Module 3

Data collection
 Data
❖Data is the facts in a raw or unorganized form such as alphabets,
numbers, or symbols that refer to or represent conditions, ideas,
or objects

❖This represents facts and statistics which are collected together

for reference or analysis
 Examples of data
❖Demographic information such as age, gender, household size, religion etc.

❖Social and economic information such as educational achievement, health

status, extent of participants in social organizations, occupation, income,
housing condition etc.

❖Scores in exams, grades, etc.

Sources of data

❖Primary sources

❖Secondary sources
Data collection
 PURPOSE OF DATA COLLECTION

✓ To obtain information
✓ To keep records
✓ To make decisions about important issues
✓To pass on information to others
TYPES OF RESEARCH DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUES/
METHODS
PRIMARY DATA
❑The data which are collected from the field under the control and
supervision of an investigator

❑Primary data means original data that has been collected specially
for the purpose in mind

❑This type of data are generally afresh and collected for the first
time

❑It is useful for current studies as well as for future studies

❑For example: your own questionnaire.

 Primary Research Methods & Techniques
Quantitative and Qualitative Information:

✓Quantitative:
Based on numbers – 56% of 18-year-olds drink alcohol at least four
times a week – doesn’t tell you why, when, or how.

✓Qualitative:
More detail – tells you why, when, and how!
Survey method
❖The survey method is the technique of gathering data by
asking questions to people who are thought to have desired
information

❖A formal list of questionnaire is prepared

❖The respondents are asked questions on their demographic

interest opinion questionnaires
Characteristics of survey
✓It covers a very large population

✓It may involve intensive or extensive study

✓It covers a definite geographical area

✓It is conducted in natural setting

✓It seeks responses directly from the respondents

Advantages of survey method
❖Broder range of information is collected

❖Questioning is usually faster and cheaper than observation

❖Data is reliable

❖Questions are simple to administer

❖It is relatively simple to analyse, quote and interrelate the

data obtained by survey method
Disadvantages of survey method
✓Unwillingness of respondents to provide information

✓Inability of the respondent

✓Human biases of the respondents

✓Semantic difficulties
Observation method
✓Observation method involves human or mechanical
observation of what people actually do or what events take
place during a buying or consumption situation

✓Information is collected by observing the process at work

The following are a few situations:

✓ Supermarket – which is the best location on the shelf?

Hidden cameras are used

✓To find out salesmen’s enthusiasm – using a tape recorder

Types of observation
➢Type of activity under observation

➢Directness of the observation

➢Concealment

➢Participation

➢Definiteness of structure

➢Extent of control
Advantages of observation method
❖If the researcher observes and records events, it is not
necessary to rely on the willingness and ability of
respondents to report accurately

❖Data is more accurate

 Disadvantages of observation method
✓Inability to observe things such as attitude, motivations,
customers/consumers’ state of mind, their buying motives and
their images

✓It also takes time for the investigator to wait for a particular
action to take place

✓ The cost involved is a disadvantage

✓Personal and intimate activities, such as watching television

late at night, are more easily discussed with questionnaires
than they are observed,
Experimental method
❖The experimental method is a systematic and scientific approach to
research in which the researcher manipulates one or more variables, and
controls and measures any change in other variables.

❖In the strict sense, experimental research is what we call a true

experiment
INTERVIEW
An interview is a structured conversation where one participant asks
questions, and the other provides answers.

In common parlance, "interview" refers to a one-on-one conversation

between an interviewer and an interviewee.
TYPES OF INTERVIEW
1. Personal Interview

2. Telephone Interview

3. Focus Group Interview

4. Depth Interview

5. Projective Techniques
 1. Personal Interview
❖This is a face-to-face two-way communication between the interviewer
and the respondents.

❖Generally the personal interview is carried out in a planned manner

and is referred to as ‘structured interview’.

❖This can be done in many forms e.g. door to door or as a planned

formal executive meeting.
Methods of conducting Personal Interview
❖A personal interview involves a lot of preparation.

❖ Generally a personal interview should go through the

following 5 stages they are as follows.
a. Rapport Building
An Interviewer should
increase the receptiveness
of the respondent by
making him believe that
his opinions are very
useful to the research.
 b. Introduction
❖An introduction involves the interviewer identifying
himself by giving him his name and purpose.
 c. Probing
Probing is the technique of encouraging the respondents to
answer completely, freely and relevantly.
 d. Recording

❖The interviewer can either write the response at the time of the
interview or after the interview.

❖In certain cases, where the respondent allows for it, audio or
visual aids can be used to record answers.
 e. Closing
• After the interview, the interviewer should thank the
respondent and once again assure him about the worth of his
answers and the confidentiality of the same.
 2. Telephone Interview
❖Telephone interview the information is collected from the
respondent by asking him questions on the phone is called as
telephone interview.

❖ The combination of telephone and computer has made this

method even more popular.
 3. Focus Group Interview
• Focus group interview is an unstructured interview that
involves a moderator leading a discussion between a small
group of respondents on a specific topic.
 4. Depth Interview
• Depth interview is nondirective in nature where the
respondent is given freedom to answer within the
boundaries of the topic of interest.
 5. Projective Techniques
❖Projective Techniques involve the presentation of an ambiguous,
unstructured object, activity, or person that a respondent is asked to
interpret and explain.

❖In Projective Techniques, the respondents are asked to interpret the

behavior of others, and this way they indirectly reveal their own
behavior in the same situation. Some of these techniques are discussed
below.
 Conclusion
✓So we can use the interview technique as one of the data
collection method for the research.

✓It makes the researcher to feel that the data what he

collected is true and honest and original by nature because
of the face to face interaction.
Data collected from a source that has already been published in any form
is called as secondary data.
The review of literature in any research is based on secondary data.
Mostly from books, journals and periodicals.

➢Data gathered and recorded by someone else prior to and for a purpose other than
the current project
➢Secondary data is data that has been collected for another purpose
➢It involves less cost, time and effort
➢Secondary data is data that is being reused. Usually in a different context
➢For example: data from a book
Sources of secondary data
1. Published sources

2. Unpublished sources
Published sources
1. International publication

2. Official publications of central, state, and local governments

3. Semi official publications

4. Publications of research institutions

5. Journals and news papers

Unpublished sources
1. Records in various government and private offices

2. Theses of scholars in the universities or institutions

 Difference between
primary data and secondary data
Primary data Secondary data

Original , first time collected by the Not original , data collected by some
user other agencies
Needs more fund Needs comparatively less fund

Requires longer time for collection Requires less time for collection

More reliable and suitable Less reliable and suitable

Data is compiled and used for Data is taken from some other source
specific purpose and used for decision making
 Tools for collection data
Various tools are used for collecting data which are explained as
follows:

1. Tools used for collecting quantitative data

2. Tools used for collecting qualitative data

 Tools used for collecting quantitative data
Quantitative data can be collected using four main types of survey:

1. Census

2. Sample survey

3. Administrative data

4. Tracer studies
 Tools used for collecting qualitative data
Qualitative data can be gathered in a variety of ways, for example:

1. Questionnaire

2. Interviews

3. Focus groups

4. Observation

5. Case study
Interview schedule

❖Interview schedule is a set of questions with structured answers

to guide an observer, interviewer, researcher or investigator

❖It is a plan or guide line for investigation

Types of interview schedule

1. Observation schedule

2. Rating schedule

3. Survey schedule

4. Interview schedule
Advantages of the interview schedule

✓Accurate information

✓It leads to more responses

✓Personal contact between the investigator and respondent

✓It is used for educated as well as uneducated respondents

✓More difficult situations can be studied

Disadvantages of the interview schedule
✓It more expensive

✓It is more time consuming

✓It requires skilled and experienced investigators

✓Wide-range coverage is not possible

Questionnaire
➢Questionnaire is a list of questions or statements pertaining to
an issue or program

➢It is used for studying the opinions of people

➢People are asked to express their response to the listed or

reactions to the listed statements
 Design of questionnaire
Step 1: Deciding the information to be collected

Step 2: Formulating the questions

Step 3: Deciding on the wording of the questions and layout of the

questionnaire

Step 4: Pretesting the questionnaire

Difference between questionnaire and interview schedule
Questionnaire Interview schedule
Less expensive as it is filled by the More expensive as it requires enumerators
respondent himself to be appointed
Non- response is usually high Non-response is less as the enumerator
fills the schedules
The identity of the respondent is not clear Identity is known
Can be used only in case of educated or Can be used even in case of illiterate
literate respondents respondents
Success depends to a greater extent on the Success depends on the honesty, sincerity
quality of the questionnaire and perseverance of the enumerators
Risk of collecting incomplete and wrong Enumerators are present to see that the
information is more. Information collected questions are properly filled therefore it
may not be accurate helps to collect more accurate information
Personal contact is generally not possible Direct personal contact is established with
respondents
Interview guide
✓Before conducting interviews, you need an interview guide that you
can use to help you direct the conversation towards the topic and
issues you want to learn about

✓They help you know what to ask about, in what sequence, how to
pose your questions and how to pose follow-ups

✓They provide guidance about what to do or say next, after your

interviewee has answered the last question
 Interviewing
✓Interviewing involves asking questions and getting answers from
participants in a study

✓Interviewing has a variety of forms including : face to face

interviews and face to face group interviewing

✓The asking and answering of questions can be mediated by the

telephone or other electronic devices(ex: computers)
 Socio-metry
✓It refers to the measurement of attitudes of social acceptance or rejection
through expressed preferences among members of a social grouping.

Sociometry is a technique that recognizes and uses the fact that humans
are social beings and that these connections are manifest in the social
choices we make.

For example: with whom we eat lunch, whom we marry, whom we sit
next to in classes, receptions, and other meetings, and whom we like.
•
 Here are some examples of sociometry:

•Children may be asked to provide a list of the three classmates with

whom they would most like to play and the three with whom they
would least like to play.

•Research sociometry is action research with groups exploring the socio-

emotional networks of relationships using specified criteria, such as
"Who in this group do you want to sit beside you at work?" or "Who in
the group do you go to for advice on a work problem?" .
Checklist
✓It is a type of informational job aid used to reduce the risk of skipping
something important due to lack of attention or potential limits of
human memory/mind

✓Checklists have the objective of overseeing tasks or projects and

ensuring nothing important is forgotten during execution.

✓they help to ensure consistency and completeness in carrying out a task.

✓A basic example is the “to-do list".

 Pre-testing of tools
❖Pre-testing is the administration of the data collection with a small
set of respondents from the population for the full scale survey

❖If problems occur in the pre-test , it is likely that similar problems

will arise in full scale administration

❖The purpose of pre-testing is to identify problems with data

collection instrument

❖And to find possible solutions

 Principles for pre-testing
1. Pre-testing to be conducted in circumstances that are similar
to those that will be sampled

2. Careful notes to be taken on problems encountered

3. Possible solutions should be identified

 Pilot Study
✓A pilot experiment, pilot study, pilot test or pilot project is a small-scale
preliminary study conducted to evaluate feasibility, duration, cost,
adverse events, and improve upon the study design prior to
performance of a full-scale research project.

• A pilot study is a small-scale preliminary study conducted before the

main research to check the feasibility or improve the research
design. Pilot studies are also known as feasibility studies.
Merits of conducting pilot study
❖It provides ideas, approaches and clues

❖It can greatly reduce the number of unanticipated problems

❖It saves time and money

❖It permits preliminary testing of hypothesis

❖It permits a thorough check of planned statistical and analytical

procedures
Processing of Data
Meaning of Data Processing
✓Data processing refers to the activities of converting raw data into
meaningful information.

✓Various activities such as checking, editing, coding, computing of

the scores , preparation of master charts etc..
 PROCESSING OF DATA
✓ The collected data in research is processed and analyzed to come to
some conclusions or to verify the hypothesis made.
✓ Processing of data is important as it makes further analysis of data
easier and efficient.
✓ Processing of data technically means
✓ Editing of the data
✓ Coding of data
✓ Classification of data
✓ Tabulation of data
 Checking of data
✓Checking of data is the process of determining whether information
gathered during the process of data collection is complete and
accurate

✓It uses routines, often called “validation rules” “validation

constraints” or “check routines”, that check for correctness,
meaningfulness and security of data
Editing Data
✓Data editing is the activity aimed at detecting and correcting errors in
data

✓Information gathered may lack uniformity

✓Editing also needs that data are relevant and appropriate and errors
are modified

✓Editing is concerned with removal of redundant data, filling of

missing data and completeness of data
 EDITING:
Data editing is a process by which collected data is examined to detect
any errors or omissions and further these are corrected as much as
possible before proceeding further.
The process of checking and adjusting responses in the completed
questionnaires for omissions, legibility, and consistency and readying
them for coding and storage
Editing is of two types:
1. Field Editing
2. Central Editing
FIELD EDITING:
This is a type of editing that relates to abbreviated or illegible written form
of gathered data. Such editing is more effective when done on same day or
the very next day after the interview. The investigator must not jump to
conclusion while doing field editing.

CENTRAL EDITING:
Such type of editing relates to the time when all data collection process has
been completed. Here a single or common editor corrects the errors like
entry in the wrong place, entry in wrong unit e.t.c. As a rule all the wrong
answers should be dropped from the final results.
CODING

✓The process of identifying and classifying each answer with a

numerical score or other character symbol

✓The numerical score or symbol is called a code, and serves as a rule

for interpreting, classifying, and recording data

✓Identifying responses with codes is necessary if data is to be

processed by computer
 Coding of Data
✓Coding is translating answers into values or assigning numbers to
the various categories of a variable to be used in data analysis

✓Coding is done by using a code book , code sheet and a computer

card

✓The codebook gives a numerical code for each variable

Data Transcription
• Data transcription is an essential part of the methodologies of
phonetics, conversation analysis, dialectology and sociolinguistics
 TABULATION:
✓ The mass of data collected has to be arranged in some kind of concise and
logical order.
✓ Tabulation summarizes the raw data and displays data in form of some
statistical tables.
✓ Tabulation is an orderly arrangement of data in rows and columns.

OBJECTIVES OF TABULATION:
1. Conserves space & minimizes explanation and descriptive statements.
2. Facilitates process of comparison and summarization.
3. Facilitates detection of errors and omissions.
4. Establish the basis of various statistical computations.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF TABULATION:

✓ Tables should be clear, concise & adequately titled.

✓ Every table should be distinctly numbered for easy reference.

✓ Column headings & row headings of the table should be clear &
brief.

✓ Explanatory footnotes concerning the table should be placed at

appropriate places.
✓ The columns & rows should be clearly separated with dark lines

✓ Comparable data should be put side by side.

✓ The figures in percentage should be approximated before

tabulation.

✓ The alignment of the figures, symbols etc. should be properly

aligned and adequately spaced to enhance the readability of the
same.

✓ Abbreviations should be avoided.

Essential parts of a table
✓Title of the table

✓Caption

✓Box head

✓Stub

✓Body of the table

✓Prefatory notes or head notes

✓Foot note

✓Source note
Example of a simple table
Table using a frequency distribution
Complex table
Graphs of frequency distribution
❖Histogram

❖Frequency polygon

❖Frequency curve

❖Ogives or Cumulative Frequency curve

Histogram
Simple Histogram
Frequency polygon
Frequency distribution curve
Ogives or cumulative frequency curves
Types of interviews and related interview
guide
1.Structured interviews
2.Semi-structured interviews
3.Unstructured interviews
4.Informal interviews
5.Focus groups
Structured interviews

• Structured interview refers to the fixed format interview in which all questions
are prepared before hand and are put in the same order to each interviewee
Characteristics of structured interview
• Same series of questions asked to each respondent
• The questions are created prior to the interview and often have a limited set of
response categories
• Questioning is standardised and the ordering and phrasing of the questions are
kept consistent from interview to interview
• The interviewer plays a neutral role and acts casual and friendly, but does not
insert his or her opinion in the interview
When might you use a structures interview?
• Clear topical focus and well-developed understanding of the topic in hand
• When you want your respondent to choose from for each question with relevant,
meaningful and appropriate response categories
Benefits of structured interview
• Structured interviews can be conducted efficiently by interviewers trained only to
follow the instructions on the interview guide or questionnaire
• Structured interviews do not require the development of rapport between
interviewer and interviewee and they can produce consistent data that can be
compared across a number of respondents
Semi-structured interview
• Semi-structured interview is a method that allows the interviewer to use a
flexible approach and permits questions to arise in response to the dialog
Characteristics of semi-structured interview
• The interviewer and respondents engage in a formal interview
• The interviewer follows the guide but he is also allowed to stray from the guide
when he or she feels it is appropriate
When to use semi-structured interview?

• Semi-structured interviewing is best used when you wont get more than one
chance to interview someone and when you will be sending several interviewers
out into the field to collect data
• The semi-structured interview guide provides a clear set of instructions for
interviewers and can provide reliable, comparable qualitative data
• Semi-structured interviews are often preceded by observation, informal and
unstructured interviewing in order to allow the researcher to develop a keen
understanding of the topic of interest necessary for developing relevant and
meaningful semi-structured questions
Benefits of semi-structured interview
• It provides reliable , comparable qualitative data
• Allows the informants the freedom to express their views in their own terms
• Allows interviewer to be prepared and appear competent during the interview
Unstructured interviews

• It is an interview in which questions are not prearranged( although

some questions may be prepared in advance)
Characteristics of unstructured interview
• The interviewer has a clear plan in mind regarding the focus and
goal of the interview. This guides the discussion
• Questions tend to be open ended and express little control over
informants’ responses
• Indepth interviews are unstructured
When to use unstructured interviews?

• When the researcher has developed enough of an understanding of

a setting and his or her topic of interest to have a clear agenda for
the discussion with the informant , but still remains open to having
his or her understanding of the area of inquiry peon to revision by
respondents
• When the researcher’s understanding is still evolving, it is helpful to
anticipate the need to speak with informants on multiple occasions
Benefits of unstructured interview
• It is a useful method for developing an understanding of an as-of-yet not fully
understood or appreciated culture, experience or setting
• It is an important preliminary step toward the development of more structured
interview guides or surveys
• Allows the researcher to test the respondents preliminary understanding
Informal interviews
• It is an interview in which the interviewer talks with people in the field informally,
without use of a structured interview guide of any kind
Characteristics of informal interview
• It goes hand in hand with participant observation
• While in the field as an observer, informal interviews are casual conversation one
might have with people the researcher is observing
• The interviewer talks with people in the field informally, without use of a
structured interview guide of any kind
When to use informal interview?
• To uncover new topics of interest that may have been overlooked by previous
research
• It is used in the early stags of development of an area of inquiry, where there is
little literature describing the setting , experience, culture or issue of interest
• Informal interviewing is typically done as part of the process of observing a social
setting of interest
Benefits of informal interview
• Does not require scheduling time with respondents
• Low pressure interactions and allow respondents to speak more freely and
openly
• Can provide the foundation for developing and conducting more structured
interviews
• Helps to build rapport and in gaining trust as well as their understanding of a
topic , situation , setting etc.,
Focus group

• Focus groups are moderated by a group leader

• Used to collect data on a specific topic
• Characteristics of formal groups
The design of focus group research will vary based on the research
question being studied – following are the general principles to
consider:
• Standardisation of questions
• Number of focus groups conducted
• Number of participants per group
• Level of moderator involved
When focus groups might be used?
• To explore new research area
• To explore a topic that is difficult to observe
• When you want to collect a concentrated set of observations in a short time of
span
• To explore sensitive topics
Benefits of focus group interview
• Larger amount of data is collected in a short time
• Data directly targets researcher’s topic
• Access to topics that might be otherwise unobservable
• Very valuable and provide access to diversity of experiences on a topic
Scaling
• In the filed of business research, measurement or scaling implies in
conversion of the characteristics or qualitative data into quantitative data
• This has to be done because qualitative data or measurement are mostly
subjective and differ from investigator to investigator
• Unless it is converted into qualitative data, measurement would not be
possible
• Scaling is the procedure of measuring and assigning the objects to the
numbers according to the specified rules. In other words, the process of
locating the measured objects on the continuum, a continuous sequence of
numbers to which the objects are assigned is called as scaling.
Measurement
• The measurement is the process of assigning numbers or symbol to the
characteristics of the object as per the specified rules. Here, the researcher
assigns numbers, not to the object, but to its characteristics such as
perceptions, attitudes, preferences, and other relevant traits.
• For example, consider a scale from 1 to 10 for locating consumer
characteristics (preference for the product). Each respondent is assigned a
number from 1 to 10 denoting the degree of unfavorableness for the
product, with ‘1’ indicating extremely unfavorable and ’10’ indicating
extremely favorable. Here, the measurement is the process of assigning the
actual number from 1 to 10 to each respondent while the scaling is a
process of placing respondents on a continuum with respect to their
preference for the product.
Levels of measurement
Nominal scale
A survey of retail stores done on two dimensions - way of maintaining
stocks and daily turnover.
• How do you stock items at present?
[ ] By product category
[ ] At a centralized store
[ ] Department wise
[ ] Single warehouse
• Daily turnover of consumer is?
[ ] Between 100 – 200
[ ] Between 200 – 300
[ ] Above 300
ORDINAL SCALE
Farmers' preferences among 5 brands of pesticide

Order of preference Brand

1 Rambo
2 R.I.P.
3 Killalot
4 D.O.A.
5 Bugdeath
INTERVAL SCALE
RATIO SCALE
Levels of measurement
ATTITUDE MEASURING SCALE

ATTITUDE
MEASURING
SCALES

MULTI-
OPINION SCALES FACTOR SCALES DIMENSIONAL RATING SCALES
SCALES

GUTTMAN SCALE
THURSTONE
LIKERT SCALE OR CUMULATIVE RELATIVE SCALE ABSOLUTE SCALE
SCALE
SCALE
Thurston scale
• Thurstone scale was the first formal technique to measure an
attitude. Basically it is used to assess the attitude of people regarding
any social phenomena.
• This kind of scale is used to measure people's attitude towards a fairly
clear and one- dimensional concept, using a number of statements
that vary in how they express a positive or negative opinion about the
main concept.
• Thurstone Scale is made up of statements about a particular issue,
and each statement has a numerical value indicating how favourable
or unfavourable it is judged to be.
 Method of construction of Thurston scale
• Generate statements that describe specific attitudes that people
might have towards particular topic/thing.
• Have your participants which will rate each statement on a 1- 10 scale
in terms of how much each statements indicates a favorable attitudes
towards the topic.
• 1= least favorable to the concept
• 10= most favorable to the concept
Advantages and disadvantages of Thurston
scale
Advantages of Thurston scale
• It is easy to identify a neutral position
Disadvantages of Thurston scale
• It is costly
• It provides less information about the respondent’s attitude
• It is time consuming
Likert scale
• This scale consists of a series of statements where the respondent
provides answers in the form of agreement or disagreement.
• The respondent selects a numerical score for each statement to
indicate the degree of agreement or otherwise which would be used
to measure the attitude under investigation.
• Each such score is finally added up to measure the respondents
attitude.
METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION OF LIKERT
SCALE
• The researcher gather a large number of statements which
clearly indicate favourable or unfavourable attitude towards
the issue in question.
• The questionnaires consisting of the five points with respect to
a statement are administered to the respondents who indicate
their responses.
• The responses will imply various scores. The scores are
consistently arranged either from the highest to the lowest, or
from the lowest to the highest.
• By adding up the different scores of an individual, the total
score is calculated.
Advantages and disadvantages of Likert
scale
Advantages of Likert scale
• Easy and simple
• More reliable
• It takes less time
Disadvantages of Likert scale
• This is an ordinal scale and not an interval scale
• They are uni-dimensional, because they only give a certain
amount of choices.
• Participants may not be completely honest - which may be
intentional or unintentional.
Likert scale
Guttman scale or cumulative scale

• A Guttman scale presents a number of items to which the person is

requested to agree or not agree.
• This is typically done in a 'Yes/No' dichotomous format.
• The idea is that a person will get to a certain point and then stop.
• For example, on a 5-point quiz, if a person gets to question 3 and then
stops, it implies they do not agree with questions 4 and 5.
• For example, imagine a ten-item cumulative scale. If the respondent
scores a four, it should mean that he/she agreed with the first four
statements. If the respondent scores an eight, it should mean they agreed
with the first eight. The object is to find a set of items that perfectly
matches this pattern. In practice, we would seldom expect to find this
cumulative pattern perfectly.
 Advantages and disadvantages of
Guttman scale
Advantages of Guttman scale
• It measures only a single dimension of attitude
• Small number of items are required to make the scales
Disadvantages of Guttman scale
• The procedure is complex
• It is not very much reliable
• It is difficult to compare with other scaling methods
Guttman scale
Factor scale
• Factor scales are developed through factor analysis or on the basis of
inter-correlation of items which indicate that a common factor
accounts for the relationship between items
Multi-dimensional scale
• Multi-dimensional scaling (MDS) is a statistical technique that allows
researchers to find and explore underlying themes, or dimensions, in
order to explain similarities or dissimilarities (i.e. distances) between
investigated datasets.
• A possible example of when multi-dimensional scaling (MDS) might
be used is if we have six utility companies and we want to understand
how they are considered differently by respondents. We would invite
consumers to complete a survey in which each of the six companies
would be paired with each of the others, and the respondents would
be asked in a series of scale based questions how similar they believe
them to be, for a number of attributes. Examples of attributes may
be: quality, service and price.
Rating scales
• The striking feature of the rating scale lies in the fact that here the
attitudes are evaluated not on the basis of the opinions of the
subjects, but on the basis of the opinions and judgement of the
experimenter himself
• The experimenter may collect the data in the rating scale through the
following means:
Projective techniques
Verbal behavior
Non-verbal behavior
Types of rating scale
• Relative scale
• Absolute scale