s biodiversity. South Africa’s ability to support such a
diverse population of plants and animals is due in large part to its unique geography. The
combination of geography and wildlife makes South Africa an important travel destination
to many.
Ecotourism is thought to be the idea of bringing tourism into a country while supporting the
biodiversity.
Economic benefits of ecotourism
• Tourism is one of the fastest growing sectors of South Africa’s economy and is estimated
to bring in up to R62 billion/ year
• Reinvesting some of the earnings from eco-tourism into the communities living near
tourist destinations might be a means of alleviating poverty.
• Tourism provides jobs: e.g park operators, sellers of local crafts, guides, etc.
• Eco-tourism has the potential to create infrastructural development for communities
that live around major tourist destinations. This is especially useful where major tourist
locations are found in remote areas.
Figure 9.23: Cape Town, South Africa is a world-renowned tourist destination.
Ethical issues
While tourism has great economic potential and gives people access to unique places and
cultures, it can have a negative impact. Sensitive ecosystems, such as wetlands and coasts,
need to be protected so that the balance of organisms can be maintained. Too many visitors
and visitors who are not informed about their impact on the environment, can have a harmful
effect. In the same way tourists need to be sensitive to the cultures and people that they visit.

To protect the plants and animals in the unique ecosystems of South Africa, many areas have
been declared National Parks and have strict rules about how to behave.
In the same way, places that are historically or culturally important have been declared
national heritage sites that are protected and maintained. South Africa is also proud to have
eight UNESCO (The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation) sites:
• Cultural
– Fossil Hominid Sites of Sterkfontein, Swartkrans, Kromdraai, and Environs (1999)
– Mapungubwe Cultural Landscape (2003)
– Robben Island (1999)
– Richtersveld Cultural and Botanical Landscape (2007)
Mixed
• – UKhahlamba / Drakensberg Park (2000)
• Natural
– Cape Floral Region Protected Areas (2004)
– Greater St. Lucia Wetland Park (1999)
– Vredefort Dome (2005)
– Table mountain (2011)
How to be a responsible ecotourist DUMMY
Many areas of South Africa are protected and to travel to these areas you need to respect the
area and the people that you are visiting. These are a few tips:
• Learn a little about the place you are visiting before you go to know the do’s and don’ts.
For example, littering is not allowed in any National Park in South Africa.
• South Africa is rich in cultural diversity, which means that people from different areas
have different ways of doing things. Learn about the culture of local people so that you
can make sure not to offend anyone by your behaviour.
• When you are in a protected area, do not damage plants or animals or buildings. For
example, writing graffiti on historical buildings or sites. Remember the saying: take
only pictures, leave only footprints.
9.9 Summary DUMMY
• Biosphere is the sphere in which all ecosystems on Earth exist. It interacts with the
atmosphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere.
• Biomes contained within biospheres are regions with similar cilmatic and geographic
conditions. Broadly, biomes are either aquatic or terrestrial.
• South Africa’s major aquatic biomes include freshwater and marine biomes, based
on their salt concentrations. Terrestrial biomes of South Africa include Grassland,
Savana, Succulent and Nama Karoo, Forest, Fynbos, Desert and Thicket Biomes. Each
is located differently across South Africa and has its own distinctive plant and animal
life.
336 9.9. Summary

• Ecosystems refer to the biological environment consisting of all organisms in a particu-
lar area. Energy flows through ecosystems from the sun through to producers (plants),
primary consumers (typically herivores), secondary consumers (carnivores), ultimately
terminating at decomposers. The food chain describes the relationships linking pro-
ducers, consumers and decomposers. Food pyramids can also be used to represent
this relationship. Pyramids of biomass, energy and numbers of organisms can also be
used to describe the biotic relationships in ecosystems.
• Abiotic factors including physiographic (slope, altitude and aspect) and edaphic (soil
pH, texture, humus content) factors also play a role in ecosystems.
• Nutrient cycles describe the flow of particular nutrients (C, O, N and water) through
the ecosystem.
• Ecotourism produces widespread benefits to South Africa, creating jobs, preserving its
natural beauty and improving infrastructure. There are ethical considerations invovled
in ensuring that the ecological and cultural diversity of South Africa’s ecosystems is
preserved.
Exercise 9 – 1:
1. Study the sketch of the forest ecosystem below:
a) Name the:
i. producer
Solution:
TODO
ii. primary consumer
Solution:
TODO
iii. secondary consumer
Solution:
TODO
iv. tertiary consumer
Solution:
TODO
Primary means first. Secondary means second. Tertiary means the third in this
case.
b) The ecosystem is the living organisms together with the invisibly linked and
mutually interactive.

Solution:
TODO
c) The living part off the ecosystem can be divided into:
i. food producers - mainly green plants
Solution:
TODO
ii. food consumers - which are macro consumers (animals which eat other or-
ganisms)
Solution:
TODO
iii. or decomposers (bacteria or fungi which break up dead organisms)
Solution:
TODO
2.
a) Describe what you understand by the term algal bloom
Solution:
b) With reference to above diagram, name the abiotic factor that is responsible for
the bloom and how the factor reached the Antarctic Ocean.
Solution:
c) Discuss the role decomposers could play in this ecosystem.
Solution:
3. Earthworms will burrow into the soil if they are on the surface and it is daylight. We
can explain this behaviour by saying that they are either repelled by light or because
they are attracted to the soil.
Describe an experiment that you could do to determine which explanation is correct.
When designing your experiment, bear in mind that earthworms are living organisms.
Set out your design under the following headings:
a) Hypothesis
Solution:
earthworms are attracted to the darkness that soil depth offers them.
338 9.9. Summary

b) Aim
Solution:
To investigate if earthworms are attracted to soil and/or repelled by light.
c) Apparatus and Materials
Solution:
• Many earthworms of the same species
• Lamp - neon
• 4 black basins with covers
• Black paper
• Nutrient rich soil
• Sawdust
• Timing device
Criterion Marks:
• Listed/bulleted 1
• App found in lab 1
• Appropriate to the task 1
• At least 4 pieces of apparatus 1
d) Method
Solution:
Method Example:
i. earthworms were divided into 4 groups
ii. Two basins were filled with nutrient rich soil (A and B), two with sawdust (C
and D)
iii. A and C were covered with black paper on their covers
iv. B and D were placed under a neon lamp
v. earthworms were placed on the surface of the medium, appropriate covers
were put in place
vi. After a 10 minute interval the number of worms at the surface of the medium
were counted
vii. The procedures were repeated 5 times
viii. Counts were averaged and results compared
Medium condition Container Light condition
A soil Dark
B soil light
C sawdust Dark
D sawdust light
Marking Rubric:
Criterion Number of mar

1. List of points/bullets 1
2. Meets the aim that the pupil has given 1
3. Independent variables catered for (light/dark or soil/sawdust) 1
Dependent variables mentioned (number of worms at the surface of the medium) 1
Controlled variables evident 1
4. Sufficient equipment used 1
Equipment used appropriately 1
5. Logical – recipe like 1

4. Read the following information taken from UWC Enviro Fact sheet on the Fynbos and
Fynbos is the major vegetation type of the small botanical region known as the Cape
Floral Kingdom. The Cape Floral Kingdom is both the smallest and the richest floral
kingdom, with the highest known concentration of plant species: 1 300 per 10 000
km2. The nearest rival, the South American rain forest has a concentration of only 400
per 10 000 km2. Conservation of the Cape Floral Kingdom, with its distinctive fynbos
vegetation, is a national conservation priority demanding urgent action.
Over 7 700 plant species are found in fynbos, an astonishing number for such a small
area. Of these roughly 70% are endemic to the area. Many of these are threatened
with extinction. The richness of the fynbos is well demonstrated by its ericas or heaths,
of which there are over 600 different species. There are just 26 in the rest of the world.
Although the most striking features of the composition of fynbos are the presence of
many conspicuous members of protea, erica and reed family that fill the niche usually
occupied by grasses, the largest family in number of species is Asteraceae (daisy fam-
ily), with just under 1000 species of which more than 600 are endemic. Furthermore,
fynbos is very rich in geophytes (bulbous plants) and many species from the family
Iridaceae have become household names, freesia, gladiolus, iris, and watsonia. An-
other remarkable feature of fynbos is the number of species found within small areas.
For example, the total world range of some species consists areas smaller than half a
soccer or rugby field!. Another remarkable feature of fynbos is the number of species
found within small areas.
Fynbos cannot support herds of large mammals since the nutrient poor soils on which
it grows do not provide enough nitrogen for the protein requirements of large mam-
mals. However, smaller mammals common to fynbos are baboons, grysbok, dassies,
and the striped mouse. Fynbos does not support high numbers of birds. Fynbos also
supports large numbers of butterfly species. Many are however at risk. The early stages
(larvae) of many of these butterfly species are entirely carnivorous and live on a diet of
ant brood. The butterfly larvae actually live inside the nest of their host ant. Although
fynbos is not particularly rich in reptiles and amphibians, many of the species living
there are both endemic and threatened. The very rare geometric tortoise is found in
only a few surviving fynbos areas and is regarded as the world’s second rarest tortoise.
The Cape has more than half of South Africa’s frog species. Fynbos also has a high con-
centration of threatened fish species, particularly in the Olifants River system. With the
widespread occurrence of alien vegetation which use up more water than indigenous
fynbos plants, many habitats are becoming restricted leading to local extinction of
certain species of fish because isolated tributaries are drying up.
http://www.bcb.uwc.ac.za/envfacts/fynbos/
a) The fynbos is said to be a very bio diverse habitat. List any three pieces of evi-
dence from the text that show the idea of a rich biodiversity.
Solution:
• highest known concentration of plant species: 1 300 per 10 000 km2
• 7 700 plant species are found in fynbos
• Asteraceae (daisy family), with just under 1000 species of which more than
600 are endemic
• fynbos is very rich in geophytes (bulbous plants)
• more than half of South Africa’s frog species
b) Give three distinctive abiotic characteristics (excluding edaphic factors) of this
biome.
Solution:
340 9.9. Summary

• Fire
• Rain of 250-500 mm pa
• Warm summer wet winter
c) Define the following terms mentioned in the text:
i. endemic
Solution:
found in a relatively small area of the country and only in that area
ii. alien species
Solution:
species originating in another country
iii. indigenous
Solution:
iv. extinct
Solution:
d) Construct a possible food chain of at least four organisms that would be found
in this biome, use some organisms mentioned in the text. Label the levels of the
organisms mentioned.
Solution:
Grass seeds → ants → butterfly larvae → birds
Geophyte → striped mouse → baboon → leopard
Label can include: producer/autotroph, consumer/heterotroph- primary, sec-
ondary, tertiary
e) Discuss the characteristics of the soil found in the fynbos and the implications for
animals in the area.
Solution:
Very nutrient poor, sandy, porous, well aerated-so insufficient to sustain large
animals
f) The King Protea (Protea cynaroides), also known as Giant Protea, Honeypot or
King Sugar Bush, is distinctive as it has the largest flower head in the genus. It
found in the fynbos region, located in the southwestern and southern parts of
South Africa.
i. Into which kingdom is the protea placed?
Solution:
Plant
ii. Why is this organism placed in the Kingdom named above?
Solution:
Presence of chlorophyll/leaves
iii. Give the genus and species of this protea. Be sure to use correct scientific
notation.
Solution:
Genus: Protea. Special: cynaroides
5. Which of the following are biotic components in an ecosystem?
a) air and water
b) plants and animals
c) light and temperature
d) rocks, soil and climate.

Solution:
B
6. Which combination of the following processes takes place in the nitrogen cycle?
a) Herbivores consume plant protein.
b) Decomposers break down dead organisms.
c) Bacteria change nitrites to nitrates.
d) Plants absorb nitrates from the soil.
a) i, ii and iii
b) ii, iii and iv
c) i and iv
d) i, ii and i
Solution:
D
7. A soil has the following characteristics: large particles, large air spaces, holds little
water, feels gritty. The type of soil is:
a) clay
b) sand
c) loam
d) silt
Solution:
B
8. Plants that are suited to live in areas with little water are called:
a) terrestrial
b) fynbos
c) xerophytes
d) hydrophytes
Solution:
C
9. In a food chain, energy flows in the following direction:
a) producers → primary consumers → secondary consumers → decomposers
b) decomposers → producers → primary consumers → secondary consumers
c) primary consumers → secondary consumers → producers → decomposers
d) producers → secondary consumers → primary consumers → decomposers.
Solution:
A
10. In a stable ecosystem, a wide variety of
a) producers depend on plants for shelter and camouflage
b) micro-organisms depend on plants for carbon dioxide and nitrogen
c) animals depend on plants for food and oxygen
d) plants depend on micro-organisms for pollination and seed dispersal
Solution:
C
11. When a jackal kills and eats a rabbit, the jackal is the ...
342 9.9. Summary

a) producer
b) prey
c) predator
d) saprophyte
Solution:
C
12. Which of the following refers to an organism’s whole way of life and the use to which
it puts the available environmental resources?
a) niche
b) habitat
c) community
d) ecosystem
Solution:
A
13. The five kingdom classification, was suggested by ...
a) Whittaker
b) Linnaeus
c) Darwin
d) Pasteur
Solution:
B
14. Organisms that live in water are called...
a) terrestrial
b) xerophytes
c) buoyant
d) aquatic
Solution:
D
15. A giant oil tanker was wrecked at sea. The shallow waters of the coastline provided
a rich source of edible crabs. Oil does not kill the crabs but harm their flesh, making
them inedible and they cannot be sold. Samples of crabs were collected at sites A to
D. The number of crabs is indicated by the size of the circle. The extent of the shaded
part at each site represents the proportion of crabs with diseased flesh after the disaster.
A B C D
a) Which sample site (A to D) had the highest number of crabs?

Solution:
Sample site A

b) In which sample site was the crabs only rarely found?
Solution:
Sample site D
c) Name the agent of pollution that affected the crabs.
Solution:
Oil
d) In which sample site was the most crabs affected compared to the population
size?
Solution:
Sample B
e) Explain your answer to the question above
Solution:
Sample B has a greater shaded portion
f) List TWO strategies that could reduce the effects of oil pollution at sea.
Solution:
Regular service of oil tankers; Legislation on the amount of oil the oil tankers
transport; Monitoring of travel routes; Use bacteria to dissolve the oil spill
Teacher’s Guide
Section 10: Answers to end of Chapter Questions
QUESTION 1
Learners to set out their experimental design using the following headings:
Hypothesissection
earthworms are attracted to the darkness that soil depth offers them. (3)
Aim
To investigate if earthworms are attracted to soil and/or repelled by light (2)
Apparatus and Materials (4)
• Many earthworms of the same species
• Lamp - neon
• 4 black basins with covers
• Black paper
• Nutrient rich soil
• Sawdust
• Timing device
344 9.9. Summary

Criterion Marks
Listed/bulleted (1)
Apparatus found in lab (1)
Appropriate to the task 91)
At least 4 pieces of apparatus used (1)
Method (this is a guideline method) (8)
• earthworms were divided into 4 groups
• Two basins were filled with nutrient rich soil (A and B), two with sawdust (C and D)
• A and C were covered with black paper on their covers
• B and D were placed under a neon lamp
• earthworms were placed on the surface of the medium , appropriate covers were put in
place
• After a 10 minute interval the number of worms at the surface of the medium were counted
• The procedures were repeated 5 times
• Counts were averaged and results compared
Container Light condition Medium condition
A soil Dark
B soil light
C sawdust Dark
D sawdust light
Marking Rubric:
Criterion Number of Marks
1. List of points/bullets (1)
2. Meets the aim-that the pupil has given (1)
3. Independent variables catered for (light/dark or soil/sawdust) (1)
Dependent variables mentioned (number of worms at the surface of the medium) (1)
Controlled variables evident (1)
4. Sufficient equipment used (1)
Equipment used appropriately (1)

5. Logical (1)
QUESTION 2
The fynbos is said to be a very bio diverse habitat. List any three pieces of evidence from the
text that show the idea of a rich biodiversity. (3)
• highest known concentration of plant species: 1 300 per 10 000 km2

• 7 700 plant species are found in fynbos
• Asteraceae (daisy family), with just under 1000 species of which more than 600 are
endemic
• fynbos is very rich in geophytes (bulbous plants)
• more than half of South Africa’s frog species
QUESTION 3
• Fire
• Rain of 250-500 mm pa
• Warm summer wet winter
QUESTION 4
i) Endemic-found in a relatively small area of the country and only in that area
ii) Alien species-species originating in another country
iii) Indigenous-found in various areas of a country
iv) Extinct - organism has completely died out (4)
QUESTION 5
Grass seeds -¿ants -¿ butterfly larvae -¿ birds
Geophyte -¿ striped mouse -¿ baboon -¿ leopard
Label can include: producer/autotroph, consumer/heterotroph- primary, secondary, and ter-

tiary
QUESTION 6
Very nutrient poor, sandy, porous, well aerated-so insufficient to sustain large animals.
QUESTION 7
The King Protea (Protea cynaroides) is a flowering plant. It is a distinctive Protea, having the
largest flower head in the genus. The species is also known as Giant Protea, Honeypot or
King Sugar Bush. It is widely distributed in the south western and southern parts of South
Africa in the fynbos region
QUESTION 8
Plant
346 9.9. Summary

QUESTION 9
Presence of chlorophyll/leaves
QUESTION 10
i)Protea
ii)cynaroides (2)
QUESTION 11
B, D, B, C, A, C, C, A, B, D, B
QUESTION 12
D, B, C
QUESTION 13
Sample site A
QUESTION 14
Sample site D
QUESTION 15
Oil
QUESTION 16
Sample B
QUESTION 17
Sample B has a greater shaded portion
QUESTION 18
Regular service of oil tankers; Legislation on the amount of oil the oil tankers transport;
Monitoring of travel routes; Use bacteria to dissolve the oil spill.
Investigation : To study a terrestrial ecosystem
In this investigation learners are to choose a terrestrial ecosystem either at school or close to
where they live.
Educators to note that this investigation can be given to learners at the beginning of a term
and then allow the learners to hand in their completed written report towards the end of the
term.
Alternatively if this investigation is done on the school property various deadline dates can
be set for each section to be investigated.
Learners to comment on their own findings and their work to be marked accordingly.

State the three components of the biosphere. (3)
Name the three main trophic levels that make up the biotic factors. (3)
Draw a flow chart which includes all the four biological cycles (water, carbon, oxygen and
nitrogen). In your flow chart, establish the inter-connections between the cycles. Names are
required but no detail of the chemistry is necessary. (30 marks)
348 9.9. Summary

CHAPTER 10
Biodiversity and classification
10.1 Overview 350

10.2 Biodiversity 351
10.3 Classification schemes 353
10.4 Five kingdom system 359
10.5 Summary 368
10 Biodiversity and classification
10.1 Overview DUMMY
Introduction DUMMY
Teacher’s Guide
BIODIVERSITY AND CLASSIFICATION
Overview
So far learners have studied life from the molecular to the ecosystem level. This chapter
examines the fantastic variety of life that exists on Earth, and introduces the systematic way
of classifying organisms based on their evolutionary relationships. This sets the scene for the
next chapter on the ’History of life on Earth’ where we will explore how this variety emerged.
Key Concepts:
• There is enormous biodiversity on Earth consisting of different ecosys-
tems containing a variety of species which each have genetic differ-
ences.
• South Africa is a ’hotspot’ of diversity and has a large diversity of
species endemic to the region.
• Classification schemes are a way of categorising biodiversity based on
common characteristics.
• The history of classification began with Aristotle.
• Currently, the most widely used classification system is the five-
kingdom scheme consisting of the kingdoms: Animalia, Plantae,
Fungi, Protista and Monera (or Bacteria)
• In Science we name living organisms using a naming system called
binomial nomenclature, which is written in the form: Genus, species
• Based on cell structure there are key differences between prokaryotes
and eukaryotes.
• The main groupings of living organisms are bacteria, protists, fungi,
plants and animals.
‘Biodiversity is the greatest treasure we have. Its diminishing is to be prevented at all costs’.
— Thomas Eisner, US environmental scientist who has made some of the most interesting
findings into how organisms produce chemicals to fight off predation.
The diversity of life on Earth has fascinated scientists for generations. The earliest scientists
attempted to understand life partly by categorising it according to a range of common traits.
These classification systems have changed based on the new evidence gathered. In this
unit you will study the history of the system of naming organisms, starting with Aristotle
350 10.1. Overview

and progressing to the current five-kingdom system devised by Whittaker. You will also be
introduced to the scientific convention of referring to organisms in Latin using two names -
referred to as binomial nomenclature. It is important to try and draw connections between
this section and the previous one in which you studied the plant and animal life common to
each biome.
Key concepts
• There is enormous biodiversity on Earth consisting of different ecosystems containing

a variety of species which each have genetic differences.
• South Africa is a ’hotspot’ of diversity and has a large diversity of species endemic to
the region.
• Classification schemes are a way of categorising biodiversity based on common char-
acteristics.
• The history of classification began with Aristotle.
• Currently, the most widely used classification system is the five-kingdom scheme con-
sisting of the kingdoms: Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, Protista and Monera (or Bacteria).
• In Science we name living organisms using a naming system called binomial nomen-
clature, which is written in the form: Genus, species
• Based on cell structure there are key differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
• The main groupings of living organisms are bacteria, protists, fungi, plants and animals.
The features that allow us to determine which is which must be understood.
10.2 Biodiversity DUMMY
Biodiversity is the term we use to refer to the variation in life forms in an ecosystem, biome
or the entire planet. The term also describes the genetic wealth within each species, the
inter-relationships between them and the natural areas in which they occur.
In this chapter we will focus on understanding the existing biodiversity and how scientists
attempt to understand it. Biodiversity varies widely across the Earth, depending on tempera-
ture, rainfall, soils, geography and the presence of other species.
Scientists have described over 1,7 million of the world’s species of animals, plants and algae.
A rich species diversity is found in South Africa. With a land surface of approximately
148 000 square kilometres, representing approximately 1% of the Earth’s total surface, South
Africa contains10% of the world’s total known bird, fish and plant species, 6% of the world’s
mammal and reptile species.
This natural wealth is threatened by the expansion of the human population and the increas-
ing demand this places on the environment. As such South Africa as a country is a ’hotspot’
of biodiversity, a term given to an area with a large biodiversity of plants and animals. The
Karoo and the Cape are biodiversity hotspots in South Africa. South Africa has a wide range
of climatic conditions and many variations in landscape as you learnt in the previous chapter.
These various landscapes give rise to the biomes which allow a wide variety of life to survive.
In the table below are listed some of the major plant, mammal, bird, reptile/amphibian, fish
and insect species found in South Africa. You are not expected to know any of the numbers
but they are given to you in order to illustrate the extent of biodiversity that exists in South
Africa.
Chapter 10. Biodiversity and classification 351

Life form Diversity and threatened species
Plants More than 20 300 species of flowering plants occur in
South Africa. One of the six most important areas of plant
growth in the world is in the Western Cape. Most of the
2000 threatened species of plants are found in the fynbos
in South-West Cape.
Mammals 243 mammals found in the region. Among the 17

threatened species in South Africa are the black rhino,
pangolin, giant golden mole. The blue antelope and
quagga have become extinct.
Birds Of more than 800 bird species, 26 are threatened,

including the penguin, Cape vulture, martial eagle and
Cape parrot.
Reptiles and Amphibians In total 370 reptiles and amphibians occur in the region of
which 21 are threatened. Six of these are endangered.
Fish 220 freshwater fishes occur of which 21 are threatened.

There are more than 2000 marine fish species.
Insects 80 000 insects are known to occur. There are many insect
species that are unidentified.
352 10.2. Biodiversity

Most of the diverse species found in South Africa are endemic or indigenous to the country.
• Indigenous means that these species originate or occur naturally in South Africa.
• Endemic means that these species occur only in South Africa an nowhere else.
10.3 Classification schemes DUMMY
Classification DUMMY
Teacher’s Guide
Classification Schemes
This section introduces learners to the concept of we classify living organisms, what sort of
mental process it entails and how it can be done. The activity below introduces the learners
to the concept of classification.
The practice of classifying organisms is referred to as taxonomy. In order to help understand

why we try and classify living organisms, what sort of mental process it entails and how it
can be done, we’ve prepared an activity for you to do below that is not life sciences related
but conveys the process of classification. Try and think of the problems that arise while
classifying the items below. Can BBC news be entertaining too? If so, should it not be under
entertainment? Do you think that the final level of classification is the most definitive?
Activity: Classification
Aim:
To understand how classification systems work.
Materials:
Pen and paper
Instructions:
1. Listed below are different TV programmes:

• Carte-Blanche
• Rocky
• Isidingo
• Rambo
• Hitler’s Bodyguards
• Generations
• Vietnam: Lost Films
• BBC news

2. Divide these TV programmes above into 2 groups, under the headings: Entertainment
and Documentary.
3. Now further subdivide the Entertainment group into Action and Soapies groups.
4. Do the same for Documentary using the headings: News/Current Affairs and History.
You have just drawn an example of a dichotomous branching diagram/ tree. All objects can
be divided in this way. We call this a classification system.
Teacher’s Guide
Activity: Classification
In this activity learners are to try and think of the problems that arise while classifying the
items below. Can BBC news be entertaining too? If so, should it not be under entertainment?
Do you think that the final level of classification is the most definitive?
ANSWERS
Entertainment Documentary
Rocky Carte Blanche
Isidingo Hitler’s Bodyguards
Rambo Vietnam: Lost Films
Generations BBC News
Entertainment Documentary
Action Soapies News/ Current History
Affairs
Rocky Isidingo Carte Blance Hitler’s Bodyguards
Rambo Generations BBC News Vietnam: Lost Films
Classification can be a tricky business. Problems arise when something can be classified
to greater detail or when an object or organism could belong to more than one category.
Biologists have faced these classification conundrums for centuries when trying to classify
organisms in one category or another. We will introduce you now to one of the most com-
mon classification schemes: the five-kingdom system of classification.
Artificial classification systems, such as the grouping of vehicles into those that provide trans-
port on land/ water/ air etc., are based on arbitrary groupings and have little meaning. The
biological classification system, however, is based on research in biology, chemistry, genet-
ics, etc. It is a scientific method of classification that groups organisms that share common
features and is more universally accepted.
It is always necessarily hierarchical where the important features inherited from a common
ancestor determine the group in which the organisms are placed. For example humans and
whales both feed their young on milk and it is a characteristic inherited from a common
ancestor which places them under the same class mammals even though their habitats are
completely different.
Each organism is grouped into one of five large groups or kingdoms, which are subdivided
into smaller groups called phyla (singular: phylum) and then smaller and smaller groups with
other names.
354 10.3. Classification schemes

• Kingdom
• Phylum
• Class
• Order
• Family
• Genus
• Species
Figure 10.1: Schematic diagram showing hierarchy or ranking scheme used by taxonomists.
When trying to identify animals it is this hierarchy or ranking scheme that we follow whereby
we start by identifying the kingdom to which an organism belongs, then its phylum, class,
genus and so on. This is similar to explaining to a being from another planet how to find
your house. You would have to say Earth first, then Africa, then South Africa, then KZN, then
Durban, then the suburb, then the road name and finally the house number. He would have
to start searching in a big place and gradually work down to smaller places (or groupings).
A way to remember it is ”Kwaito People Come Out From Gauteng Singing” and by learning
this mnemonic you are going to remember the sequence in the classification system;
• Kingdom - Kwaito
• Phylum - People
• Class - Come
• Order - Out
• Family - From
• Genus - Gauteng
• Species - Singing
Activity: Constructing a mnemonic to remember the sequence of the classification sys-

tem
Make your own mnemonic to remember the sequence of the classification system
Aim:
Construct a mnemonic to allow learners to remember the sequence easily.

FACT
WATCH: a video Materials:
about Carolus
Linnaeus
See video: None - just pen and paper and LOTS of imagination!
SHORTCODE at
Instructions:
Make an easy to remember memory aid to remember the sequence of levels of the classifi-
cation system.
Teacher’s Guide
Activity 2: Make you own mnemonic to remember the sequence of the classification system
This activity allows the learners to be creative. Give the learners the freedom to choose
which platform suits them best e.g. learners can do diagrams or rap songs. The learners
have fun and learn the classification system at the same time.
History of classification DUMMY
Aristotle a 4th century (384 to 322 BC) Greek philosopher divided organisms into two main
groups namely plants and animals. His system was used into the 1600’s. People who wrote
about animals and plants either used their common names in various languages or adopted
more-or-less standardized descriptions. Caspar Bauhin (1560–1624) took some important
steps towards the binomial system currently used by modifying many of the Latin descriptions
to two words.
Carolus Linnaeus (Carl Von Linne) was an 18th century (1707–1778) Swedish botanist and
physician. He classified plants and animals according to similarities in form and divided
living things into two main kingdoms namely — plant and animal kingdoms. He named the
plants and animals in Latin or used latinised names in his book Species Plantarum (1753)
and Systema Naturae (1758).

Figure 10.2: Aristotle (384–322 BC) devised one of the earliest classification schemes.
Figure 10.3: Carl Linnaeus later developed a more advanced classification scheme which forms the
basis of the modern taxonomy scheme.
Since Latin was once the universal language of science among western scholars in medieval
Europe these names were typically in Latin. Latin is used to name and classify living organ-
isms.
Binomial Nomenclature
One of Linnaeus’ greatest contributions was that he designed a scientific system of naming
organisms called binomial nomenclature (bi - ”two”, nomial - ”names”). He gave each

organism a two part scientific name - genus (plural - ”genera”) and species (plural - ”species”)
names. The genus and species names would be similar to your first name and surname.
Genus name is always written with a capital letter whereas species name is written with a
small letter. The scientific name must always be either underlined or written in italics.
For example the scientific name of the African elephant is Loxodonta africana.
Genus: Loxodonta Species: africana
Figure 10.4: Elephant (Loxodonta africana).
An organism will always have only one scientific name even though they might have more
than one common name. For example Blue crane, indwe (for amaXhosa) and mogolori (for
Batswana) are all common names for South Africa’s national bird (shown below). However,
it has got only one scientific name which is Anthropoides paradiseus.
Figure 10.5: Blue crane, South Africa’s national bird.

The scientific name of our human race is Homo sapiens sapiens. We are the only surviving
members of the genus Homo — other more ancient or ancestral types have all become
extinct, such as Homo ergaster and Homo neanderthalensis.
The two-kingdom classification system devised by Linnaeus is not used today. As scientists
discovered more and more about different organisms, they expanded the system to include
many more kingdoms and groupings. Today we use a five kingdom system devised by
Whittaker in 1969 instead of the two kingdom system devised by Linnaeus. However even
today the five-kingdom system is under dispute. It is the nature of science that as more
discoveries come to light, theories will continue to be improved upon and revised.
Prokaryotes and eukaryotes DUMMY
Prokaryotes are uni- or multicellular organisms made up of cells that do not have a nuclear
envelope (pro - before, karyon - nucleus). The genetic material is not bound in a nucleus.
They also lack cell organelles such as an endoplasmic reticulum, a Golgi apparatus, lyso-
somes, and mitochondria. Prokaryotes are divided into two main groups namely the Bacteria
and the Archaea (ancient bacteria).
Eukaryotes are multicellular organisms made up of cells (eu - true, karyon - nucleus) that pos-
sess a membrane-bound nucleus (that holds genetic material) as well as membrane-bound
cell organelles. Genetic material in eukaryotes is contained within a nucleus. Eukaryotic
organisms include organisms such as plants, animals, fungi, and protists.
Table: Differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
Small cells Large cells
Unicellular or multicellular Often (but not always) multicellular
Genetic material is not contained Genetic material is contained in a
within a nucleus membrane-bound nucleus
Cells have a simple membrane internal Cells have a distinct membrane system
system but no organelles Example: no with organelles Examples: Chloroplast,
chloroplast, no mitochondria mitochondria, golgi bodies
10.4 Five kingdom system DUMMY
Teacher’s Guide
Five Kingdom Classification
In this section learners are introduced to the most common way of grouping living organ-
isms based on simple distinctive characteristics. Classification systems are always changing
as new information is made available. Modern technologies such as electron microscopy
make it possible to observe microscopic organisms in greater detail. The current system was

FACT developed by Robert H. Whittaker in 1969 and was built on the work of previous biologists
WATCH: A video such as Carolus Linnaeus. The highest grouping is called a kingdom.
showing a brief
summary of the five
kingdoms This is the most common way of grouping living things based on simple distinctive charac-
See video: teristics. Classification systems are always changing as new information is made available.
SHORTCODE at Modern technologies such as Genetics makes it possible to unravel evolutionary relation-
ships to greater and greater detail. The five-kingdom system was developed by Robert H.
Whittaker in 1969 and was built on the work of previous biologists such as Carolus Lin-
FACT naeus. The highest grouping is called a kingdom.
Bacteria are found
everywhere and are
the most numerous Living things can be classified into five major kingdoms:
organisms on Earth.
In a single gram of
soil, there are about • Kingdom Animalia
40 million bacterial • Kingdom Plantae
cells. The human
body also contains • Kingdom Fungi
10 times as many • Kingdom Protista
bacterial cells as
human cells! • Kingdom Monera (Bacteria)
Distinctive features of the Five Kingdoms DUMMY
We will now identify the main distinctive features of each kingdom:
Kingdom Monera
The Monera typically consist of prokaryotic, unicellular organisms. No nuclear membrane

or membrane-bound organelles such as chloroplasts, Golgi complex, mitochondria and en-
doplasmic reticulum are present. Monera have a cell wall of protein plus polysaccharide
compound, but not cellulose. They reproduce asexually by binary fission. Important exam-
ples of Monera include Archaea, cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) and bacteria.
Figure 10.6: Mycobacterium bacteria that causes Tuberculosis.
Kingdom Protista
Protista are eukaryotic and can be unicellular or simple multicellular. They reproduce sexu-
ally or asexually. Important examples of protists include the organism known as Plasmodium
(which causes malaria), Amoeba, Euglena. There are two major groups of protists which in-
clude the Protozoans, whose cells are similar to animal cells in that they do not have cell
walls and the plant-like cells which do have cell walls and are similar to algae.
360 10.4. Five kingdom system

Figure 10.7: Euglena an example of a protist.
Euglena showing its chloroplasts.
Figure 10.8: A collection of the different types of protists that exist.
Kingdom Fungi
Fungi are eukaryotic, multicellular (some unicellular like yeasts). They have a cell wall made
of chitin. They are non-motile (not capable of movement). Fungi consist of threads called
hyphae. Fungi are heterotrophic organisms which means they require organic compounds of
carbon and nitrogen for nourishment. They are important as decomposers (saprophytes) and
can be parasitic. They store carbon as glycogen, not in the form of starch. Fungi reproduce
sexually and asexually by spore formation. Important examples of fungi include Mushrooms
and Penicillium (a fungus which was used to make penicillin, one of the most powerful
anti-biotics ever created) and also bread mould.

FACT
A TED video on the
many uses of Fungi
See video:
SHORTCODE at
FACT
Sir Alexander
Fleming discovered
the first antibiotics
in 1928, after
observing that
colonies of
Staphylococcus
aureus bacteria
could be destroyed
by the fungi Figure 10.9: Examples of fungi.
Penicillium
notatum. This
observation that
certain substances
were deadly to
microbial life lead
to the discovery and
development of
medicines that
could kill many
types of
disease-causing
bacteria in the body.
Figure 10.10: Mushrooms are examples of fungi.
Kingdom Plantae
Organisms belonging to the plant kingdom are eukaryotic and multicellular organisms. They
have a distinct cell wall made of cellulose. Cells are organised into true plant tissues. Plants
contain plastids and photosynthetic pigments such as chlorophyll. They are non-motile.
Plants make their own food by photosynthesis and are therefore said to be autotrophic. Plants
undergo both sexual and asexual reproduction. They store food as starch. Important exam-
ples of plants are mosses, ferns, conifers and flowering plants.
Figure 10.11: The King Protea flower is named after former President Nelson Mandela and is called
the Madiba Protea.

Kingdom Animalia
Figure 10.12: The diversity of the animal kingdom.
Members of the animal kingdom are eukaryotic and multicellular but have no cell wall or
photosynthetic pigments. They are mostly motile and they are heterotrophic, which means
they must feed on other organisms and cannot make their own food. They reproduce sexually
or asexually. Important examples of this class include Porifera (sponges), Mammalia (Lion),
Insects (grasshopper). They store carbon as glycogen and fat.
Figure 10.13: Jelly fish.

Figure 10.14: Sponge.
Figure 10.15: Image of grasshopper
Figure 10.16: Lion.
Teacher’s Guide

• Tree of life project: collaborative effort of biologists and nature enthusiasts from around
the world providing information about biodiversity, the characteristics of different groups
of organisms, and their evolutionary history (phylogeny). Link: http://tolweb.org/
tree/phylogeny.html
• ARKive project: For pictures and information on a wide range of life forms
• http://bugscope.beckman.uiuc.edu/: For high magnification pictures of insects
using a scanning electron microscope.
• http://www.neok12.com/Microorganisms.htm: For interactive videos on microor-
ganisms.
Activity: Optional activity: to investigate examples of life forms from each kingdom
Aim:
To investigate examples from each kingdom
Instructions::
1. Research one beneficial and one harmful application of one member from each
kingdom, with examples from their use in South Africa. Students can be
grouped into smaller groups and each one is given one kingdom to research.
(Use www.arkive.org as a research tool for your favourite animal or plant or
http://bugscope.becnkman.uiuc.edu/ for nice pictures of insects). Results can be pre-
sented in the form of a poster.
2. Go to your nearest supermarket or garden and find one representative organism for
each kingdom. Present this information by drawing a diagram
Teacher’s Guide
Activity
In this activity a learners are to research one beneficial and one harmful application of one
member from each of the kingdoms including examples of their use in South Africa. Learners
can be grouped into smaller groups and each one is given one kingdom to research. (Use
www.arkive.org as a research tool for your favourite animal or plant or http://bugscope.becnkman.uiuc.edu/
for nice pictures of insects). Learners can present their results in the form of a poster.
Learners can the go to their nearest supermarket or garden and find one representative or-
ganism for each kingdom. Learners are then to draw their representative organism.
Dichotomous Key DUMMY
A dichotomous key is a tool that taxonomists often use to classify organisms correctly. It is a
form of hierarchical grouping that involves making decisions in a series of steps, from general
differences to very specific differences. It is called a dichotomous key because there are
always two choices. There is a very specific way to set up a dichotomous key. For instance,
one must always move from the general to the specific, and one must always ensure that
the two choices in the decision tree are mutually exclusive and jointly exhaustive. Mutually

exclusive means that there cannot be overlap between the two options, as this would result in
wanting to place an organism in two groups. Jointly exhaustive means that your two options
must cover all possibilities, otherwise you won’t be able to place an organism in either of
the groups.
Activity: Identifying arthropods using a dichotomous naming key
Aim:
To use a dichotomous key to identify arthropods.
Table of specimens:
A B C
D E F
G H I

Instructions:
1. Study the organisms in the table of specimens provided to you.

2. Use the dichotomous key to find out to which taxonomic group each of these arthro-
pods belong.
3. Write the letter corresponding to the arthropod, and then your answer.
Characteristic Instruction
1a Arthropod has eight legs go 2 (Arachnids)
1b Arthropod does not have 8 legs go 4
2a Arachnid has pedipalp with pincers SCORPION
2b Arachnid does not have pedipalp with pincers Go 3
3a Arachnid drinks blood TICK
3b Arachnid does not drink blood SPIDER
4a Arthropod has more than 16 legs Go 9 (Myriapoda)
4b Arthropod does not have more than 16 legs Go 5
5a Arthropod has 3 pairs of legs Go 6 (Insects)
5b Arthropod does not 3 pairs of legs CRUSTACEAN
6a Insect has hardened fore-wings COLEOPTERA
6b Insect does not have hardened fore-wings Go 7
7a Insects are social and/ or live in a hive HYMENOPTERA
7b Insects are not social, do not live in a hive Go 8
8a Insects does not have a sponge-like proboscis LEPIDOPTERA
8b Insects have a sponge-like proboscis DIPTERA
9a Myriapod with one pair of legs per segment CENTIPEDE
9b Myriapod with two pairs of legs per segment MILLIPEDE
Teacher’s Guide
Answers:
• A: Hymenoptera
• B: Millipede
• C: Crustacean
• D: Tick
• E: Spider
• F: Centipede
• G: Lepidoptera
• H: Coleoptera
• I: Hymenoptera
• J: Scorpion
• K: Diptera
• L: Hymenoptera
http://www.tellusmuseum.org/education/preandpostactivities/animaldichotomouskey.
pdf This website shows you an exercise with answers , using a dichotomous key.

10.5 Summary DUMMY
Teacher’s Guide
Section 4: Summary
• Definition of biological classification and hierarchical grouping of living organisms

based on similarities and differences.
• History of classification and scientific naming of organisms using the binomial nomen-
clature. All organisms have only ONE scientific name but many common names!
• Division of organisms into prokaryotes (simple, unicellular) and Eukaryotes (mostly
multicellular) and the major differences between the two.
• Classification of living organisms into 5 major kingdoms: - Monera, Protista, Fungi,
Plantae and Animalia and their unique characteristics.
By the end of this chapter you should know the following:
• Definition of biological classification and hierarchical grouping of living organisms

based on similarities and differences.
• History of classification and scientific naming of organisms using the binomial nomen-
clature. All organisms have only ONE scientific name but many common names!
• Division of organisms into prokaryotes (simple, unicellular) and Eukaryotes (mostly
multicellular) and the major differences between the two.
• Classification of living organisms into 5 major kingdoms: Monera, Protista, Fungi,
Plantae and Animalia and their unique characteristics.
1. Which of the following in a classification system is the smallest?

a) Kingdoms
b) Species
c) Family
d) Class
Solution:
B
2. Which Swedish botanist and physician named plants and animals in Latin?
a) Casper Bauhin
b) Aristotle
c) Robert Whittaker
d) Carolus Linnaeus
Solution:
D
3. The following example is the scientific name of a lion: Panthera leo. The first part of
the scientific name represent the...
368 10.5. Summary

a) Genus name
b) Kingdom name
c) Species name
d) Family name
Solution:
A
4. Write down the correct biological term for the following descriptions.
a) Type of system by modifying many of the Latin descriptions to two words.
Solution:
binomial nomenclature
b) Group of organisms which are able to interbreed and produce fertile offspring.
Solution:
species
c) The scientific name of our human race.
Solution:
Homo sapiens sapiens - (Answer must be underlined if handwritten)
d) The type of asexual reproduction in the Kingdom Monera.
Solution:
binary fission
e) Highest grouping in a classification system.
Solution:
Kingdom
5. Give the definition of the term Biodiversity.
Solution:
Biodiversity is a term describing the entire range of plants and animals found in a
particular area – it includes all forms of life in an area. Biodiversity can also be used
to describe the degree of variation of life forms within a given species, ecosysytem,
biome, or entire planet.
6. Tabulate three differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
Solution:
PROKARYOTES EUKARYOTES
small cells large cells
unicellular or simple multicellular often (but not always) multicellular
genetic material not contained within genetic material membrane
nucleus bound-usually within nucleus
simple membranous system with few distinct membrane-bound organelles
organelles

CHAPTER 11
History of Life on Earth
11.1 Overview 376

11.2 Representations of life’s history 377
11.3 Life’s History 388
11.4 Mass extinctions 395
11.5 Impact of humans on biodiversity and environment 399
11.6 Fossil tourism 401
11.7 Summary 401
11 History of Life on Earth
Teacher’s Guide
CHAPTER 11: History of Life on Earth
Section 1: Overview
This chapter introduces fossils to learners. The learners will explore the geological time scale
and like the ages of the time scale to the different life forms found in that time period. The
fossil history of South Africa is also discussed.
/key concepts
Key Concepts:
• There are different representations of life’s history on earth. The re-
lationship to changes in climate and geological events has produced
different evolutionary histories in different parts of the world.
• The three main eras in life’s history are the Paleozoic, Mesozoic and
Cenozoic eras, with each of these eras divided into time periods.
• The geological timescales indicate the ancient history of life.
• The Cambrian explosion is here the origins of early form of all animal
groups can be traced. Life forms have changed gradually to become
present life forms
• In the last four million years, significant changes have occurred in
species occurring in Africa, which will be explored in greater detail
in Grade 12.
• .There has been five mass extinction events in life’s history, two of
which are particularly important : 250 million years ago (which re-
sulted in the extinction of 90% of Earth’s life and 65 million years
ago (which resulted in the extinction of many species including di-
nosaurs).
• The current rate of extinction Earth at present is higher than at any
time in the past. The present time has been called the sixth extinction
which bell be explored in greater detail in Grade 11 and 12.
• Fossil formation is dated through radiometric methods and gives us
much information about our past.
• There is much evidence for the origins of life found across South
Africa.
• Scientists use deductive reasoning based on fossil evidence to under-
stand the history of life.
• The impact of humans on the human historical record is exemplified
by the issue of fossil tourism.
Section 2 : Life’s History on Earth
In this section learners are introduced as to how scientists divide up the Earth’s history ac-
cording to eons, eras and periods.
372
• An Eon is defined as a unit of time equal to a billion years.
• An era is a division of time within an eon but does not have a fixed number of years.
The Mesozoic era for example lasted from 252 million years to 66 million years ago.
• A period typically refers to a subdivision of an era and its length is determined by a
system of dating based on examining fossil evidence belonging to a particular era.
The educator is to discuss some of the major eras, but it must be emphasised to the learners
that the periods within each era need not be memorised.
Activity: To compare the skeletons of a modern bird and Archaeopteryx
Activity: To compare the skeletons of a modern bird and Archaeopteryx
Answers:
Archaeopteryx vs Dinosaur:
SIMILARITIES:
1 Jaws have teeth
2 Hand / arm has claws
3 Long bony tail present
4 Presence of gastralia or dermal ribs (not attached to spine)
Archaeopteryx vs Dinosaur:
DIFFERENCES:
1 Long forelimbs, like wings
Short forelimbs
2 Feathers present
No feathers
3 Hand has three claws
Hand has five claws
4 Furcula / wish bone present
No furcula present
Archaeopteryx vs Modern bird
SIMILARITIES:
1 Feathers are present
2 Forelimbs are long and wing-like
Chapter 11. History of Life on Earth 373

3 Furcula / wish bone present (fused clavicles)
4 Bones of the lower forelimb are separate
Archaeopteryx vs Modern bird
DIFFERENCES:
1 Teeth in jaws
No teeth in the beak
2 Claws on forelimbs
Forelimbs without claws
3 Long bony tail
Short tail bones / pygostral present
4 No breast bone
Breast bone with a keel
Activity: Is the Coelacanth the missing link between fish and amphibians?
This activity is designed to help learners to understand whether coelacanths represent a link
between fish and amphibians. Learners are to use resources such as the Internet, encyclopae-
dia and magazines.
They are to find out what structural features would scientists have observed in coelacanths
which lead them to suggest that they represent a link between fish and amphibians.
Once learners have completed their research have a class discussion.
Section 3: Geological Time Scale
In this section it is explained to the learners how the geological timescale is the method of
representing Life’s History according to the sequence of events as they occurred, referring to
the specific eons, eras and periods.
Activity: Construct a timeline of the key events in the history of life on Earth (Essential
CAPS)
In this exercise learners are required to combine all the information given on the history of
life and to depict this information onto a simple geological timescale of their own.
Learners can do this in poster format or as a class exercise. Pictures from the Internet to
illustrate their time scale can be used.
Section 4: Mass Extinctions
This section introduces the learners to the mass extinctions that planet earth has experienced.
Learners need to understand that a mass extinction is defined by a sharp decrease in the
amount of plant and animal life. There have been five major mass extinction events in
Earth’s history.
374
Activity : What caused the mass extinctions?
In this activity learners are to use their understanding of fossil evidence and scientific method
to demonstrate how each of the hypotheses for mass extinction arrives at its conclusion.
What are the key requirements of a theory that attempts to explain the mass extinctions?
By conducting their own research on the Internet and by reading books in the library, they
are to list any other evidence that they found in support of their chosen hypothesis.
The learners can then present their information to the class which in turn can lead to further
discussion.
Activity: Observing fossils
Learners can be taken to museums or fossil sites or look at photographs of fossils to examine
various fossils.
Some fossil sites have already been described.
A list of museums is given on this website: http://www.southafrica.info/travel/cultural/museums.htm

and here:http://www.museumsonline.co.za/
A list of fossil sites around the world is given here: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List of fossil sites.
Identify the ones that are within South Africa.
If you are unable to visit the fossil sites or museums, visit this website:http://english.fossiel.net/determinatie/identificatio
It gives photographs and explanations of the major fossils that have shaped our understanding
of the history of life.
Depending on how you are going to do this activity with your learners, they will need to
find out how they have been preserved, describe the key features of each fossil, how they
were dated and what they tell us about our past.
This can be presented in a research report format.
Activity: Understanding evolutionary history based on evidence from South Africa
In this activity the learners are required to locate where the key events in the history of life
occurred in South Africa, based on earlier discussion of fossil evidence found in South Africa.
The learners are to draw a map of South Africa
On their map they are to show where each piece of evidence listed in the table is located.
Also show what this evidence indicates about the history of life.
In the third column of the table, learners are to write down the period from which these
fossils are likely to have emerged.

Evidence Location Era, Period
Stromatolites False Bay, Cape Town Paleozoic,
Pre-Cambrian
Soft-bodied animals Northern Cape
Early land plants Grahamstown
Primitive plants e.g. Mooi River, Estcourt
Glossopteris
Coelacanth Northern KZN Coast
Mammal-like reptiles Karoo
e.gLystrosaurus,
Thrinadoxon
Dinosaurs Drakensberg and Maluti
Euskylosaurus mountains
Ladybrand, Free State
First mammals Lesotho, Eastern Cape
Humans and pre-humans Gauteng, North West, Free
State, KwaZulu-Natal,
Limpopo
Section 5: Impact of Humans on Biodiversity and the Environment
Humans have impacted the biodiversity and environment in several crucial ways.
The broad term used to describe this effect is known as the anthropogenic effect.
Discuss with the learners the activities that humans are involved in and how these
activities contribute to the changes in the environment.
Section 5 : Fossils and fossil tourism
In this section are introduced to fossils which are the remains of organisms that lived a long
time ago. They can be mineralized bones / shells / teeth, film fossils, trace fossils, imprints,
casts or moulds. Fossils are dated radiometrically or by carbon dating the sample.
11.1 Overview DUMMY
Introduction DUMMY
In this chapter we will learn about the history of life on Earth. We will first talk about tools
(fossil dating) and theories, (continental drift) that help us understand our past. Next we
will look at the geological time-scale and discuss three major eras: the Paleozoic, Mesozoic
and Cenozoic. We will talk about the Cambrian explosion, which was a major explosion
in the diversity of life, and we will discuss mass extinctions, which were mass losses in the
diversity of life forms. We will also look at the evolution of humans in the last 4 million years.
Throughout the chapter will look at fossil evidence from Southern Africa that originates from
key periods in Earth’s history.
Key concepts
• Scientists use deductive reasoning to understand fossils and the history of life on Earth.
376 11.1. Overview

• Geological events often caused changes in climate, which in turn influence the emer-
gence and disappearance of species.
• It takes special circumstances for fossils to form, and fossils can be dated by radiometric
or relative dating.
• Climate and geography helped shape the evolution of life on Earth.
• Geological timescales are divided into eons, eras and periods.
• The Cambrian explosion, was a rapid explosion in the diversity of life-forms. All animal
groups have their origin in the Cambrian explosion.
• Mass extinctions are massive losses in life, and there have been five mass extinction
events in history.
• In the last 4 million years significant changes have occurred in species occurring in
Africa, including the evolution of humans.
• Humans have a massive effect on biodiversity and the natural environment and are
partially responsible for the ’6th mass extinction’.
• South Africa is rich in many fossils from diverse time periods.
• Fossil tourism is a source of income and employment in fossil localities.
11.2 Representations of life’s history DUMMY
Scientists have divided the history of life into different time periods using the geological
timescale. In this section we will present the key evidence scientists have used to construct
this time scale. We will discuss the continental drift theory which explains how the con-
tinents were formed. We will also briefly touch on the theory of natural selection which
explains how one life form can evolve into another over many years by adapting to its chang-
ing environment. We will then present the methods by which we are able to determine
evolution of life forms over time through examining the fossil record.
Geological timescale DUMMY
The geological timescale is a ’calendar’ of events in the Earth’s history. It shows major
geological and climactic events, and how this affected the emergence and disappearance of
species over time. This vast amount of time is divided into units in descending order of eras
and periods.
An Eon: is defined as a unit of time equal to a billion years.
An era: is a division of time within an eon but does not have a fixed number of years. The
Mesozoic era for example lasted from 252 million years to 66 million years ago.
A period: typically refers to a subdivision of an era and its length is determined by a system
of dating based on examining fossil evidence belonging to a particular era.
Table 11.1 below shows one method of representing the geological timescale:

Figure 11.1: Geological timescale with key events and characteristics shown.
While you will not be expected to remember the names of the periods shown in the previous
diagram, you will be expected to understand the eras and their particular characteristics.
Another visually powerful way of representing Earth’s history is via the use of the geological
‘clock’ (Figure 11.2). Human history occupies just 2 million of the 4500 million year long
history of the Earth. On this clock, human existence constitutes less than a minute of the
evolutionary history of life on Earth.
378 11.2. Representations of life’s history

FACT
http:
//deeptime.info/
This website has an
‘infographic’
showing geological
time on a clock.
Each hour on the
clock corresponds
to a period of the
Earth’s history, and
shows the
characteristics of
each period and the
key events within
them.
Figure 11.2: ”Human history on earth is a mere second on the clock”. In this representation, the two
million years’ of human history constitute an effect too small to be visible on the timescale.
Activity: Construct a timeline of the key events in the history of life on Earth (Essential
CAPS)
Aim:
In this exercise you will learn to combine all the information given on the history of life to
depict it on a simple geological timescale of your own.
Materials:
• Exercise book or cardboard

• Coloured pens and pencils
• Pictures and information from the Internet and books
Instructions:
Draw a timescale that stretches from ‘0 years ago’ to 4,6 billion years ago.
Depict the history of life on this timescale, from the earliest life forms to present day exis-
tence. On your timeline, show:
• Mesozoic, Paleozoic and Cenozoic eras

• Two major climate changes characteristic of each era you show on your timescale and
mention any changes to plant and animal life that took place during this time.

Continental Drift DUMMY
Continental drift is the breakup and movement of the Earth’s continents relative to each
other by drifting across the ocean bed. Since the initial continental drift hypothesis was
proposed, the study of plate tectonics has helped us understand why continents move.
Plate tectonics is the study of the folding and faulting of the Earth’s crust (lithosphere).
Biogeography is the branch of biology focusing on the geographical distribution of plants

and animals. It has been instrumental in developing our understanding of the evidence for
continental drift.
Evidence for continental drift
There is considerable evidence for the theory of continental drift that draws upon fossil
evidence, plate tectonics theory and studies of glacier sediments. For example:
• Similar plant and animal fossils have been found on different continents’ shores, sug-
gesting that these were once joined. For example:
– The Mesosaurus found in Brazil and South Africa.
– The Lystrosaurus from rocks of the same age found in South Africa, South Amer-
ica, India, Australia and Antarctica
– Earthworms found in South America and Africa suggest that these existed in a
common habitat on a single continent.
• By studying the complementary arrangement of South America and Africa and the
manner in which these pulled apart due to various plate tectonic forces scientists have
been able to confirm the hypothesis of continental drift.
• The study of glaciers left over from the ice ages has provided an important line of
evidence for continental drift. Glacial sediments from South America, Africa, India,
Madagascar, Arabia, India, Antarctica and Australia showed evidence of having once
been joined together, suggesting the existence of the supercontinent Gondwana.
• Fossil evidence for Pangaea includes plant and animal fossils.
Using this evidence, scientists have inferred that in the past the Earth existed as a super-
continent known as Pangea until the early Mesozoic era. There were three major phases in
the break-up of Pangea:
• First phase: about 175 million years ago, Pangea began to rift, giving rise to the super-
continents Laurasia and Gondwana.
• Second phase: began in the early Cretaceous period (150–140 million years ago) when
Gondwana broke and separated into multiple continents: Africa, South America, India,
Antarctica and Australia.
• Third phase: occurred in the early Cenozoic era. During this phase, Laurasia split
when North America/Greenland split from Eurasia resulting in the expansion of the
Atlantic and Indian Oceans.

FACT
Natural selection is
a process you will
learn about in more
detail in Grades 11
and 12.
FACT
WATCH: This
explains how
natural selection
takes place!
See video:
SHORTCODE at
Figure 11.3: Diagram showing continental drift.
Teacher’s Guide
Animation here: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pangea_animation_03.gif
Natural selection DUMMY
Through a process known as natural selection, adaptations that allow one organism to sur-
vive better than another and produce more off-spring, results in future generations of or-
ganisms who have acquired those traits. For Grade 10, you are required to understand the
following key features of evolution by natural selection:
• Individuals in a species show a wide range of variation: .e.g. the many different types
of dogs you see.
• The variation is caused by genetic differences.
• Individuals that are well-adapted to the environment in which they live are more likely
to survive and produce more offspring.
• The genes that allowed the individuals to be successful are passed on to the offspring
in the next generation.
• Over many hundreds (and thousands) of generations this results in changes in the
physical appearance and habits of organisms.
Fossil formation DUMMY
The fossil record is a key source of evidence through which our understanding of Earth’s
history has developed.
Fossils are the remains of animals or plants from the remote past preserved in its originally
buried form (petrified form) or as mold or cast in rock. Generally, a preserved specimen is
regarded as a fossil if it is older than approximately 10 000 years (although this is not a strict
definition).

Fossils are considered to be remnant of an organism of a past geological era. Examples of
fossils are skeleton or parts of skeletons or leaf or animal imprints embedded in and preserved
in the Earth’s crust.
The study of fossils across geological time, how they are formed and how they have evolved
in relation to other phylogenetic groups is called palaeontology.
How fossils are formed
1. For fossilisation to occur a plant or animal must first die. Soft tissues decay quite
quickly, therefore animals that have hard exoskeletons and woody plants tend to fos-
silise better than soft-bodied organisms.
2. The organism (plant or animal) must be buried beneath mud and or soil shortly after
death. Although decay still takes place, the lack of oxygen slows it down. As more and
more layers of mud and soil are added, the sediments become compressed.
3. Eventually this compression turns the sediment into rock, which forms a mould around
the shape of the original skeleton. Sometimes the original bone or shell softens and dis-
solves completely, sometimes the bone or shell remains. Water that is rich in dissolved
minerals trickles in through the layers of sediment into the mould.

FACT
If the rocks
surrounding a fossil
are distorted and
squeezed by
geological forces, it
will result in
distortion of the
fossils within them.
4. The mineral-rich water enters the hollow, and crystallises to create a natural cast of the
original organism. Otherwise the minerals slowly seep into the skeleton, changing its
chemical composition and making it capable of surviving for a long time.
5. Over many millions of years, rock that was once buried rises again to the surface and
is eroded away, exposing the fossils.
Fossilisation is very rare and only happens when a plant or animal dies in exactly the right
circumstances. Usually, animal corpses are eaten by other animals or decomposed by bac-
teria before fossilisation can occur. Even hard parts like bones and shells are eventually
destroyed through erosion and corrosion.
Teacher’s Guide
This website has a video detailing the fossilising of Lucy: http://www.teachersdomain.

org/resource/tdc02.sci.life.evo.becfossil/
It takes a rare set of circumstances to turn a living creature into fossilised bone. In the case of
Lucy, the famous hominid fossil discovered in Ethiopia’s Great Rift Valley in 1974, there is

no evidence that she met a violent death. No predator or scavenger found her body before
it began rotting in the lake’s soft sediments. Her bones, which settled in the mud, may have
been cracked or shattered by animals roaming around the shore.
Heavy rains gradually washed in enough sand and gravel to bury her bones. These deposits
built up over thousands of years, burying her remains hundreds of feet deep. The calcium
in her bones, molecule by molecule, was replaced by minerals from these deposits, turning
the bones to stone.
She remained buried over millions of years, while the earth’s crust moved constantly, forc-
ing the remains of her body closer to the surface. Heavy storms beating down on the earth
eroded the sediment and most likely brought her once again to the earth’s surface. Her ex-
posure made it possible for anthropologists to later discover her remains some three million
years after her death.
Methods of dating fossils DUMMY
We have learnt how fossils are formed over geologic timescales. In this section we will learn
how we determine the age of a fossil in order to understand the various periods of life’s
history. There are two methods of dating fossils:
1. Radiometric or Radiocarbon dating

2. Relative Dating
1. Radiometric Dating
• Radiometric dating relies on measuring the amount of carbon present in a living organ-
ism. The carbon atom exists as 3 different isotopes (atoms with the same proton num-
ber but different molecular weight numbers). These are Carbon-12 (C-12), Carbon-13
(C-13) and Carbon-14 (C-14). All living organisms maintain an equilibrium of Carbon-
14 with the atmospheric C-14. As organisms die,the Carbon-14 present within them
begins a process known as radioactive decay.
• The half-life is the time taken for half the amount of an isotope to decay. The half-life
of C-14 is 5730 years. This means that if we start out with say 10 units of C-14, in
5730 years’ time only 5 units will remain. In another 5730 years’ time only 2.5 units
will remain and so on.
• Thus, using radiometric techniques, scientists can determine how much C-14 is present
within a particular fossil and by so doing infer the age of the fossil.

Figure 11.4: Radiometric dating: Graph showing the half-life of C14. The amount of Carbon-14
halves every 5730 years.
2. Relative Dating
• Relative dating is the method of determining the order of events from the fossil record.
• By studying the order in which fossils occur in the fossil record, geologists can deter-
mine the order of events as they occurred but not when exactly they occurred.
• Fossils found at the lowest layer of rock would be the oldest, as these would have been
buried for the longest time, whereas fossils found closer to the surface would be buried
more recently and therefore be younger.
• The geological time-scale you studied earlier was almost entirely developed by relative
dating methods. It is a useful method of dating when fossil materials lack radioactive
isotopes.
Deductive reasoning to understand the past DUMMY
Deductive reasoning combines the use of evidence and theories to make deductions about
the past. Therefore scientists use their understanding of continental drift and natural selection
theories, together with evidence of climate changes and extinct organisms from the fossil
record, to piece together Earth’s history.
• Scientists use the fossil record to make conclusions about the history of life through a
process of deductive reasoning.
• Deductive reasoning involves combining our understanding of known principles to
make conclusions about new evidence that we have uncovered.
• Our knowledge of the history of life is not based on radiometric dating methods alone.
Rather, through our understanding of the changes in Earth’s climate and biogeography
allow us to make conclusions about newly discovered fossil evidence.
• For example, our knowledge of the changes to the Earth’s early atmosphere we know
that the formation of the ozone layer blocked off the damaging rays of the sun’s UV
rays. This led to the growth of plant species which gradually made terrestrial existence
possible.

• A transitional fossil is any fossilised remains that is common to an ancestral life form
as well as to the group that is derived from it.
• It gives us information about how an ancestral species evolved to form the existing
species.
• An example of a transitional fossil is the Archaeopteryx. It is thought to belong to the
genus of Theropod dinosaur which is closely related to the birds.
The exercise below requires you to understand the similarities between the Archaeopteryx
and the modern bird.
Activity: Comparing the skeleton of a modern bird to the Archaeopteryx
Aim:
To compare the skeletons of a modern bird (chicken) and Archaeopteryx
Instructions:
1. Use the pictures below to compare the skeletons of a dinosaur (Theropod) , Ar-
chaeopteryx and a chicken (modern bird).
2. In your answer, give four differences and four similarities between Archaeopteryx and
dinosaurs, and between Archaeopteryx and birds.

Teacher’s Guide
Teacher’s guide
Solution to activity:

Archaeopteryx vs Dinosaur: SIMILARITIES:
1. Jaws have teeth
2. Hand / arm has claws
3. Long bony tail present
4. Presence of gastralia or dermal ribs (not attached to spine)
Archaeopteryx vs Dinosaur: DIFFERENCES:
1. Long forelimbs, like wings Short forelimbs
2. Feathers present No feathers
3. Hand has three claws Hand has five claws
4. Furcula / wish bone present No furcula present
Archaeopteryx vs Modern bird SIMILARITIES:
1. Feathers are present
2. Forelimbs are long and wing-like
3. Furcula / wish bone present (fused clavicles)
4. Bones of the lower forelimb are separate
Archaeopteryx vs Modern bird DIFFERENCES:
1. Teeth in jaws No teeth in the beak
2. Claws on forelimbs Forelimbs without claws
3. Long bony tail Short tail bones / pygostral present
4. No breast bone Breast bone with a keel
11.3 Life’s History DUMMY
Pre-Cambrian DUMMY
Hadean: the Earth we live on is approximately 4,6 billion years old. The conditions that
allowed for the emergence of life lasted approximately 500 million years. It was an environ-
ment in which the Earth’s crust cooled and the oceans and atmosphere began to form. In this
environment, a variety of complex chemical reactions occurred, resulting in the production
of the earliest molecules capable of making copies of themselves at a rate that was faster than
that at which they were destroyed. However such self-replication required energy, space and
smaller building blocks which soon become limited. This resulted in competition for these
resources, and natural selection favoured those molecules that were best at self-replication.
Archean: when life in the form of uni-cellular organisms first developed, the Earth’s early
atmosphere consisted entirely of volcanic gases, and there was no free oxygen. Prokaryotes
evolved, with photosynthesising bacteria (known as cyanobacteria) emerging approximately
3 billion years ago. The presence of photosynthesising cyanobacteria resulted in the re-
lease of oxygen into the atmosphere. The oxygen concentration then slowly began to rise,
becoming poisonous for many anaerobic bacteria. The rise in atmospheric oxygen concen-
trations led to the extinction of anaerobic bacteria, while stimulating the biodiversity and
development of oxygen-tolerant life forms.
The early single-celled organisms (bacteria and cyanobacteria) lived together in aquatic
colonies. These colonies were formed by trapping sediments and minerals floating in water
and by producing a mucus which bound everything together. As the colony of bacteria, min-
erals and sediments grew, so did the structure that they made, and layer upon layer built up.
In order to capture as much sunlight as possible, the shape of the top of this sedimented algal
mat was curved (Figure 11.5). These curved and multi-layered structures were preserved and
exist as fossils to become what we now know are stromatolites.
388 11.3. Life’s History

Figure 11.5: Wondergat, Northwest Province, the only place in South Africa where stromatolites have
been found.
Figure 11.6: Stromatolites in Shark Bay.
Proterozoic: over the next 800 million years, the earliest forms of sexual reproduction de-
veloped, thus greatly increasing the diversity of organisms. The first multicellular organisms
consisting of cells specialised to perform specific functions began to evolve. The fossils
known as Swartpuntia first appeared approximately 600 million years ago and went extinct
by the start of the Cambrian, 543 million years ago. Swartpunia are some of the first soft-
bodied organisms in the fossil record. Swartpunia fossils were discovered in Namibia and
are some of the oldest fossils known to exist from before the Cambrian period.

FACT
Approximately
850–630 million
years ago, a ’global
glaciation’ event is
thought to have
occurred, also
known as an
’Snowball Earth’. At
this time
temperatures
dropped
dramatically and
large parts of the
Earth’s surface were
covered in ice.
During this period it
is thought that any
life forms
dependent on light
would have gone
extinct.
Figure 11.7: Earliest soft-bodied animals found in Namibia. A simplified reconstruction of Swartpun-
tia.
Cambrian explosion DUMMY
From approximately 580–500 million years ago, a large diversity of creatures appeared.
This event is called the Cambrian Explosion, and almost all of the animals alive today can
trace their beginnings to this rapid expansion of diversity. The Cambrian Explosion was the
relatively rapid appearance over millions of years of most of the main animal groups found
in the fossil record.
In Cambrian times there was no life on land and little or none in freshwater — the sea was still
very much the centre of living activity. From 580–540 million years ago, oxygen began to
accumulate in the atmosphere, allowing for the formation of the ozone layer which blocked
the damaging rays of the ultraviolet light from the sun, permitting the colonisation of land.
The Cambrian explosion was just the first period of the Paleozoic era. It is famous because
of the sudden explosion in diverse morphologies, and the fact that is ”sowed the seeds” for
the continued evolution that occurred throughout the Paleozoic.
Paleozoic era (542 to 251 million years ago) DUMMY
The massive supercontinent Pangaea formed during the Paleozoic, and this era also saw the
diversification and evolution of many of the animal phyla that are still present today. During
the Paleozoic:
• The first fish (chordates) appeared more than 500 million years ago, and it is from this
common ancestor that vertebrates, including mammals (and humans) are ultimately

descended. Fish developed bony spines and jaws with teeth which increased the size FACT
and diversity of the prey they could capture. Hard shells fossilise
more readily than
• Animals with shells and exoskeletons (e.g the trilobites) were in abundance early in soft bodied
the Paleozoic, but declined towards the end of the era. organisms, as they
are better at
• The earliest plants colonised land approximately 430 million years ago, having evolved
resisting decay, take
from the nearby algae growing along lakes and other coastal areas. significantly longer
• Forests of primitive plants covered the Earth’s surface, resulting in increased oxygen to break down, and
have a greater
levels and decreased carbon dioxide levels in the earth’s atmosphere.
chance of surviving
• The first insects appeared, and later on some species developed wings. burial under layers
of sediment. For this
• Later in the Paleozoic amphibians became common and diverse and started moving
reason, hard-shelled
onto land. organisms such as
• Early reptiles synapsids colonised land. trilobites dominate
the fossil record.
• Towards the end of the Paleozoic gymnosperms (seed-bearing plants) replaced much Sometimes by pure
of the earlier plant-types. luck, geologists find
beautiful fossils of
soft bodied
The end of this period was marked by a mass extinction event (called the Permian-Triassic creatures. A good
extinction event) which eliminated almost all marine life but had a less devastating impact place for
on terrestrial species. discovering softer
bodied organisms is
the Burgess Shale
South African fossil record: fossils of early land plants such as clubmosses, lycopods, ances- site.
tral gymnosperms and algae were found near Grahamstown and Port Alfred. Fossils of plants
belonging to the Glossopteris flora are found in the Karoo. This plant flourished throughout
the ancient landmass of Gondwanaland. However, by the end of the Permian period this
crop had become extinct. The fossilised remains of these plants are found in silts and in
rocks throughout the country, where coal deposits can be found (Figure 11.8). Among the
organisms that moved on to land at this time were the ammonoids, which are marine inver-
tebrate animals with spiral-shaped shells, the fossils of which are found in the Makhatini flats
in KwaZulu Natal.
Figure 11.8: Map of coal deposits in SA: often these deposits are the sites of plant and animal fossils
as they are created by the same process.
”Living fossils” in South Africa: Cycads have been in existence for over 280 million years.
There are several rare species of cycads found exclusively within South Africa. They grow
very slowly and live for up to a 1000 years. Because they are such a rare species, there
are several restrictions on what can be done to them. In South Africa, unless required for
conservation purposes, it is illegal to collect, pluck, destroy, export or possess cycads without
a special permit.

FACT
Cycads occur across
much of the
subtropical and
tropical parts of the
world including
here in South Africa
where their
evolutionary
importance has
made them a
’protected species’.
FACT
The existing sequoia
trees found mainly
in the United States
were also thought to
have evolved in the
Mesozoic.
Figure 11.9: Cycads have been in existence for over 280 million years.
Mesozoic (251-72 million years ago) DUMMY
Figure 11.10:
Sequoia trees in The Mesozoic Era is often referred to as the ’age of reptiles’ because throughout the marine
California, USA. and terrestrial habitats, reptiles (especially dinosaurs) were dominant. This era is divided into
three major periods: Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous.
The major events of this era included significant changes in the climate, evolutionary activity
and land mass of Earth.
• The climate of the Mesozoic fluctuated dramatically between cooling and warming
periods.
• Until this point, the Earth existed as one giant land mass called Pangaea. During the
Mesozoic era, this land mass broke up, and by the end of the era, the continents as we
know them today drifted into their current positions.
• The extinction of nearly all animal species in the former Paleozoic era led to rapid
evolution of many new life forms.
• Dinosaurs appeared on land, becoming the major terrestrial vertebrates for nearly 135
million years.
• Pterosaurs (flying reptiles) dominated the skies and aquatic reptiles such as ichthyosaurs
were found in the oceans.
• During the Triassic, Archaeopteryx , a link between reptiles and birds was thought to
evolve.
• The earliest birds appeared during the Jurassic period having evolved from a species of
dinosaur called theropods.
• Dinosaurs became extinct around 65 million years ago, at the end of the Cretaceous
period.
• The dominant land plant species of the time were the seed-producing plants known as
the gymnosperms. These include the cycads and conifers.
South African fossil examples: The mammal-like reptile, Lystrosaurus was by far the most
dominant terrestrial vertebrate during the Early Triassic period. Specimens of the lystrosaurus

were unearthed in the Balfour and Katburg formations in the Karoo. The discovery of FACT
Lystrosaurus in the Coalsack Bluff in the Transantarctic Mountains helped confirm the theory When the
coelocanth was
that the continents of the Earth were once joined, as Lystrosaurus had already been found in
initially discovered
the Early Triassic fossil record of Southern Africa, India and China. by an East London
fisherman in 1938
and identified as
such by Professor
JLB Smith, this
surprised scientists
because they
thought it had
become extinct.
Soon there were
other such
discoveries of the
coelocanth off the
coast of Kwa-Zulu
Figure 11.11: Lystrosaurus skeletal diagram.
Natal as well as
Northern
Madagascar.
Coelocanths
”Living fossils” in South Africa: Coelocanths were thought to have gone extinct towards the represent a link
end of the Cretaceous period but were re-discovered in 1983 off the northern coast of South between fish and
Africa in Kwazulu-Natal. The coelocanth is thought to have evolved into its current form over amphibians.
400 million years ago and is nicknamed a ’living fossil’ because knowledge of the species
was previously based on fossils as it was thought to have gone extinct. Coelocanths and
amphibians share a common ancestor-the lobe-finned fish. Lobe finned fish have fleshy fins
unlike fins in other fish which are joined to the body by a single bone. Pectoral and pelvic
fins have articulations resembling those of tetrapod limbs. These fins evolved into legs in
the earliest tetrapod land vertebrates which were amphibians. Living lobe-finned organisms
include the coelocanths and lungfish.
Figure 11.12: Coelocanths, which represent a link between fish and amphibians, were though to
have gone extinct at the end of the cretaceous period.
Coenozoic era (65 million years ago to present) DUMMY
If the Mesozoic was the ”age of dinosaurs”, then the Coenzoic has been the ”age of mam-
mals”. The Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event occurred towards the end of the Mesozoic
era and half the animal species on earth, including the dinosaurs were wiped out. As a result
mammals diversified to fill ecological niches.

FACT • The continents moved into their existing locations, with Australia-New Guinea having
In Grade 12 you split from Gondwana during early Cretaceous, drifting north and eventually colliding
will learn study in
with South-east Asia. Antarctica moved into its current position over the South Pole and
great detail the
course of human the Atlantic Ocean widened and South America became attached to North America.
evolution to gain a • 54–33 million years ago, Africa was an island, not yet joined to the Middle East and
firm understanding
Europe.
of how we evolved.
For Grade 10, we • The climate warmed significantly until 55 million years ago, followed by long-term
will learn some of cooling since 49 million years ago.
the significant
changes that have • Many species of grass evolved from flowering plants between 33 and 24 million years
occurred in our ago.
species in Africa
• As the Earth cooled, grasslands began to expand and forests shrank.
over the last four
million years. • Animals evolved to fit the new, open landscape and many fast-running prey and preda-
tor species arose as a result.
It is during the Cenozoic Era that our species, Homo sapiens evolved into the anatomically
modern humans we are today.
The evolution of Homo sapiens: evidence from Africa DUMMY
Humans are thought to have evolved from their ape-like ancestor over the last 6 million
years. Human evolution has involved changes in physical appearance and behavioural traits.
Some important physical developments include bipedalism, and a larger, more complex
brain. Behavioural characteristics involve the ability to use fire and make and use tools and
the ability to communicate by means of language.
The most widely accepted theory of how anatomically modern humans evolved, suggests
that homo sapiens evolved in Africa approximately 200 000 to 150 000 years ago in what
has now become known as the ”Out of Africa” theory. Some of the evidence for the key
events as found in Africa is shown in the table below.
Human ancestors evolved and migrated out of Africa in a series of ’waves’.
Event in human evolutionary history Evidence of event from Africa

Hominins and chimpanzees diverge The earliest known human ancestor
from a common ancestor. after the chimpanzee/human
separation is Orrorin tugenensis
(Millenium Man, Kenya, around 6
million years ago)
Evidence of development of Human-like footprints discovered on
bipedalism in humans in volcanic ash in Laetoli Kenya from
Australopithecus afarensis 3,9–2,9 million years ago
Bipedal austrolopithecines lose body These bipedals evolved in the
hair 3–2 million years ago savannas of Africa and loss of body
hair occurs in parallel with the
development of bipedalism
Homo habilis discovers ability to use Fossils discovered in Tanzania, East
tools 2,3–1,4 million years ago Africa in Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania and
at Lake Turkana, Kenya
Approximately 200 000 years ago, The earliest fossil evidence found is
anatomically modern humans evolved. near Omo river in Ethiopia

Fossil sites from South Africa providing evidence for pre-humans and humans FACT
Philip Tobias
(October 1925–June
South Africa has been the site of various fossil sites and has been home to some of the world’s
2012) was a South
leading paleoanthropologists such as Robert Broom, Raymond Dart and Phillip Tobias. Fos- African palaeoan-
sils of pre-humans and humans found across the country have contributed significantly to thropologist at
our understanding of human history on Earth. The table below shows some of the evidence University of
Witwatersrand
and where it is located in South Africa.
whose work has
contributed
enormously to our
Fossil Evidence and Age Location in South Africa Importance understanding of
Australopithecus Kimberley Most direct ancestor of how humans
africanus (the ”Taung modern humans evolved. He is best
known for his work
Child”) (approximately
with fellow
2,5 million years ago) palaeoanthropolo-
Australopithecus sediba Malapa Nature Reserve, First evidence of gist Louis Leakey.
(approximately 2 million Johannesburg transition to tool-making He identified the
ancestral species of
years ago) in humans
human beings
Homo sapiens Klasies River Caves, Discovery of earliest known as the Homo
(approximately 75 000 Eastern Cape anatomically modern habilis . His work at
years ago) humans the Sterkfontein
caves in Gauteng
has led to it
becoming a World
Heritage site. He
11.4 Mass extinctions DUMMY was also famous for
his opposition to
apartheid and gave
speeches
A mass extinction is defined by a sharp decrease in the amount of plant and animal life. condemning
There have been five major mass extinction events in Earth’s history. These are shown in the apartheid at protest
table given, along with the major events that characterised each. rallies and also to
academic
audiences.

Figure 11.13: Major mass extinction Date of occurrence Major events
Phillip Tobias, event
South African anti-
Cretaceous-Paleogene 65 million years ago Approximately 75% of all
apartheid activist,
world-famous
extinction event species became extinct.
palaeoanthropolo- Mammals and birds
gist. emerged as the dominant
land vertebrates
Triassic-Jurassic event 205 million years ago Most non-dinosaur
species were eliminated,
FACT
The Golden Toad of leaving land dinosaurs
Costa Rica has been with no competition
extinct since around Permian-Triassic event 250 million years ago This was Earth’s largest
1989. Its
extinction event. Almost
disappearance has
been attributed to a all marine life, 70% of
confluence of land species and over
several 80% of all marine genera
factors,including were eliminated. The
global warming
event known as El event had great
Nino, fungus, and evolutionary significance
the introduction of because it allowed the
new species that vacant habitats and
out-competed it for
habitat and food.
ecosystems to be filled by
new species through
natural selection.
Late Devonian extinction 375–360 million years This was a prolonged
ago period of extinction
lasting up to 20 million
years. During this period
up to 70% of living
species were eliminated.
Ordovician-Silurian 450–440 million years Over 50% of all genera
extinction event ago were eliminated during
this period and is ranked
as the second largest
mass extinction in Earth’s
history
Ongoing sixth mass extinction DUMMY
• We are currently living through the ’sixth’ mass extinction according to many scientists.
The present rate of extinction of species is thought to be 140 000 species per year since
approximately 10 000 BC and has continued into the 21st century.
• The extinction includes disappearance of large mammals such as the woolly mam-
moth.
• The sixth extinction event is thought to be occurring at a rapidly increasing rate.
• The two major causes for the sixth extinction are thought to be human hunting and
the rapid rise in human population. You will learn more about the impact of human
activity on the environment in Grades 11 and 12.
396 11.4. Mass extinctions

Causes of mass extinctions DUMMY
There is still a lot of debate among scientists as to what caused the mass extinctions. To be a
valid theory to explain what caused mass extinctions, the theory must:
• explain all the losses of species at a particular mass extinction event (not just specific
losses e.g. dinosaurs).
• explain why some organisms died and others survived.
• be based on natural events and processes that are shown to have occurred around the
time of extinction.
Two of the hypotheses put forward are:
• the impact theory of extinction

• massive volcanic activity
Impact event
The impact of an asteroid smashing into Earth may have caused food chains to collapse both
on land and at sea producing toxic gases blocking out sunlight and preventing photosynthe-
sis. The impact also resulted in the production of sulfur rich acid rain, caused forest fires and
mega-tsunamis. Scientists believe that an asteroid was responsible for the mass extinction 65
million years ago, producing the 600 km crater found in India.
Volcanic activity
Some scientists, using dating technology and other methods, believe that volcanic eruptions
may have caused the mass extinction event at the end of the Cretaceous period that led to
the extinction of among others, the dinosaurs. The researchers, through examining a trail of
dead particles floating in the sea spanning half a million years developed a timeline that links
mass extinction to large-scale eruptions of the Deccan Traps, an ancient volcanic range in
Western India. Evidence suggests that the massive volcanic eruptions pumped out massive
quantities of carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide into the air, thus altering the climate and
contributing to the mass extinction event at the end of the Cretaceous period.
Figure 11.14: Deccan traps, Mahabaleshwar, India.

Activity: What caused the mass extinctions?
Aim:
To use understanding of fossil evidence and scientific method to demonstrate how each of
the hypotheses for mass extinction arrives at its conclusion
Instructions:
• What are the key requirements of a theory that attempts to explain the mass extinctions?
• Choose one of the two hypotheses discussed and describe in your own words what
evidence there is supporting it as an explanation for what caused the mass extinctions.
• Through your research on the Internet and by reading books in the library, determine if
you can, list any other evidence that you found in support of your chosen hypothesis.
Teacher’s Guide
Activity: Observing fossils
Reason:
Examine fossils at a museum or fossil site or look at photographs of fossils.
Materials:
Some fossil sites have already been described.
• A list of museums is given on this website: http://www.southafrica.info/travel/

cultural/museums.htm and here: http://www.museumsonline.co.za/
• A list of fossil sites around the world is given here: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
List_of_fossil_sites. Identify the ones that are within South Africa.
• If you are unable to visit the fossil sites or museums, visit this website: http://
english.fossiel.net/determinatie/identification.php. It gives photographs
and explanations of the major fossils that have shaped our understanding of the history
of life.
Instructions:
Travel to your nearest museum, fossil site or the website listed and observe any fossils on
display. Find out how they have been preserved, describe the key features of each fossil,
how they were dated and what they tell us about our past.
398 11.4. Mass extinctions

Activity: Understanding evolutionary history based on evidence from South Africa
Aim:
We want to locate where the key events in the history of life occurred in South Africa, based
on our earlier discussion of fossil evidence found in South Africa.
Instructions:
The table below lists evidence from South Africa on the history of life.
Draw a map of South Africa
On your map, show where each piece of evidence listed in the table is located.
Also show what this evidence indicates about the history of life.
In the third column of the table, write down the period from which these fossils are likely to
have emerged. The first part has been done for you.
Evidence Location Era, Period

Stromatolites False Bay, Cape Town Paleozoic, Pre-Cambrian
Soft-bodied animals Northern Cape
Early land plants Grahamstown
Primitive plants e.g Mooi River, Estcourt
Glossopteris
Coelacanth Northern KZN Coast
Mammal-like reptiles e.g Karoo
Lystrosaurus, Thrinadoxon
Dinosaurs Euskylosaurus Drakensberg and Maluti
mountains, Ladybrand,
Free State
First mammals Lesotho, Eastern Cape
Humans and pre-humans Gauteng, North West,
Free State,
KwaZulu-Natal, Limpopo
11.5 Impact of humans on biodiversity and environment

DUMMY
Humans have impacted the biodiversity and environment in several crucial ways. The broad
term used to describe this effect is known as the anthropogenic effect which refers to effects
created by human activity and normally refers to environmental pollution.
A number of activities that humans are involved in contribute to the changes in the environ-
ment. The table below lists some of these activities and their effects on the environment

FACT Human activity Environmental Impact
You may have heard Agriculture Climate change as a result of rising
of the controversy
carbon dioxide; deforestation and
surrounding
”fracking”. This is desertification as well as use of fossil
also known as fuels.
’hydraulic Fishing Use of dynamite for fishing results in
fracturing’ and is the destruction of habitats; Overfishing
process by which
rocks are broken up results in extinction of fish species.
(’fractured’) in order Irrigation Results in changes to the quality of the
to release natural soil and underground water. It also
gas or petroleum. uses up the water supply in the local
There is an
estimated 485 rivers and lake areas.
trillion cubic feet of Meat production This is one of the largest contributors
gas in the Karoo in to environmental degradation
South Africa, worldwide. Current methods of animal
making it the fifth
largest source of raising contribute to water pollution,
natural gas in the land degradation, climate change and
world. By using this loss of biodiversity.
gas, South Africa Oil industry The degradation of land, air pollution
would be able to
reduce its
and the environmentally toxic process
dependence on of oil extraction and processing results
coal. However the in loss of biodiversity and destruction
use of fracking to of the environment.
obtain this gas
would result in a
Mining Mining results in erosion of soil,
destruction of the contamination of the groundwater and
fossil record present surface water by chemicals from
beneath the Earth’s mining processes. It also results in
surface in this area
deforestation near mining sites.
of South Africa.
Mining processes are highly toxic and
contamination resulting from mining
can affect the health of the population.
Transport The environmental impact of transport
is mainly due to its use of petroleum,
which creates air pollution. Air
pollution contributes to global
warming through emissions of carbon
dioxide.
Group discussion: How do manage the impact of humans on the planet?
The table above presents the various human activities that have impacted on the environment
and on biodiversity. In groups, discuss possible methods by which the impacts listed above
could be reduced. How can we reduce the impact humans have on the environment? After
your discussion, re-draw the table and add a third column to the right listing these different
ways you have discussed among yourselves.
400 11.5. Impact of humans on biodiversity and environment

FACT
11.6 Fossil tourism DUMMY A brief video about
Maropeng and what
you can do there.
We can rightly be
Given the intense interest humans have in their origins and the deep knowledge of our past proud of this world
that fossils provide us with, fossil tourism is an important source of income and employment class centre!
in areas in which fossils are located. See video:
SHORTCODE at
Figure 11.15: Fossil skull in Karoo National Park, South Africa.
South Africa has a number of sites rich in fossil, which attract tourists. The Cradle of Hu-
mankind in the Krugersdorp area of Gauteng (i.e. Sterkfontein, Swartkrans, Kromdraai and
surrounding area) has been declared a World Heritage Site, since it has yielded so many
significant fossils, such as Mrs Ples, Little Foot and the recently discovered Karabo Child
(2008). There is a tourist centre at Maropeng near this site (”Maropeng” is the Tswana word
for ”origins”).
Many other areas in South Africa also attract tourists due to their rich fossil deposits, such as
Langebaan, Border Cave and the Karroo area.
Many South Africans can find jobs in such tourist areas. They can work as tour guides, hotel
staff, game rangers, drivers, curio sellers and the like. It is important also that the local
people see the tourist site as a potential source of income and employment, not merely as
something academic that has nothing to do with them.
Teacher’s Guide
Go to this link to see information about the Maropeng Visitors’ Centre near Krugersdorp in
Gauteng: http://www.maropeng.co.za/index.php/maropeng/
Watch a short video interview with Prof Lee Berger, who found a fossil of Australopithecus
sediba near Sterkfontein in 2008: http://www.maropeng.co.za/index.php/media/
11.7 Summary DUMMY
• Scientists use deductive reasoning to understand fossils and the history of life on Earth.
• Geological events often caused changes in climate, which in turn influence the emer-
gence and disappearance of species.
• It takes special circumstances for fossils to form, and fossils can be dated by radiometric
dating.
• Climate and geography helped shape the evolution of life on Earth.

• Geological timescales are divided into eons, eras and periods.
• The Cambrian explosion, was a rapid explosion in the diversity of life-forms. All animal
groups have their origin in the Cambrian explosion.
• During the Paleozoic the first fish, animals with shells and insects evolved and plants
first colonised land.
• The Mesozoic was the ‘age of dinosaurs’, later in the era birds evolved, and gym-
nosperms evolved.
• The Cenozoic is the most recent era and was the ‘age of mammals’.
• Mass extinctions are massive losses in life, and there have been five mass extinction
events in history.
• In the last 4 million years significant changes have occurred in species occurring in
Africa, including the evolution of humans.
• Humans have a massive effect on biodiversity and the natural environment and are
partially responsible for the ’6th mass extinction’.
• South Africa is rich in many fossils from diverse time periods.
• Fossil tourism is a source of income and employment in fossil localities.
1. In each of the following cases write down the letter of the most correct alternative.
a) Which of the fossils have been found in Namibia?
i. Mammal-like reptiles
ii. Glassopteris leaves
iii. Soft-bodied animals
iv. Early mammals
Solution:
TODO
b) What was the importance of stromatalites
i. They released oxygen into the air
ii. They absorbed oxygen and prevented animals getting poisoned
iii. They are the closest ancestors of modern plants
iv. They were algae trapped in sediment
Solution:
TODO
c) A problem in determining the accuracy of radiometric dating is that
i. scientists are not sure that radioactive decay actually occurs
ii. the decay rate of minerals can change without warning
iii. the rocks that contain the fossils can’t be dated
iv. only organic samples can be dated radiometrically
Solution:
TODO
2. Essay:
• The Cradle of Humankind World Heritage site has numerous tourism and eco-
tourism attractions. These ecotourism attractions include the Sterkfontein Caves,
402 11.7. Summary

the Wonder Caves, the first gold mine in Gauteng, rock art sited and as many
game reserves.
1
• You are to write an essay of approximately 1 to 1 pages promoting one of these
2
World Heritage Sites as a tourist attraction. You will be given time to research
your chosen heritage site at home and then the essay will be written in class under
examination conditions. You will only be permitted to bring along a concept map
with details of your heritage site.
Solution:
TODO
3. Study the table below that shows the decay of carbon-14 over time and then answer
the questions that follow:
Decay of carbon-14
Years 0 5 730 11 460 17 190 22 920 X 34 380 40 110
from
present
Number 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
of
half-lives
elapsed
Percentage 100 50 25 12,5 6,25 Z 1,56 0,78
of
original
carbon-
14
remaining
• State TWO types of methods used to determine the age of fossils.

• Calculate the value of
– X
– Z
Explain why it would not be possible to date a fossil which existed 80 million
years ago using the decay of carbon-14.
• Give TWO reasons why there are gaps in the fossil record.
Solution:
TODO
4. Study the graph below which shows the major extinction events answer the questions
that follow.
• When did the Cenozoic era begin?
• Which mass extinction took place towards the end of the
• Paleozoic era?
• Approximately how many families of species went extinct at the end of the Pale-
ozoic era? Show ALL working.
• Explain why the number of families of organisms, after each mass extinction
rapidly increased.
• The following questions are about the extinction of dinosaurs on Earth.
• What evidence do scientists use to show that dinosaurs once existed on Earth?
• How long ago did the dinosaurs become extinct?

• Describe a hypothesis that has been proposed for the extinction of many species,
including the dinosaurs during the extinction event at the end of the mesozoic.
Solution:
TODO
404 11.7. Summary

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TEACHER’

GRADE 10 LIFE SCIENCES

Siyavula and DBE team

The Siyavula Everything

The Siyavula Everything

www.everythingmaths.co.za and www.everythingscience.co.za

CHECK YOUR ANSWERS ONLINE OR ON YOUR PHONE

www.everythingmaths.co.za and www.everythingscience.co.za or

DOWNLOAD FOR TABLETS

PRACTISE FOR TESTS & EXAMS ONLINE & ON YOUR PHONE

Intelligent Practice is an online Maths and

Practise questions like these by registering at

1 Introduction to Life Sciences 4

2 The chemistry of life 26

3 The basic units of life 64

4 Cell division 106

5 Plant and animal tissues 130

6 Support and transport systems in plants 184

7 Support systems in animals 226

8 Transport systems in animals 260

9 Biospheres to ecosystems 298

10 Biodiversity and classification 350

11 History of Life on Earth 372

Introduction to Life Sciences

1.1 About this chapter 4

1.1 About this chapter DUMMY

1.2 What is Life Sciences? DUMMY

• Anatomy (plant and animal)

1.3 Why study Life Sciences? DUMMY

Here are some reasons to study Life Sciences:

4 1.1. About this chapter

An A to Z of possible careers in Life Sciences DUMMY

Chapter 1. Introduction to Life Sciences 5

1.4 How science works DUMMY

• To be accepted as a science, certain methods for broadening existing knowledge, or

Scientific method DUMMY

6 1.4. How science works

A step-by-step guide to the scientific method

• Ask a question to which you want to find an answer.

Chapter 1. Introduction to Life Sciences 7

8 1.4. How science works

Chapter 1. Introduction to Life Sciences 9

• In the aim you need to state what you going to be investigating.

• Sizes of beakers, test tubes and measuring cylinders

10 1.4. How science works

• Record your observations from doing the investigation.

9. Analysis of results or Discussion

10. Evaluation of results

Chapter 1. Introduction to Life Sciences 11

Important principles and relationships in Life Sciences DUMMY

Surface area and volume

This is highlighted in the following examples:

12 1.4. How science works

Structure and function

1. What makes this structure suited to its function?

1.5 Biological drawings and diagrams DUMMY

Some rules to follow

Drawings and diagrams must:

• Be drawn in a sharp pencil for clear, smooth lines.

Chapter 1. Introduction to Life Sciences 13