SOILS, PLANT GROWTH AND CROP PRODUCTION Cumin, Fennel and Fenugreek E. V.

Divakara Sastry and

Muthuswamy Anandaraj

CUMIN, FENNEL AND FENUGREEK

E. V. Divakara Sastry
SKN College of Agriculture, Swami Keshwanand Rajasthan Agricultural University,
Jobner, India
Muthuswamy Anandaraj
Indian Institute of Spices Research, Calicut, India.
Keywords: Cumin, Cuminum cyminum, essential oil, fennel, fenugreek, Florence
fennel, Foeniculum vulgare, Trigonella foenum-grecum.

U
SA NE
M SC
PL O
E
C EO
H
AP LS
TE S
R
S

Contents
1. Introduction
2. Cumin
2.1. Origin and Distribution
2.2. Plant Description
2.3. Botany
2.4. Breeding
2.5. Ecology and Growing Conditions
2.6. Land and Crop Husbandry
2.7. Harvesting
2.8. Processing
2.9. Use
2.10. Chemical Composition
3. Fennel
3.1. Origin and Distribution
3.2. Plant Description
3.3. Botany
3.4. Breeding
3.5. Ecology and Growing Conditions
3.6. Land and Crop Husbandry
3.7. Harvesting
3.8. Cultivation of Florence Fennel
3.9. Use
3.10. Chemical Composition
4. Fenugreek
4.1. Origin and Distribution
4.2. Plant Description
4.3. Botany
4.4. Breeding
4.5. Ecology and Growing Conditions
4.6. Land and Crop Husbandry
4.7. Cultivation of Blue Fenugreek and Kasuri Methi
4.8. Harvesting
4.9. Use
4.10. Composition

Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

SOILS, PLANT GROWTH AND CROP PRODUCTION Cumin, Fennel and Fenugreek E. V. Divakara Sastry and
Muthuswamy Anandaraj

5. Conclusions
Glossary
Bibliography
Biographical Sketches
Summary
Spices are grouped according to the type and part of plant used, and growing time
(annual or perennial). The three spice crops dealt in this article are annuals, two of
which belonging to the Apiaceae family. The third one, fenugreek, is part of the family
Fabaceae (earlier known as Papilionoideae, under Leguminosae).

U
SA NE
M SC
PL O
E
C EO
H
AP LS
TE S
R
S

The characteristic feature of the Apiaceae is their inflorescence (umbel) with small
pentamerous flowers with a bicarpellary ovary maturing into a schizocarpic fruit which
separates into two merocarps, each containing a single seed. The members of this family
are some of the oldest spices known since biblical times, valued mostly for their
digestive properties and for flavoring bread and other dishes during periods of
ceremonial fasting.
Along with coriander, seed spices like cumin, fennel and fenugreek are extensively used
for culinary and medicinal purposes and as condiments; they add color, flavor and zing
to food, besides helping digestion. All three are also used as medicinal plants, and find
their place in traditional and modern medicine.
Cumin and fenugreek originate from the Near East and India; fennel is found in these
two regions and in Europe, both in wild and cultivated forms. Weed management forms
a major component of crop care; water management is crucial for flowering and fruit
set. Excess moisture leads to diseases and pest problems.
The commercial value of seed spices is determined by: color, appearance, taste,
pungency, texture, shape, volatile oil content, and packaging. Moisture content after
harvest should be reduced to about 9% in order to prevent occurrence of mycotoxic
molds.
1. Introduction

A spice is substance of plant origin, primarily from various parts of the plant such as
dried seed, fruit, root, or bark which is used in very small quantities as a food additive
for flavor, color, or as a preservative. Many spices are also used for purposes of
medicine and religious rituals in Asia and in cosmetics, perfumery and liquorices in
other parts of the world.
Spices add color, flavor and zing to food, besides helping digestion. About 60 spices are
cultivated, most of which are concentrated in the Mediterranean region and Asia, from
where they most probably originated. Spices are grouped according to the type of plant,
the part of the plant used, and growing time. Based on the last criterion, they can be
subdivided into perennials and annuals. The three spice crops dealt in this paper are

Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

SOILS, PLANT GROWTH AND CROP PRODUCTION Cumin, Fennel and Fenugreek E. V. Divakara Sastry and
Muthuswamy Anandaraj

annuals. These are also called seed spices along with coriander because it is the seed
which is used as spice.
Spices are consumed in small quantities, hence the value of spices cannot be judged on
their nutritive values, as they do not provide essential nutrients. Besides being used as
spice, cumin, fennel and fenugreek are also valued as medicinal plants. They have
obvious medicinal properties, and find their place in traditional and modern medicine.
Fennel and cumin are also aromatic crops, as they provide essential oils which are used
in the perfumery and confectionary industries.

U
SA NE
M SC
PL O
E
C EO
H
AP LS
TE S
R
S

Cumin and fenugreek originate in the Near East and India, while fennel is also found in
Europe, both in wild and cultivated forms. The area and production figures for these
individual crops are not available, and data provided by FAO (http://faostat.fao.org)
refer only to combined figures for anise, badian, fennel and coriander as a whole, which
make comparisons difficult.
2. Cumin

Cumin (Cuminum cyminum Linn.) is an important seed spice and one of the earliest
known minor spices used by mankind. It is believed to be native of Egypt and Syria,
Turkestan and the Eastern Mediterranean region. The typical pleasant aroma of the
seeds is due to their volatile oil content, the principal constituent of which is cuminol
(cuminaldehyde).
Cumin is known under various names in different countries: Kreuzkmmel,
Mutterkmmel, Weiser Kmmel, Rmischer Kmmel, Welscher Kmmel, Kumin or
Cumin in German; Comino in Spanish; Cumin (blanc), Cumin de Maroc, Faux Anis in
French; Jeera in Hindi; Cumino or Cumino Romano in Italian; Romai kminyi in
Hungarian; komijn in Belgium and The Netherlands; Spisskummen and Spisskarve in
Norwegian; Komin Rzymski in Polish; Spisskumin in Swedish; Kimyon in Turkish, etc.
2.1. Origin and Distribution

Cumin has a long history, referring almost 5000 years back to the ancient Egyptian
civilization, where it was used both as a spice and a preservative in mummification. The
western world got to know it as a spice from Iran, and the name cumin has its roots in
the word Kerman, a city in Iran around which it was extensively cultivated. The phrase
carrying cumin to Kerman aptly expresses its relation to that city. Kerman, locally
called Kermun, would have become Kumun, and then cumin in the European languages.
Cumin is mentioned in the Bible, both the Old and New Testament, where it is said that
cumin was used as currency to pay tithe to the priests. It was also known in Ancient
Greece and Rome, where it was used as a kind of pepper. Superstition during the
Middle Ages kept it temporarily out of favor in Europe. Spanish and Portuguese
explorers introduced it in the Americas. While in middle ages it almost lost its
importance in Europe except in Spain and Malta. To date, cumin is widely cultivated
also in Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Turkey, Morocco, Egypt, India, Syria, Mexico and Chile
(Azeez, 2008).
The estimated world production is around 300,000 tons. Today, cumin production is

Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

SOILS, PLANT GROWTH AND CROP PRODUCTION Cumin, Fennel and Fenugreek E. V. Divakara Sastry and
Muthuswamy Anandaraj

mainly concentrated in Central and South Asia. Nowadays India is the largest producer
(70% of world production), exporter and consumer of cumin seed in the world. In 20062007 it was cultivated over 409,033 ha and produced 176,511 tons (Table 1), mainly
concentrated in Gujarat and Rajasthan. The production is relatively stable over the
years. The other main producing countries are Syria (7%), Turkey (6%) and Iran (6%);
all other producers together account for about 10%. China is a major producer but has
no statistics available (http://agricommodityprices.com/ cumin_seed.php).

U
SA NE
M SC
PL O
E
C EO
H
AP LS
TE S
R
S

2005 2006
2006 2007
Area (ha) Production (tons) Area (ha) Production (tons)
403,033
199,854
409,033
176,511
Cumin
40,909
61,307
61,128
92,260
Fennel
33,393
38,990
44,984
55,780
Fenugreek
Table 1. Production area (in ha) and national production (in tons) in India (Source:
Spices Board, India, www.indianspices.com)

The production in Syria, the second larger producer, is between 10,000 and 20,000 tons,
but shows important variations due to changes in cultivation area and rainfall; 95% of
the Syrian production is concentrated in the region of Aleppo, Idleb, Hama, Al-Rakka
and Homs with Aleppo contributing around half of it. In 2004, 1,287 ha of cumin area
was irrigated, while 53,864 ha were under rain fed cultivation.
Turkey produces between 7,000 and 15,000 tons; Iran between 5,000 and 10,000 tons;
and China around 8,000 tons per year. Khorasan province of Iran is an important
producer of cumin, with a contribution of about 88% of the national production. It is
also cultivated on a limited area in Jordan.
On the consumption side, the Middle East exports around 85-90% of its cumin
production. Main consumers are India, China, Indonesia, UAE, UK, USA, Singapore,
Malaysia, Bangladesh and Nepal. India consumes almost 90% of its total production.
2.2. Plant Description

Cumin (Cuminum cyminum L.) is a thin herbaceous annual plant growing to a height of
30-45 cm. The plant is slender, with a main stem that branches up to five secondary
branches from the base; each branch may have 2-3 sub-branches. All the branches attain
the same height, giving the plant a uniform canopy. The plant has a branched glabrous
stem, 3-5cm in diameter, with a grey or dark green color, having alternate, dissected
leaves with filiform segments, angular, sparsely hairy, bluish green and petioles
sheathing the stem at the base.
The inflorescence is a compound umbel with white or pinkish flowers. The leaves are
pinnate or bi-pinnate with thread-like leaflets (Figure 1). The flowers are small and
either pink or white colored. Typical to the Apiaceae family the flowers are born in
umbels, and each umbel has 5 to 7 umbellets. The fruit is a schizocarp, 4-5 mm long,
containing two mericarps with a single seed. Cross pollination, mediated through bees,
is the rule although the occurrence and intensity of cross pollination varies. The fruit is a

Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

SOILS, PLANT GROWTH AND CROP PRODUCTION Cumin, Fennel and Fenugreek E. V. Divakara Sastry and
Muthuswamy Anandaraj

U
SA NE
M SC
PL O
E
C EO
H
AP LS
TE S
R
S

lateral fusiform or ovoid achene, containing a single seed. Cumin seeds are similar
to fennel and anise seeds in appearance, but are smaller and darker in color. The fruits
have eight ridges with oil canals. Seeds are hairy, in some varieties these hairs are
prominent, and otherwise it is difficult to see them.

Figure 1. Cumin growth stages: a) young plants in rows; b) branching; c) young

inflorescence; d) hairy cumin; e) aphid infestation on inflorescence; f) cumin affected
by root rot and yellowing in the field; g) mature plant with flowers and fruits; g)
commercial product cumin.

2.3. Botany

Cumin (Cuminum cyminum L.) belongs to the family Apiaceae, and the genus Cumin
has a single species cyminum. The synonyms are: Cuminum odorum Salisb. or
Selinumcyminum L.Krause.
2.4. Breeding
The germplasm of cumin is maintained in research stations across producing countries.
In India, about 600 accessions consisting primarily of local collections are maintained in
the coordinating centers of All India Coordinated Research Project on Spices
(AICRPS). The Nordic gene bank report one collection of cumin contributed by IPK,

Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

SOILS, PLANT GROWTH AND CROP PRODUCTION Cumin, Fennel and Fenugreek E. V. Divakara Sastry and
Muthuswamy Anandaraj

Leibniz (www.Norgen.org). Published information from other countries is hardly

available.
Cumin is a cross pollinated crop, and bees often help in pollination. The flowers being
small and slender, artificial pollination is rather difficult and varieties are developed by
sib mating in enclosed chambers. Most of the varieties that are available today are
selections. In Morocco, an individual selection of plants from the local collections was
used to produce improved varieties (Al Faiz, 2005-06).
The chromosome number of cumin is 2n=14. Based on selections focused on local
conditions a number of varieties are released for the farmers in each country.
2.5. Ecology and Growing Conditions

U
SA NE
M SC
PL O
E
C EO
H
AP LS
TE S
R
S

Cumin requires a moderately cool and dry climate for its growth, with a temperatures
between 25 and 30 C. The crop is highly sensitive to rain, and any rain during
harvesting time reduces yield and crop quality. Crop quality is badly affected by
diseases, and is reflected in a lower price once the seeds have turned black.
The crop is most vulnerable to frost damage, especially at flowering and early seed
formation stages. Control measures include: spraying with sulfuric acid (0.1%),
irrigating the crop prior to frost incidence, setting up wind breaks against cool waves, or
creating an early morning smoke cover.
Cumin grows best on well drained sandy loam to loamy soils with a pH range of 6.8 to
8.3. Acidic soils and alkaline soil reduce yield unless soil acidity is lowered to pH = 7.5
(Weiss, 2002).
2.6. Land and Crop Husbandry

Sowing time The sowing time varies as a function of the local environmental
conditions. In India, the sowing period is from October and continues till the first week
of December. The crop is then harvested from February onwards, and arrives in the
market during March-April In Gujarat and Rajasthan States, the crop is grown as a
winter (rabi) crop, and sowing takes place between mid-November and December 5.

In Syria, cumin is also sown as a winter crop, e.g. from mid-November to midDecember, with a possible extension up to mid-January; the crop is ready for harvesting
in June-July. In Iran, cumin is sown in the same period, and harvest is in June-July. In
Turkey it is sown a little earlier and harvested between July and September. Cumin is
not an important crop in Jordan, but research has shown that early sowing in December
could increase seed yield by 26% in this area.

Seed rate - A seed rate of 12-15 kg/ha is required for optimum plant population,
depending upon the method of sowing and the type of soil. It is helpful to soak the seeds
for 8 hours before sowing to get a good germination. Soaked seeds should afterwards be
dried in the shade to facilitate broadcasting. Sowing at higher depth affects the
germination of seeds adversely. Crop rotation is required to avoid incidence of pest and
diseases. Bio-priming cumin seeds with plant growth promoting rhizobacteria
(Pseudomonas putida and Microbacterium paraoxidans) enhances growth and promotes
yields in India (AICRPS, 2010).

Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

SOILS, PLANT GROWTH AND CROP PRODUCTION Cumin, Fennel and Fenugreek E. V. Divakara Sastry and
Muthuswamy Anandaraj

Two sowing methods of cumin are applied. The first is by broadcasting, in which the
field is divided into beds of convenient size, and the seeds are then uniformly broadcast
and covered with soil by running an iron rake in the beds. The second method uses a
line sowing; this is more preferred than the broadcasting method because the
intercultural operations like weeding, hoeing, spraying, etc. are much easier in this case.
In line sowing, shallow furrows are traced at a distance of 20 to 25 cm with iron or
wooden hooks. Care must be taken that all seeds are uniformly covered with soil in such
a manner that the sowing depth does not exceed 1 cm. Germination and subsequent crop
stand are adversely affected when the seeds are deeper because cumin is slow in
germination, hence, young plants suffer from severe competition with weeds.

U
SA NE
M SC
PL O
E
C EO
H
AP LS
TE S
R
S

Nutrient management Nutrient application varies as a function of soil properties and

yield expected. At the time of field preparation, about 10-15 tons/ha of farmyard
manure or compost may be incorporated in the soil. In India 20 kg phosphate/ha is
commonly applied at the time of sowing; and 30 kg N/ha may be added as top dressing,
either in a single dose at 30 days after sowing or in two equal splits at respectively 30
and 60 days after sowing. In Syria the common practice is to apply 50 kg/ha triple super
phosphate and 50 kg/ha of urea at planting. In addition, when spring rains are abundant,
50 kg/ha of top dressed ammonium nitrate is recommended.
Weed Control - Cumin faces a severe weed competition at all stages of its growth cycle
because of its slow growth and short stature. For proper aeration and control of weeds,
at least two hoeing and weeding sessions are necessary, respectively 30 and 60 days
after sowing. Thinning should also be done during the first hoeing, as well as weeding
to remove excess plants. Similar recommendations are also made in Syria. In India,
Cynodon dactylon, Chenopodium spp. and Plantago pumila are common weeds,
whereas in Ethiopia Plantago psyllium is more common.
Use of herbicides has been found to be very effective in cumin fields in India.
Application of the pre-emergent herbicides Terbutryn or Oxadiazone at a rate of 0.5-1.0
kg/ha or pre-plant Fluchloralin or pre-emergent Pendamethalin at the rate of 1.0 kg/ha
have been found very effective in controlling weeds. At the time of herbicide
application due care must be taken that sufficient moisture is present in the soil. In Syria
the recommendation is to apply Treflan 15 days before planting, and Afalon and
Gesagard soon after emergence.
Water management Cumin requires less water than most other spices. In all growing
countries like India, Egypt and Sudan light irrigation is given immediately after sowing
to moisten the surface soil. At this time, the water flow in beds must be slow so as not to
disturb the seeds. At the time of germination, a second irrigation is applied some 8-10
days after the first irrigation. Depending upon the soil type and climatic conditions,
subsequent irrigations may be given at an interval of 15-25 days. The last heavy
irrigation must be given at the time of seed formation. Additional water supply at the
time of active seed filling is to be avoided, because this increases the incidence of pests
and diseases.

Pests and diseases - The most important diseases in cumin cultivation are: wilt, blight
and powdery mildew. Wilt is caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cumini, resulting in
yield losses as high as 80 %. The fungus is both soil- and seed-borne. Frequent
epidemics are caused when the soil temperature is between 12.5 C and 14 C, and in
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

SOILS, PLANT GROWTH AND CROP PRODUCTION Cumin, Fennel and Fenugreek E. V. Divakara Sastry and
Muthuswamy Anandaraj

fields which are not adequately fertilized. A proper management strategy involves the
use of healthy seeds, the application of a summer plowing session, a crop rotation with
beans, wheat, cluster beans and mustard, and seed treatment with fungicides or
antagonistic fungi like Trichoderma. Die back is an important disease in cumin grown
in Morocco. The disease effect is apparently stronger in early sown crops than in late
sown cumin.
Cumin blight is the second important disease. It is caused by Alternaria burnsii and,
together with wilt, could be most damaging. Blight appears in the form of dark brown
spots on leaves and stems, whereby the stem tips bend downwards. A. alternata has
been reported to be seed-borne and to cause seedling blight in India. Cloudy weather
after flowering increases the incidence of the disease. As the spread of the disease is
very fast, only prophylactic measures are recommended for effective prevention.

U
SA NE
M SC
PL O
E
C EO
H
AP LS
TE S
R
S

Powdery mildew is of less importance and is caused by Erysiphe polygoni. The fungus
grows on the surface as a white powdery mass on leaves and twigs in the initial stages
of development; later on, the whole plant is covered with this whitish powder. If
incidence occurs at an early stage, seeds do not form; if the incidence occurs late, small
and discolored seeds are formed. Control measures include the use of sulfuric
fungicides at 20-25 kg/ha. Fungicides such as carbendazim/ tridemorph (0.15%) are
applied as a spray solution at a dose of 400-500l /ha.
Pest monitoring is an important aspect of cumin cultivation. It should be repeated once
every seven days in order to work out the economic threshold level (ETL). The general
control strategy includes setting up of yellow pan/sticky traps for monitoring the aphids
at 10 yellow pans/sticky traps per hectare; and the collection and destruction of the
larvae of cutworm and leaf defoliators. As pollination in cumin is by honeybees, it is
recommended to use chemicals that are harmless to the bees and that leave no residues
in the crop.
Aphids, Myzus persicae. Acyrthosiphan pisun and Aphis craccivora attack cumin at the
flowering stage by sucking the sap of the plant from the tender parts and flowers. The
affected plants turn yellow resulting in poor seed formation and thus reduce the yield as
well as the quality of the produce. The control measures include: removing the heavily
infested plant parts, spraying the crop with pressurized water, application of fish oil
rosin soap or neem seed kernel-extract (3%), neem oil (2%) or tobacco decoction
(0.05%). Mites (Petrobia latens) frequently attack the crop; the whole plant becomes
whitish yellow and appears sickly. The insect mostly feeds on young leaves and, hence,
the infestation is more severe on young inflorescences. Small mites are seen on the
lower sides of the leaves and, when serious, cause webbing and feed within the web.
-

TO ACCESS ALL THE 28 PAGES OF THIS CHAPTER,

Visit: http://www.eolss.net/Eolss-sampleAllChapter.aspx

Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

SOILS, PLANT GROWTH AND CROP PRODUCTION Cumin, Fennel and Fenugreek E. V. Divakara Sastry and
Muthuswamy Anandaraj

Bibliography
Aggarwal, B. B. and Kunnumakkara, A. B. (2009). Molecular Targets and Therapeutic Uses of Spices Modern Uses for Ancient Medicine. World Scientific Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. Singapore, 430 p [Different
chapters written by experts compiling therapeutic uses of spices of selected spices, fenugreek in the
present case].
Agrawal, S., Sastry, E.V.Divakara and Sharma, R.K. (2001). Seed Spices: Production, Quality, Export.
Pointer Publishers, Jaipur, India, 315p. [Different chapters written by specialists covering diverse aspects
of the seed spices]
AICRPS (2010). All India Coordinated Research Project on Spices, 2009. Annual Report 2009-10. Indian
Institute of Spices Research, Calicut.131pp.[This report gives information on the latest research findings
done in various research stations within India]
Al Faiz, C. (2006). Biological Diversity, Cultural and Economic Value of Medicinal, Herbal and
Aromatic Plants in Morocco. Annual Report 2005-2006, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique,
Rabat, Maroc, 51p. [Annual report describes the work done in Morocco].

U
SA NE
M SC
PL O
E
C EO
H
AP LS
TE S
R
S

Azeez, S. (2008) Cumin. In: Parthasarathy, V.A., Champakam, B. and Zachariah, T.J., eds.: Chemistry of
Spices. CABI International, Wallingford, UK [This review article deals with botany, distribution and
medicinal properties of cumin, and with the chemistry of cumin oil].

Bhat, A.I, Jiby, M.V., Anandaraj, M., Bhadramurthy, V., Patel, K.D., Patel, N.R., Jaiman, R.K. and
Agalodia, A.V. (2008). Occurrence and Partial Characterization of a Phytoplasma associated with
Phyllody Disease of Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare mill.) in India. J. Phytopathology, 156: 758-761. [A new
disease caused by phytoplasma is reported on fennel and the phytoplasma is described. It is recommended
to avoid crop rotation with sesame]
Duke, J.A. (2003) Handbook of Legumes of World Economic Importance. Scientific Publisher (India),
Jodhpur, pp. 268-271. [Good source book to give general as well as nutritional information about
legumes, fenugreek in the present case].

Farrell, K.T. (1999). Spices, Condiments and Seasonings. Aspen Pub. Inc. Gaitherberg, Maryland, USA,
pp. 78-81. [Gives information about the usage of different spices in food] .

Hanelt, Peter. (2001). Mansfelds Encyclopedia of Agricultural and Horticultural Crops (Except
Ornamentals). Springer Verlag. Germany [Good source book about different spices and their cultivation].
Kafi, M., Rashed Mohassel, M.H., Koocheki, A. and Nassiri, M. (2006). Cumin (Cuminum cyminum):
Production and Processing. Science Publishers, New Hampshire, USA. [A good source book on
cultivation of cumin]

Kandil, M. (2002). The Effect of Fertilizers for Conventional and Organic Farming on Yield and Oil
Quality of Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill.) in Egypt. Ph.D. dissertation, Technical University of
Brunswick, Germany. [Ph. D. dissertation detailing the results obtained from the experiments conducted
on the effect of organic and inorganic fertilization in fennel in Egypt].

Karlsen, J., Baerheim Svendsen, A., Chigova, B. and Zolotovitch, G. (1969). Studies on The Fruits of
Foeniculum Species and Their Essential Oil. Planta Med. 17:281-293. [A Bulgarian paper comparing
fennel fruits and essential oils from sweet and bitter fennel types].
Khorshidi, J., Tabatabei, M.F., Omidbaigi, R. and Sefidkon, F. (2009). Effect of Densities of Planting on
Yield and Essential Oil Components of Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill Var. Soroksary). J. Agric. Sci.,
1(1): 152-157 [A research paper detailing the effect of spacing on essential oil and its components. The
experiment was conducted in Iran].
Mohammed, M.A.H. and Abdu, M. (2004). Growth and Oil Production of Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare
Mill.): Effect of Irrigation and Organic Fertilization. Biol. and Hort., 22: 31-39. [A research paper
detailing the experimentation and results obtained on the effect of irrigation and organic fertilization on
seed and oil yields in fennel. The experiment was conducted in Egypt].

Peter, K.V. (2000). Handbook of Herbs and Spices. Wood Head Publishing Company, London, UK. [An
edited volume contributed by various authors on the information compiled on various aspects of spices
cultivation and processing methods].

Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)

SOILS, PLANT GROWTH AND CROP PRODUCTION Cumin, Fennel and Fenugreek E. V. Divakara Sastry and
Muthuswamy Anandaraj

Petropoulos, G.A. (2002). Fenugreek: The Genus Trigonella. Taylor and Francis, London. 200 p [A
comprehensive book on fenugreek].
Raju, J. and Rao, C.V. (2009). Fenugreek (Diosgenin). In: Aggarwal, B.B. and Kunnumakkara, A.B.,
eds.: Molecular Targets and Therapeutic Uses of Spices. World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.,
Singapore, 173-196. [A good book on medicinal properties of different spices].
Singhania, D.L., Raje, R.S., Dhirendra Singh and Rajput, S.S. (2006). Fenugreek. In: Ravindran, P.N.,
Nirmal Babu, K., Shiva, K.N. and Johny A. Kallupurackal (eds.): Advances in Spices Research History
and Achievements of Spices Research in India since Independence. Agrobios Publishers, Jodhpur, India,
pp. 757-783.
Stefanini, M.B., Ming, L.C., Marques, M.O.M., Meireles, M.A.A., Moura, L.S. and Marchese, J.A.
(2004). Seed Productivity, Yield and Composition of the Essential Oil of Fennel Foeniculum vulgare var.
dulcis in the Season of the Year. Brazil. J. Medic. and Biol. Res., 8 : 86-90 [A Brazilian research paper
detailing the results of an experimentation conducted over a year to study the effect of time of sowing on
yield and oil composition in fennel].

U
SA NE
M SC
PL O
E
C EO
H
AP LS
TE S
R
S

Villupanoor, A. Parthasarathy, Bhageerathy Chempakam and John Zachariah, T. (2008). Chemistry of

Spices. CABI International, Wallingford, UK., 445p. [A volume contributed by many authors by
compiling information on spices derived natural products. Individual chapters give the details of crops
included in this chapter. The chemical structures of various compounds and their uses are discussed].
Weiss E.A. (2002). Spice Crops. CABI International, Wallingford, UK., 299p. [Family wise description
of spice crops belonging to cruciferae, lauraceae, leguminosae, myristicaceae, myrtaceae umbelliferae and
zingiberaceae. All aspects of cultivation processing and industrial applications are discussed].
Biographical sketches

E.V. Divakara Sastry obtained his education from Banaras Hindu University (1982) and since then has
been working at S.K.N. College of Agriculture, Rajasthan Agricultural University, Campus Jobner. At
present he is Senior Breeder (All India Coordinated Research Project on Spices) and Head, Department of
Plant Breeding and Genetics. He has been involved in teaching Biometrical Genetics for the last 2
decades. He has also worked as biometrics expert at Alemaya University (now Haramaya University),
Ethiopia under a World Bank-ARTP Project.
Currently, Dr. Sastry is in charge of the spices project which maintains a large collection of seed spices
germplasm and their characterization. He has developed one variety in taramira (Eruca sativa) and is
involved in the development of 8 varieties in seed spices. His research interests include salinity tolerance
in crop plants, dwarfism in wheat and fodder quality in pearl millet. He has published more than a 80
research papers in peer reviewed journals, several book chapters on seed spices, and has authored several
practical manuals. He has also co-edited the much acclaimed book "Seed Spices: Production, Quality and
Export" published by Pointer Publishers.
Muthuswamy Anandaraj holds a M.Sc. in Botany (1975) from Mysore University and a Ph.D. in
Botany (1997) from Calicut University. He has 32 years of research experience in the field of plantation
crops and spices, and has headed the Division of Crop Protection, Indian Institute of Spices Research,
Calicut, India. His research has mainly focused on epidemiology and disease management, and he has
developed and released a Phytophthora tolerant variety of black pepper in India and studied the
mechanism of resistance in that variety. He is the author and co-author of several research papers
published in national and international journals and has contributed chapters for several books on spices
and edited a few of them. He has also contributed chapters for EOLSS.
Dr. Anandaraj is presently working as Project Coordinator of All India Combined Research Projects on
Spices (AICRPS) which is responsible for the formulation of research projects, monitoring and release of
location specific varieties and technologies for 12 spice crops in India. He is also coordinating the
research conducted on three soil-borne pathogens, Phytophthora, Fusarium and Ralstonia in 17 institutes
under Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR).

Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS)