Unit 17 Spices
Unit 17 Spices
Unit 17 Spices
Structure
Introduction
Objectives
Spices and Condiments
Importance of Spices
Spices Obtained from Underground Parts: Rhizome
17.4.1 Ginger
17.4.2 Turmeric
Spices Obtained from the Bark
17.5.1 Cinna~non
Spices Obtained from Flower Buds or Flowers
17.6.1 Saffron
17.6.2 Clove
Spices Obtained from Fruits
17.7.1 Capsicum/ CI2illies
17.7 2 Pepper
17.7.3 Coriander
17.7.4 Fennel
Spices Obtained from Seeds
17.8.1 Mustard
17.8.2 Cardamom
17.8.3 Nutmeg nnd Mace
Summary
Terlninal Questions
Answers
INTRODUCTION
The story of spices is one of the most spicy chapters in the history of the plant kingdom.
HistoricaIly, spices have been responsible for the rise and fall of empires and the great sea
voyages to explore the distant corners of the globe. Infact, spices have played an
important role in shaping the course of history; they have been connected with rtdventurc,
conquests, exploration and exploitation around the world. In the latter half of tlle fifteenth
century, both ' ~ o ~ - l uand
~ a lspain explored sea routes to the spice islands (Moluccas).
Christopher Coluinbus sailed west from' Spain in 1492, hoping to reach the spice islnnds
ahead of the Porluguese, but he failed in his primary mission. Instead, he discovered thc
America and also llelped in the discovery of two of the three irnporta~ntNew World
spices, all spice (Pimenta oflcinalis) and red pepper (Capsictr~tlspp.). The third
important New World spice is vanilla (Vanillaplanifolia). In early part of the eighteenth
centu~y~spices were smuggled away and planted around the world, especially in the West
Indies. Now a days, substantial plantations are grown in America. However, the vast
majority of spices are stiIl obtained fionl the wetter parts of the tropics, chiefly Asia.
In India, the major spices produced are pepper, cardamom, ginger, turmeric and chillies.
Black pepper is one of the most important Indian spices, and is known as the 'Icing of
Spices' or it is called black gold of India. While next comes cardamom called the "Queen llldia produces 2.5 ~iiilliontc~lncsof
of Spices' through which lndia earns a lot of foreign exchange. Some other important spices imd cxports nboul150,000
tonncs.
spices grown in India include ajowan, aniseed, caraway, celery, coriander, cumin, dill,
fennel, fennugreek, garlic, onion, saffron and vanilla. Spices are grown mainly in Kerala,
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Mallarashtra, Orissa, Rajastl~anand Billat:.
In this unit we will describe in detail some of the importat spices which are co~nmo~nly
used in Indian cooking.
Objectives
After studying this Unit you should be able to:
* Differentiate between the terms spices, condiments and herbs,
o describe the importance of spices in our life,
o know the system of classification of spices,
Economic Botany
0 state the botanical, common and vetnacular names of the plants, their chromosome
numbers, families, parts ofthe plant used as spices,
e name the place of origin of the spice, its distribution in the world with special
reference to Indian states,
give a description of the plants that produce the spices,
enumerate the uses of various spices,
a identify some'coinmon adulterants of spices.
Most o f the chemical Condiments on the other hand are spices that are usually added to food after cooking. In
compounds responsible for contrast, when the aromatic vegetable product comes from a temperate plant, it is
the distinctive tates and
smells of spices and considered as a culinary herb (non-woody), as in case of bay leaves, coriander, fennel,
condiments are known as mustard, etc.
e~sentialoils.
In this Unit the classification and description of the twelve spices is based on similarity in
plant parts from which they have originated : rhizome (ginger and turmeric), bark
(cinnamon), bud (clove), flower-stigma (saffron), fruit (capsicum, pepper, fennel and
coriander), seeds (mustard, cardamom, nutmeg and mace).
Fig. 17.1: Zingiber oofjicinale.Ginger. n) Plant wilh rhizome. b) Inflorescencc. c) Close up of rhtzome.
Econon~icBotany
Cultivation: The plant grows best iri warm tropical climate and can grow in the region
from sea level to 1500 In. The plant is propagated commercially by portions of the
rhizome, 2.5 to 5 cm. long, with at least one viable bud. Ginger is a soil exhausting crop,
requiring heavy fertilization. Sandy, clayey or lateritic loams are best suited for crop. It is
usually grown on small holdings.
The crop is harvested in stages. For green ginger, the tender rhizomes, which are needed
for pickling, are ready for harvesting fiom the fifth month. But for mature or brown
rhizome, hawesting is done 9-10 months after planting when the leaves begin to turn
yellow. The rhizomes are pale yellow, faintly orange or yellow-orange in colour
externally and greenish yellow inside. It requires curing after harvesting and appears in
market in two forms:
Dried or cured ginger - It is produced by various methods in different countries.
Two important grades of dried ginger are recognised in the spice trade (a) scraped or
peeled ginger (uncoated ginger), and (b) unscraped or coated ginger. The finest
quality of Jamaica ginger is carefully scraped and dried in the sun for five to six
days. Scraped Jamaica ginger is light buff in colour with a very delicate aroma and
flavour. In some countries, the rhizomes are plunged into boiling water for a few
minutes (scalded) and are dried in the sun with or without peeling. Liming has been
found to improve the colour and appearance and the spice is protected from mildew
and other pests. The rhizomes are sometimes bleached by sulphur fumes.
2. Green ginger - It is prepared by boiling the tender, fleshy peeled rhizomes in water,
after which they are boiled and sold in sugar syrup. Crystallised ginger is produced
in the same way, but is dried and dusted with sugar. Much of the preserved and
crystallised ginger is now exported from Hongkong. Chinese ginger with a low
pungency and aroma is used for this purpose.
Uses
i) In Food Preparations: It is widely used for culinary purposes in the preparation of
ginger bread, biscuits, cakes, puddings, soups and pickles.
ii) Recovery of starch and manufacturing soft drililts from exhausted ginger (after
recovery of volatile oil): Starch can be obtained from ginger residue arter the
recovely of oleoresin. Likewise, vitaminised effervescent or plain ginger powder
can be obtained from the exhausted ginger.
iii) Alcoholic Beverages: Ginger is also used for flavouring beverages, such as ginger
beer, ginger ale and ginger wine.
iv) In Medicine: According to the Ayurvedic system of medicine, ginger is considered
to be a stimulant and carminative (helps in the expulsion of gas in the stomach).
v) Ginger oil: It is used (a) as a flavourant in non-alcoholic beverages, confectionery
and pickles, (b) in pharmaceutical industry as a canninative, rubefacient (causing
redness, as of the skin), in gastritis and dyspepsia (indigestion), and (c) in perfumery
as it imparts a distinctive sinell of the oriental type.
17.4-.2 Turmeric
Botanical name: Curcuntn tonga L. syn. C. ciotnestica Val.
Family: Zingiberaccae
Comn~onname: Haldi
2n = 62,63,64
Origiul: Turmeric is indigenous to southern Asia. It is not known in a wild state with
certainity but has become naturalized in some areas in drier paits of eastern Java. The
cultigen is a sterile triploid which does not fruit. It seems to have arisen by continued
selection and cultivation by vegetative propagation from unknown wild ancestors, of
which Clrrcumnaromaticn, a wild diploid (2n = 42) in. India, may have been one parent.
In Indin, about 150000 t. of
cured turmeric is produced Distribution: Turmeric is cultivated extensively in India, S ~Lanka,
I Indonesia, China,
annually, of which about 92 Taiwan, Indochina, Peru, Haiti and Jamaica. India is by far the largest producer in the
per cant is consu~lledin India world. The main turmeric growing states are Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Tamil
and rest is exported. Nadu, Kalnataka and Kerala and in northeast in Khasi and Jaintia hills.
Morphology: Turmeric is a perennial herb up to 1 m tall with a short stem bearing a tuft
of 6-10 leaves, surrounded by bBadeless sheaths; the leaf sheaths form a pseudostem.
Spices
?'he main thickened bulb i.e. rhizome "bulb" has a number of cylindrical pritnary,
seconday and even tertiary rhizomes (fingers). The rhizonle, is short, thick, blunt,
rounded and coarser than ginger (Fig. 17.2). It branches at right angles and bears fibrous
adventitious roots. It has a closely ringed, corky epidermis and a bright orange core with
a distinctive s~nelland taste.
Pig. 17.2: 'L'uro~eric.e) Plant; p1:111twit11 rl~izome.b) Only rllizo~nc.c) Cross section of tlrc finger.
Cultivation: The p131it is propagated vegetatively. l h e rhizome or finger with one or two A number of varieties in lt~diaarc
distinguished by tire names of the
buds is used as 'seed' for planting. It is often grown on ridges and thrives best in hot, locnlities in wllicli they alc grown
moist tropical climate in well drained soil. 'Those with hard, bright-colourcd
rhizomes arc prererred fbr dyeing
The crop is harvested nine to ten n~o~ltlls after planting when the lower leaves develop a Largcr, saner, more aromatic, an
yellow colour. The 111~in~'hizornealong with linger-like ol'f-shoots is carefully d u g out tigl~t-colourcdrllilronles produce
and the fibrous roots are cut-off. Greet1 turmeric has to be cured aid processed before it is the bcst spice. Mndras turmeric is
highly estce~ncdin the market.
marketed. Curing consists of boiling the rhizomes in water over a slow fire until they
beconze soft. A few leaves of turmeric are usually added to the water in a cooking vessel.
The cooked ~*hizomes are dried in the sun for about a week. Finally they arc polished by
rotating tliem hl polishing drums. The resultant product is gradcd into 'fingers', 'rounds'
and 'splits', fingers fetching a higher prerriiu~nin the spice trade. Cured and finished
turmeric is deep yellow to orange-yellow and has a distinctive pungent flavour.
,! Uses
I
i) As a Flavourant: In most of the Asiatic countries tiir~nericis used as a food adjunct
& rnany vegetable, Ineat and fish preparations. Turmeric is an antioxidant because
o f the pknolic character o f curcuma. This also increases the keeping quality ofthe
spice. Its arornatic oil content irnparts flavour ilnd colour. It is an important part of
curry powder. It acts as an appetiser and helps in digestion. Turnieric llas a musky odour due
ii) As a dye: Turmeric has a colouring matter called curcumin, which imparts a to tlic presencc of esselltidl oils
yellowish shade in an acid bath. It is wed for dyeing wool, silk and cotton. It is also (5-6 per cent), of which 111ain
used in paint and varnish industry. Turmeric paper is used for testing alkalinity. constituents nre d-a-pl~cllandrene,
d-sabinenc, cit~col,borneol,
iii) I n Medicine: In the Indian system of medicine turmeric occupies an important place zingiberene and sesquitcrpcnes.
as an ingredient in the preparation of medicinal oil, ointments and poultices. It is Thc yellow colour is due to
useful in curing periodic attacks ofhysteria and convulsions, intestinal disorders, curcumin.
anemia (turmeric is rich in iron), measles, asthma, cough and cold, sprains, boils, slcin
disorders and sore eyes. Burnt turmeric used as toothpaste relieves dental troubles,
I
1
iv) In Cosmetic iadustry: Because of its healing and antiseptic properties, turmeric is
used in the preparation of kumltum, creanis and lotions.
17.5.1 Cinnamon
Botanical name: Cinnnmromrrm ztylnizicunz Breyn
Family: Lauraceae
Common name: Dalcl~illi
2n = 24
Origin: Cinnamon is indigenous to Sri Lanka. In India this tree is grown in Kerala and
forests of Western ghats.
111ludin, C ~ I I I I ~ I I ~isO grown
II Distribution: The quality of cinnamon depends, among other factors on the region where it
(111llie\vest coasl. In is grown. Sri Lankan cinnamon and cinnamon from the Seychelles Islands are considered to
Al!jarakkandi. C n l ~ ~ ~ o n o r c
dislrict, Kcraln, 1llcl.e is a 248 be among the best. The other producers are China, Malaysia and Indonesia. It is also, to
scrc Kand;~'rarra cinnn~non some extent cultivated, in Kenya, Tanzania, the West Indies and South America.
plalltati~n- One oftlle
biggest and pcrllaps Ll~eoldest Morphology: Cinnarnornzlm tcylanicztm is an evergreen tree. It reaches a height of 9-12m
plantation in Asi:~. (sometimes up to 18m) in its native habitats Sri Lanka and South India. It is usually
grown as a 'cut back' bush under cultivation. Both bark and leaves are strongly aromatic.
The leaves are large (12.7 - 17.5 cm in length) leathery, bluntIy pointed, glossy, dark
greenish above and dull grey greenish below with three or five prominent ribs.
The flowers are in lax axillary and terminal panicles at the end of twigs (Fig. 17.3 a). The
flowers are small (Fig. 17.3 b), with foetid smell. The fruit is purplish or black, fleshy, I -
seeded, ovoid with enlarged calyx at base (Fig. 17.3 c).
Cultivation: Plants are generally raised from seeds, but car1 also be propagated from
cuttings. The.cinnamon plant grows best in sheltered situations from almost sca level up
to an elevation of about I000 m. where average rainfall is 200-250 cm. and meqn
temperature about 27°C. A hot and moist or humid climate is considered ideal for its
cultivation. Two to three years after planting, the plants are cut back or 'coppiced' to
induce the formation of new shoots from the suckers which, in due course, are pruned to
leave six to eight plants per bush.
The first crop of cinnamon is obtained some two years later when tlie plants have reached
a height of 2-2.5 m. The plants are cut close to tlie ground following the monsoon rainfall
as it facilitates the peeling of the bark.
Two longitudinal slits are made lengthwise in the severed shoots and the bark is peeled
off in one meter lengths with the help of specially designed tools. The barlc lengths are
Headache produced by exposure
then firmly tied together in bundles and left for 24 hours to 'ferment'. 'The corky outer
to cold air is rendily cured by layer of the bark is then carefully scraped off and allowed to dry which makes it contract
al~plyinga paste of finely and curl inwards in the form of hollow tube-like structure the cluills of commerce (Fig.
powdered cinnamon nlixed in 17.3 c). Good quills should be about 1 cm. wide and 4 mm. thick. '
walcr on tllc tcmples and
forehead.
Uses
*l'l~ebark co~ltain0.5-1.5 per cent
essential oil. Its cl~iefconstituent i) As a flavouring agent: Dried cinnamon leaves and inner barlc are used for
is cinnamic aldeliyde (60-75per flavouring cakes and sweets and in curry powder. Cinnamon bark oil is also used
ccnt). Cinnamon leaf oil contains for flavouring confectionery and liquors.
70-95 per cent eugenol. MedicinaI: Cinnamon is an effective remedy for coninion cold. It checks nausea,
ii)
vomiting and diarrhoea. It stimulates digestion.
Cinnamon leaves are usefuI in relieving flatulence and in increasing secretion and
discharge of urine. It also prevents nervous tension. It is used in pharmaceutical
soaps and dental preparations.
(iii) In perfume industry: Both cinnamon bark and leaves are used in the preparation
of incense, and perfumes. Leaf oil (it has 70-95 per cent eugenol) is generally
preferred to clove oil for the synthesis of vanillin.
Fig. 17.3: Cinr~nnronlrrnrzcylnrricrmr. a ) Floweril~gsbuut. IJ) Flower in lot~gitudinrlsection. c) Q~lilla.
Box 17.1: I.S.O. Officially recogriiscs the following species:
Botanical names Popular names
A. (i) Cinnan10117zrm zeyla17iccln~ Cinnamon
(ii) C. tatnula (Buch - Kam.) T. Tejpat 01.Indian Cassiu
Nees and Eberm. Lignca
(iii) C. obtus~folium Tejpat
R. (0 C. arornatic.zlmC.G. Nees or Cassia China or Cassia
C. Cussia
(ii) C. hltrtna1717iiBlumc Batavia Cassia or
Cussin Vera Java Cassia or
Padang cinnamon
(iii) C. Za14rei~ii Saigon ca.ssia
SAQ 1
Fill in the blanks using appropriate words:
1. Columbus helped in the discovery of two important New World spices,
.....................and .......................
2. Most ofthe chelnicals responsible for the characteristic flavour and odour of herbs,
: ................
spices and condiments are compounds k n o w as .......................
3. Ginger plant has a oleoresin known as .... ....
...................
4. Turmeric is indigenous to ..............................................,...
5. ........................has a colouring matter called curcumin, which imparts a
yellowish shade in an acid bath.
Economic Botany
117.6 SPICES OBTAINED FROM FLOWER BUDS OR
FLOWERS
Several spices are obtained from flowers or flower buds such as capers fiom Cupparis
spinosa, cloves from Eugenia caryophyllatu, and saffron fiom Crocus sativus. We are
going to describe in detail saffron (the costliest spice) and clove, these are commonly
used in Indian cooking.
17.6.1 Saffron
Botanical name: Crocus safivus Linn.
Family: Iridaceae
Common name: Kesal./Zafi.an
n = 12
Origin: The saffron plant is probably a native of southern Europe'and Asia Minor.
Distribution: Saffron is cultivated in Spain, Turkey, France, Italy, Greece, Austria,
England, Iran, China and India. I11 India, saffron cultivation is mostly confined to
Pampore (altitude 1700 m) in Kasllmir and the Kishhvar region in Jamniu. Experimental
cultivation of saffron has been successf~ilin nurseries at Doonda (Uttarkashi), Joshimath
(Chamoli), Risar (Pithoragarh) and Bharsar (Pauri Garhwal) in the Uttar Pradesh hills.
Cultivation: Saf'fron plants are propagated vegetatively by planting young cormlets. 'The
warm or subtropical climate in cold region is nceded for cullivatioti of this spice. The
Flowering period in India begins during middle or late October and lasts until first or
sccond wceli of November. Stigmas are hand piclted every day as flowers open. They are
dried in the sun or by artificial heat. After complete drying, the saffron is packed
immediately, preferably in tin containcr. The finest quality ofsaffron, 'Shahi Zafran' is
obtained from the red tips oCtlle stigmas. The remaining part of the stigma constitutes the
inferior grade saffron.
Uses
S;ii'lioli is an i ~ i g r c t l i c ~ol'~iialiy
it
(i) As a flavoul-ing a n d dyeing agent: SafRon is used for colouring and flavouring C o ~ i t i i ~ cdislies.
~ ~ ~ ; ~~ li ; ~ r t i c ~ ~ Il hacr l y
butter, clieesc and confectionery. It is used in exotic dishes particularly Indian Ii~mousInrlinn dis11e.s SIICII 21s
sweels, Spanish !ricespecialities and French fish preparations. 'I'ull:io' ;ue ilnvourcd and
c o l o ~ ~ r cwt il t h snlli.on.
(ii) In ~nedicinc:(a) Saffron is an i~nportantingredient of the Ayurvedic and
Unitni systems of medicine in India. It is used in fevers and enlargement of
the live^. and spleen. I t strengthens the functioning of stomach and counter - Snl'li.~w o i l obt:rill~:d l.ro111 (he
acts spasmodic disorders. It is also reported to give strenglli to tlie heart and tlistillatioti ol'tlrictl slignln is llic
brain. most uxpcnsi\,c o f tlic esselicus
irrid tlic c1i:trnc~cristicotlotrr is
It is also used for colouring other medicines. ~ L I Cto snlional.
b)
c) Safl'ron 'bulbs' are toxic to young aninlals and ova-dose of stignias has a
narcotic effect.
17.6.2 Clove
Botanical name: Eugerriri cr~ryc~/)l~y/l~r.s
(Spreng) Bnllock & Harrison Syn. JS~zygirrm
crrorrluticrrn~(Merrill & Perry), Errgcnici ctlrj~o~~/~~//flllr
T/~'llrrrtth
Family: Myrtaceae
C o m l n o ~name:
~ LaungILnvang
n = 11
Origin: The clove tree is believed to bc indigenous to the Moluccas or spice Islands - n
group of volcanic islands in Eastern Indonesia.
Distribution: Thc biggest clove producing region in the world today is Zanzibar,
followed by Pemba, Madagascal- and Indonesia. It is also gl-own in Malaysia, Sri
Lanlca, India and Haiti. In India tlie lavslng is cultivated in the Nilgiris, Tenbasi llills
and l<anyaliumari district in Tamil Nadu and I<ollayam and Quilon districts in
Icerala.
Morphology: The name 'clove' is derived fi.0111 tlle Frencli word 'Ic clou' nicaning nail
(Fig. 17.5). Each flower bud consists of a peduncle (l~ypantl~ium), four distinct triangular 'Tllc clove tree i s a rich source o l
calyx lobes, four crimson unopened petals surrounding numerous stamens and a central essential oil will1 I 6 per ccol ill
clovc buds, 2 pcr ccnt i n lcnvcs
columnar style. The liypanthiu~nrepresenls the enlargement of tlie receptacle. The nctd 4-6 pcr cent in slcni, 'l'l~e
bicarpellary inferior ovary is enclosed by a more or less fleshy receptacle. The clovc o i l contains 80-92 per cent
Iiypanthium is a small a n g ~ ~ lpeduticle,
ar flattened at the base. It has nlmlerous oil glands eugeriol.
that impart a cliaracteristic aromatic odour. The leaves, unripe fruit and broken clove
including tlie stalk are all aromatic and yield essential oil.
Uses
(i) As a c ~ ~ l i n aspice:
ry Clove is very aron~aticand has a fine flavour. It is used for
flavouring both sweet and savoury dishes. Whole as well as ground cloves are
used in confectionery, piclcles arid preserves.
(ii) In cigarettes & betelnut chew: In Java, clove is used in the preparation of a
special brand of cigarettes. It is one of the ingredients of betelnut chew because of
its stimulating and warming qualities.
(iii) In Medicine: Clove is used to cure flatulerlce and dyspepsia. Clove oil has
antiseptic, analgesic and antibiotic properties, and is a must at every dentists shelf.
It is an ingredient of many tooth pastes and mouth washes.
(iv) As e clearing agent: Clove oil is used as a clearing agent in histological work.
(v) I11 perfume industry: The clove oil contains, eugenol which is extensively
utilized in perfu~iies,and in scenting soaps and bath salts. It is also used in the.
preparation of artificial vanitla.
SAQ 2
1. Write wlietl~erthe following statements are right 01. wrong. Put J or x sign in the
given bracket.
i) Cir7nanzonzz1mzeylanicrinz is usually grown as a 'cut back' bush under
cultivation. [ 1
ii) The leaf oil of Cinnantonizrn?contians 20-30 pel L .lit of eugenol. [ 1
iii) The value of saffron depends mainly upon the method by which the stigmas
are dried. [ 1
iv) The aromatic saffron odour is due to the presence of safronal and bitter taste
due t o eugenol. [ 1
v) In clove the hypanthium represents the enlarge~nentof the receptacle. [ ]
erect or pendant. Fruits are hollow and fleshy, rich in vitamin C, 2nd are not very pungent.
C. frz~tcvce~u- Plants are short lived perennials. Flowers are in clustcrs of 2 or more in tlie
leafaxils. Fruits are brig!it red. They are generally small (2 -3 crn long), ercct, conical.
usually thin-fleshed and pullgent. Vitamin C content is Iowcr than in C. (r1111tnl111.
Mnst of.llic bcrrics t~scclarc (?I'
.Cultivation: l'he capsicum is grown as nn'annual, warm season crop because it is unable milder cu1tiv:irs bcloligil~gLo C:.
to withstand frost. The seeds are first sown it1 nurseries and the seedlings t~.ansplanted ..
(1Jll~ltIl7Vtlr. ~ l ~ ~ ~ . ~ . Y (I.,.)
l l l l l %2ll<it.
later into tlie field when about 15 cm, high. lllcsc urlril>cdark grccli bcrrics
ol'swcel pepper (kllclrvn irs
s i ~ ~ ~ l t l m iin
r c l ri ~ d i i )arc
collsuliletl as vcgcI;lhlc.
Origin: Piper nigrzrrrn is indigenous to the damp forests of the Malabar coast of
southwestern India.
Morphology: The plant is a perenllial vine, reaching a length of 9 m or more in the wild
state but is kept low (4 rn high) under cultivation for easy 1ial.vesting. The vine shows
dimorphic branching:
(i) -
Orthotrotpic vegetative climbing shoots These have swollen nodes from which
arise nurnerous adventitious roots, leaves and axillary buds. The roots help the
plant to cling to tree trunks and other supports.
(ii) Lateral lplagiotropic fruiting branches - These develop from the axilln~ybuds
and have no roots.
The leavr;!s are alternate, ovate, dark green, shining above and pale green below,
with sheilp pointed tips. The inflorescence (3-25 cnl long), with up to 150 flowers,
is borne opposite leaves on plagiotropic branches. Flowers are unisexual or
hermaphrodite. Fruits are sessile globose drupes. During the course of ripening the
fruit changes from green to briglit red and eventually yellow. In dried fruits, its
black mesocarp is pulpy. Seeds (3-4 mm in diameter) have a minute embryo and
little endosperm; most of it is occupied by perisperni (Fig. 17.7 d).
Black pepper i!s obtained from unripe fruits after drying, whereas while pepper is
prepared from greyish white rounded seeds obtained from nearly ripe fruits. Green pepper
is obtained from semi mature tender greenish cpikes.
Pepper contains alkaloids piperine and piperidine. The pungency of the pepper is because
of an oleoresin fraction which is abundant in the mesocarp. The characteristic aroma of
pepper is due t o the presence of a volatile oil, chiefly present in the cells of the pericarp.
Some hybrids h~avebeen evolved at Pepper Research Station, Panniyur, Kerala.
Cultivation: The pepper vine thrives best in a moist, hot climate and partial shade. A rich
friable loam with high humus content and good drainage is necessary for a good Crop.
Propagation is clone through stem cuttings which are taken generally from the upper portions
of young and viable branches. Generally twb,or three cuttings are planted adjacent to each
support. The vine is supported on:bamboo or wooden poles, concrete pillars or trained on to
the trees such ars mango, coconut or arecanut. When plants are only 0.6 m. tall, their tips are
removed to facilitate the d e ~ e l o p ~ eofn tlateral buds thus plant becornes shrubby. The vines
are pruned from time to time so that they are kept low. It takes three to seven years for the
vine to reach f i ll~ bearing. The crop ripens five to six months after flowering.
I
j
Spices
On the other hand, white pepper is produced from semi ripened berries that are greenish
yellow or ncaly red. After picking, the berries are packed in sacks and soaked in running
water for about eight to ten days to loosen the skin. They are then trodden with bare feet
to rub off the outer hull. The greyish white seeds so left are thoroughly washed with
water and then they are dried in sun. Now-a-days, however, white pepper is mostly
prepared from black pepper with the help of decorticating machines and is, therefore, less
pungent.
The total production of black pepper in India is nearly 50,000 tonnes with an area of
1.58 lakh hectares. The new high production technology evolved by the National
Research Centre for Spices, Calicut, aims at doubling the total yield of this important
spice by the turn of the century so that India could captuie at least 50 per cent of the
world export market.
Uses
(i) A s a flavourant - Black pepper is an cssential ingredient of many ground spice
formulae and seasonings. White pepper co~n~nands a higher nlarlcet price because in
-products such as mayonnaise blaclc speclts of blaclc pepper are not liked. It is used in
confectionery and in the preparation of beverages.
(ii) In Medicine -The Aryans considered it as a powerfill remedy for various disorders
such as dyspepsia, malaria, delirium, and tremors.
(iii) As a preservative - Jt is used as a preservative for curries and other perishable
foods. Tlie Egyptians used it for embalming.
(iv) As a n insecticide - It is stated to be more toxic than pyrethrum against houseflies.
The Dutch and the French are known to use it as an insect - repellant and moth
killer.
Tllc cha~,actcristici1ro111a01' (v) Oil of pepper -It is a valuable adjunct in the flavourings of meats, soups,
pcppcr is d ~ lo~ LIIC
c presence sauccs, beverages and liquor. It is also used in perfumery and medicine
of a volatile oil (chietly industry.
present in ll~ccells oftlie (vi) Pepper byproducts - A patent has been taken out by Central Food
pcricarp). Thc pungcncy i l l
the fruit is d ~ toc non-
Technological Research Institule (CFTRI), Mysore for the preparation of a
volatile oleoresill iiactiofi flavouring substance named 'Pepper-sal' from waste black pepper (rejections)
and various alkaloids. and common salt. Pepper-sal is used as a flavouring agent for salads, drinks
Piperine is thc cl~icfalkaloid and meat dishes.
about.
(vii) Pepper hulls - Pepper hulls or shells removed during the preparation of white
pepper are sold separately as a light to brownish powder with a very pungent odour
and taste. It is used for flavouring tinned foods. Pepper hulls, being rich in volatile
oil can also be used as a source of pepper oil.
17.7.3 Coriander
E.
Bota~licalname: Coricmrlrurn sotivri~~i
Family: Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)
Common namc: Dhaniya
n=ll
The important flavouring spices are anise, caraway, coriander, cumin, dill and
fennel- all of which grow in the Mediterranean countries. Of all the above
mentioned spices, caraway can be grown as far as in Iceland in the north and
survives well.
Coriander is an annual herb (30-70 cm high) with dimorphic leaves. The lower leaves are
broad with shallowly round-toothed margins, while upper leaves are finely dissected into
linear lobes (Fig. 17.8).
Flowers are small, white or pinkish in compound terminal umbels. The fruit is 2-
seeded with an unpleasant smell of bed bugs when unripe, but later becomcs
pleasantly aromatic due to the presence of coriander oils, the chief constituent of
wlaich is csriandrol. Of all volatile oils derived from the umbelliferous fruits,
coriander oil is more stable and retains the sweet and agreeable odour for long. The
coriander fr~!itis a typical schizocarp which is nearly globular and yellowish brown
and bears the remnants, of the calyx and stylopodium at its apex. The ridges of the
fruit are indistinct and the fibrovascular layer runs all along the dorsal surface. The
two mericarps are attached to an undivided carpophore (Fig. 17.8 d). The pericarp
has no vittae on the dorsal side but usually a pair of vittae is present on the
commissural side.
Box 17.4: Some Umbelliferae Spices.
' The family Umbelliferae provides many culirlary herbs bccause of their aromatic
fruits. Apart from coriander the other two important spices Ca~zmtcurvi L. (caraway)
and Curninurr~cytnit~u17zL. (cumin) are widely used for culinary purj)ose. Caraway
seeds are used in flavouring bread, biscuits, cakes, cheese, apple sauce and cookies. Its
seed oil is used in flavouring sausages, meat, canned goods, perafumes, mouth fieshner
preparations and liquors (Kuimmels). Its seeds act as mild stomachic and carminative.
In India cumin is an important ingredient in curry powder and mainly for flavouring
soups, sausages, pickles, cheese, meat dishes, bread and cakes. The cumin seeds are
used as a stitnulant, carminative and stomachic. The residue, left after extraction of
volatile oil, can be used as cattle feed. Another spice 7i.achyspermirnl a~nlrii(L.)
(ajowan or Bishops weed) and Fcrzllu as,rufoetida (asuj'ktidu) are also widely used in
Indian cuisioe.
safivlon. ( a ) A braricl~be;~ri~lg
Fig. 17.8: Cvrirrrr(lrarr~t fi~lelydissitctcd compoonil lenves nil 11mt:clwit11
:ictinomorpl~icaild zygornorphic flowers. (b) Fruiting hrallcl~with inr-olucrrlbracts and
involoccl brrctlcts. (c) A single fruit. (d) Mcricarp cut l o ~ ~ g i t ~ ~ d i iand
~ n l (c)
l y klericnrp in
tra~~sverse section.
Uses
(i) As a flavournnt - The coriander leaves because of their strong aroma are used for
garnishing curries, sausages and chutneys. They are used for flavouring curries,
soups and crrrd. The fruits are an importatlt constituent of curry powders. In some
western countries gin is flavoured with coriander.
(ii) -
In Medicine Coriander sceds are considered to be carminative, diuretic,
stomachic, antibilious and aphrodisiac. Coriander oil is used to mask offensive
odours in pl~armaccuticalpreparations.
(iii) In Perfumery - Oil of coriander seeds is valuable in perfumes; its soft, pleasant,
slightly spicy note blends into perfumes with an oriel~talcharacter. It hannonises
well with jasmine.
Economic Botany
17.7.4 Fennel
Botanical name: Foariculunz vulgare Mill.
Family: Apiaceae (Urn belliferae)
Common name: Saunf
n=ll
Morphology: The fennel plant is a tall, aromatic perennial herb. All parts ofthe plant are
aromatic. Leaves are pinnate, dissected four to five times, on long petioles; these are used
as pot herb. The inflorescence is a compound umbel of yellowish flowers.
The fruits are oblong-oval or elliptical, greenish or yellowisl~brown with a long pedicel
and a short stylopodium (a nectar-secreting, disclike enlargement at the base of the style,
Figure 17.9). The two ~nericarps(one seeded sections) are attached to a divided
carpophore (a modified extension of the pedicel). The pericarp usually contains four
dorsal and N o comrnissural vittae (oil tube, Figure 17.9).
Bitter fennel oil contains 6 per cent fenchone and 70 per cent anethole. Sweet fennel oil
has u p to 90 per cent anethole, but fenchone is absent.
Fig. 17.9: Foenictilnnt vulgare. a) A compound umbel (without involucral bract and lnvolucel bractlet)
having long primary pedicels or rays but with much shorter secondary rays. b) A fruiting
umbel. c) Schizocarpic fruits whole and split showing branched cnrpophore (note the persistent
stylopodiunl). d) Longitudinal section of mericnrp, the carpophore is branched and the embryo
is situated somewhere just below the stylopodium end and e) Median cross section of the
mcricerp.
Spices
Uses
(i) As a flavourant - Dried fennel is an important ingredient ofcurry powders and is
often used for flavouring soups, sauces, pickles, confectionery and liquors. The
leaves are used for flavouring sauces and for garnishing.
(ii) As a vegetable - The thickened leaf stalks of fennel are blanched and used as a vegetable.
(iii) -
In medicine Pharmacologically, fennel oil is used as a stimulant and
carminative. It may be given in small doses to help children digest carbohydrates.
Chewing fennel after meals prevents foul breath, indigestion and vomiting.
(iv) In perfumery - The oil of fennel is used in the manufacture of soaps and perfumes.
(v) As a cattle feed - The residual mass left after the distillation of fruits form; a
valuable cattle feed.
SAQ 3
Match the botanical names given in column A with their respective fruits listed in column B.
Column A Colum~lB
1. Fosniculum vulgare a) Berries
2. Piper nigrttln b) Drupe
3. Coriandrzmnz sativum c) Schizocarp
4. Brassica sp. d) Schizocarp
5. Capsicztni anntrttnz e) Siliqua
Seeds from a large number of plants are used as spice, eg. mustard from Brassica,
cardamom from Elettaria cardamomurn, fenugreek from Trigonellafoenztnz - g/:aecutn,
and nutmeg and mace from Myrrstica frugrans. We are going to describe mustard,
cardamom, nutmeg and mace.
17.8.1 Mustard
Brassica contributes Inany spices of considerable econo~nicimportance. There are about
150 species which are annual, biennial or, rarely perennial herbs. In India the principal
oilseed crops are B. canlpestris and B, juncea. Eruca vesicaria sub sp. sativa anoll~er
cruciferous plant, is a minor oil seed crop, grown mainly in Punjab and yield jamba oil..
From B. ca~?zpestris three distinct varieties viz. brown sarson, yellow sarson and toria
have been evolved and they are restricted to distinct eco-geograpl~icalrebe rrons.
India has the largest acreage and production of rape and mustard in the world. The chief
producer of rapeseed is U.P which alone contribute GO per cent of total production. Other
state are Punjab, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Assam.
Table 17.1: Mustard
Botanical name (common name) Indian common Origin Distribution
and Chromosome no. name
1 .
P
Mediterraneiln Russia
Safed rai
B. hirta or Sinapsis alba Linn region Canada
(White mustard) n = 12 Denmark
United Kingdom
2. B, cumpestris Linn. var. Kali sarson China
Mediterranean
dichotoma Pakistan
region
n = 10 Pili sarson and
var. glauca syn .. (Yellow sarson) India
var. toria Duthie & Fuller Toria
Morphology: Mustard plants are slender, erect, branched annual herbs about 0.6-1.5 m
tall. They are generally covered by a waxy coating ternled 'bloom'. The leaves are
auricled (ear-shaped), and generally lyrate (Fig. 17.10) (pinnatifid, but with an enlarged
terminal lobe and smaller lower lobes).
The flowers sliow-a typical
cruciferous plan, i.e. with The seeds are slnall, spherical, yellowish- brown or black. The seeds possess a glycoside
four free sepals, t b ~free
~r sinigrin or potassiuln lnyronate (sinalbin in B, alba). Both are virtually without
cl;~\vedpetals, physiological activity, but on l~ydrolysiswith enzyme myrosin they yield dextrose and
tctratlynamous sta~ncnsatid essential oil of mustard.
a bicarpellary, syncarpoos,
superior ovary, initially
~llrilocularbut later
bccoming bilocular due to
the Iormation of a false
septum (replum).
Uses
(i) As a flavoul-ant - mustard seeds, particularly rai are used as a condiment in the
preparation of pickles and for flavouring curries and vegetables. The oil extracted
from seeds is used as cooking oil and for salads and in margarine.
I
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