Unit-2

Basic Electronic circuits and Instrumentation

Rectifiers and power supplies: Block diagram description of a dc power supply

Fig. 1.1 Block diagram of a dc power supply (Regulated Power supply) with waveforms
RECTIFIER CIRCUIT:

Important Characteristics of Rectifier Circuits:

HALF WAVE RECTIFIER:

The half rectifier consists a step down transformer, a diode connected to the transformer and a load
resistance connected to the cathode end of the diode. The circuit diagram of half wave transformer
is shown below:

The main supply voltage is given to the transformer which will increase or decrease the voltage and
give to the diode. In most of the cases we will decrease the supply voltage by using the step down
transformer here also the output of the step down transformer will be in AC. This decreased AC
voltage is given to the diode which is connected serial to the secondary winding of the transformer,
diode is electronic component which will allow only the forward bias current and will not allow the
reverse bias current. From the diode we will get the pulsating DC and give to the load resistance RL.

Working of Half Wave Rectifier:

The input given to the rectifier will have both positive and negative cycles. The half rectifier will
allow only the positive half cycles and omit the negative half cycles. So first we will see how half
wave rectifier works in the positive half cycles.

Positive Half Cycle:

 In the positive half cycles when the input AC power is given to the primary winding of the step
down transformer, we will get the decreased voltage at the secondary winding which is given to the
diode.

 The diode will allow current flowing in clock wise direction from anode to cathode in the forward
bias (diode conduction will take place in forward bias) which will generate only the positive half cycle
of the AC.

 The diode will eliminate the variations in the supply and give the pulsating DC voltage to the load
resistance RL. We can get the pulsating DC at the Load resistance.

Negative Half Cycle

 In the negative half cycle diode will go in to the reverse bias. In the reverse bias the diode will not
conduct so, no current flow through diode from anode to cathode, and we cannot get any power at
the load resistance.
Disadvantages of Half wave rectifier
1. The output current in the load contains, in addition to dc component, ac components of basic
frequency equal to that of the input voltage frequency. Ripple factor is high and an elaborate filtering
is, therefore, required to give steady dc output.
2. The power output and, therefore, rectification efficiency is quite low. This is due to the fact that
power is delivered only during one half cycle of the input alternating voltage.
3. Transformer utilization factor is low.
4. DC saturation of transformer core resulting in magnetizing current and hysteresis losses and
generation of harmonics.
Centre-Tap Full Wave Rectifier:

In the case of centre-tap full wave rectifier, only two diodes are used, and are connected to the
opposite ends of a centre-tapped secondary transformer as shown in the figure below. The centre-
tap is usually considered as the ground point or the zero-voltage reference point.
Merits and Demerits of Full-wave Rectifier over Half-Wave Rectifier
Merits (Advantages)
 Efficiency is double for a full wave bridge rectifier. The reason is that, a half wave rectifier makes
use of only one half of the input signal. A bridge rectifier makes use of both halves and hence
doubles efficiency.
 The residual ac ripples (before filtering) is very low in the output of a bridge rectifier. The same
ripple percentage is very high in half wave rectifier. A simple filter is enough to get a constant dc
voltage from bridge rectifier.
 The efficiency of full wave bridge is double than half wave rectifier. This means higher output
voltage, Higher transformer utilization factor (TUF) and higher output power.
Demerits(Disadvantages)
 Full-wave rectifier needs more circuit elements and is costlier.
capacitor filter:
 Advantages and Disadvantages of Capacitor input filter:

Working of simple Zener voltage regulator:

A Zener diode, also known as a breakdown diode, is a heavily doped semiconductor

device that is designed to act in the opposite direction. Zener diode is commonly used as a
voltage regulator to maintain a constant DC output voltage.
 A voltage regulator is a part of the power source that maintains a consistent voltage
under all operating conditions. It maintains voltage throughout power fluctuations and load
changes. It can control both AC and DC voltages. Their secondary function is to shield the electric
circuit from voltage spikes that could damage or fry it.

A Zener diode is a special type of electronic component that can control the flow
of electric current in a circuit. It's like a valve for electricity. It is a handy device for controlling and
stabilizing voltages in electronic circuits, keeping everything running smoothly and protecting
other components from excessive voltage.

Working of Zener Diode as a Voltage Regulator:

The capacity of a Zener diode to keep a constant voltage regardless of changes in source or load
current is critical in this application. A voltage regulation device’s general role is to give a
constant output voltage to a load connected in parallel to it, regardless of variations in the load’s
energy drawn (Load current) or fluctuations and instability in the supply voltage. If the current
remains within the limit of the min and max reverse currents, the Zener diode will produce a
constant voltage.

Whenever the load is connected, a small valued resistor would result in a big diode current and
electricity, which would raise the power dissipation need of the diode, which could exceed the
Zener’s maximum power rating and harm it.

The value of the resistor can be determined by the formula

Using this method, it is simple to assure that the resistor value chosen does not result in a current
flow greater than the Zener can tolerate.

One minor issue with Zener diode-based regulatory circuits is that although attempting to
moderate the input voltage, the Zener might generate electrical noise just on the supply rail.
Although it may not be a problem in most cases, a big value decoupling capacitor placed across
the diode may address the problem. This helps to keep the Zener’s output stable.
Application of Zener Diode as a Voltage Regulator

The following are some of the most important applications of a Zener voltage regulator.

o Within the emitter follower regulator, a Zener voltage regulator is used.

o It is utilised with a modest load current range and maintains a steady output DC voltage.
o It is used to control or change the circuit’s output voltage.
o It is employed in analog and digital circuits that need to be precise with their references.
o It is utilised in current source and sink circuits.
o It is used to fine-tune linear and switch power supply voltage and current.
o Error amplifiers use it as well.

Disadvantages of using Zener Diode as a Voltage Regulator

There are two major disadvantages to using a Zener diode as a voltage regulator

o Zener diodes waste electricity by cancelling voltages by applying even higher

voltages in the opposite direction.
o Furthermore, Zener diodes have a low regulation ratio and are often inferior to
transistors.

Amplifiers: Block diagram of Public Address system

A public Address System or PA system is an electronic system that includes acoustic signal
converting, mixing, amplifying, and playing. A PA system has microphones, amplifiers, and
loudspeakers as its main components or equipment. We know that the intensity of the
sound decreases with the distance. Also, a particular sound can be affected or distorted by
the other sound if the level or volume of the sounds is the same. So, if we want to deliver
the sound energy for a long-distance or highlight a particular sound or voice in a large crowd
or gathering then we need a PA system. Because the PA systems provide the amplification
of the sound for comfortable listening.

The range of amplification is required for the sound is to be delivered to the distance, size of
the gathering or gathering, etc. Sound quality is also a very important factor with
amplification because it improves the listening experience. The PA system helps to amplify
as well as record the voice of any human being or the sound of any musical instrument.
Also, it helps to communicate between a group.
Basic Block Diagram of PA System
the public address system block diagram and its important blocks are

Components of a PA System
There are so many devices or components are used in PA system that depends upon their
applications and other factors. But the main three components of any public address system
are explained below.
1. Microphone

The microphone is a very important part or component of a PA system. The microphone

basically is a transducer that converts acoustic energy or sound energy into electrical energy.
It continuously generates the pulsating electrical voltage according to the frequency of the
sound energy applied to it. There various types of microphones are used in the PA system.
The main basic two types of microphones are,
1. Handheld Microphone
2. Lapel Microphone
Other different types of microphones are,
 Wired Microphone
 Wireless Microphone
2. Amplifier
The amplifier is the second part of a PA system. The main function of the amplifier is to
amplify or increase the volume level of the audio signal that can drive a loudspeaker. The
requirement or size of the amplifier depends upon the number and size of the loudspeaker.
If the size of the loudspeaker is very large or so many loudspeakers are to be connected then
a very powerful amplifier is required. The output of the amplifier is measured in watts or
kilo-watt.
3. Loud Speaker
Loudspeaker provides a very important role in the PA system. It converts electrical energy
into acoustic energy or sound energy. The loudspeakers are generally connected to the
amplifier and it generates sound according to the audio signal provided by the amplifier.
There are different types of loudspeakers are available according to their operating
frequency.
1. Woofer - it operates at the lowest frequency audio signal such as Bass
2. Subwoofer - it also operates with low frequency but more than the woofer such as
bass and deep vocals
3. Squawker - it operates with medium-frequency audio signals such as vocals
4. Tweeter - it operates with high-frequency audio signals such as tone
4. Mixer
A mixer is not a necessary part of a PA system. But if there are multiple audio sources or
multiple microphones used in the PA system then a mixer is must required. The mixer is an
electronic device that can control multiple sound sources simultaneously. It can mix all the
sound sources together and play with a single loudspeaker with the help of an amplifier. So
the mixer is generally connected before the amplifier. Nowadays, there are so many
amplifiers are available in the market that already has an inbuilt mixer. So there is no need
for an external additional mixer. All the microphones or sound sources can be connected
directly to the amplifier.
PA System Wiring and Connection Diagram
Here, you can see a basic wiring diagram of public address system. This will help you
understand how microphones, mixers, amplifiers, and speakers are connected together.
Important Factors in a Public Address System
Acoustic Feedback
When the microphone picks up sound from the speaker and re-amplifies and sent again to
the speaker then it is called Acoustic feedback. The objective of any pa system should be to
minimize as much as possible. It distorted the actual sound and make a bad experience of
listening. It generally happens more when the volume of the system is turned up to the
highest level.
This can be reduced by the different procedures,
 by keeping microphones at a distance from the speaker
 changing the direction of the microphone from the point towards the speaker
 lowering the gain level of the feedback sound
 using some devices like notch filter, graphic equalizer, parametric equalizer, etc

Cables and Wires

The size and quality of cables used in the PA system is a very important factor. Using the
proper size and good quality cables and wire improves the sound quality very much.
Types of PA System
The PA system can be classified such as,
 Personal PA System
 Medium Size PA System
 Large Size PA System
 Portable PA System
Applications and Uses of PA System
1. PA system is used in group meetings, presentations, concerts, theatres, large halls, etc.
2. PA system also used in sports, stadiums, travel system, security system, conference
system, etc.

Circuit diagram and working of common emitter (RC coupled) amplifier with its
frequency response:

RC coupled Amplifier

An RC-coupled amplifier is a type of electronic amplifier that uses a resistor-capacitor (RC)

network to couple the output of one stage of amplification to the input of the next stage. The
capacitor blocks any DC voltage, while allowing AC signals to pass through. The resistor and
capacitor values are carefully selected to optimize the frequency response of the amplifier. This
configuration is commonly used in audio amplifiers and radio receivers due to its simplicity and
effectiveness.

What is RC coupled Amplifier?

A transistor circuit containing more than one stage of amplification is defined as a multistage
transistor amplifier. In this amplifier, a number of single amplifier stages are connected in
a cascade arrangement. Cascading means the output of the first stage is connected to the input
of the second stage through a suitable coupling device and so on. The coupling devices are
generally capacitors, transformers, etc.

Purpose of the RC coupled Amplifier device

The purpose of the coupling device is:

o To transfer a.c. the output of one stage, to the input of the next stage.
o To isolate the d.c. conditions of one stage from the next stage.
o To reduce or eliminate the loading effect.

The above figure shows the block diagram of a 3 stage cascade amplifier. Each stage consists of a
transistor amplifier and is coupled to the next stage through a coupling device. The commonly
used cascade amplifiers are:
 o R.C. coupled amplifier
o Transformer-coupled amplifier
o Direct-coupled amplifier

The resistance-capacitance coupling is, in short termed as RC coupling. This is the mostly
used coupling technique in amplifiers.

Construction of a Two-stage RC Coupled Amplifier

The constructional details of a two-stage RC coupled transistor amplifier circuit are as
follows. The two-stage amplifier circuit has two transistors, connected in CE configuration
and a common power supply VCC is used. The potential divider network R1 and R2 and the
resistor Re form the biasing and stabilization network. The emitter by-pass capacitor
Ce offers a low reactance path to the signal. The resistor R L is used as a load impedance. The
input capacitor Cin present at the initial stage of the amplifier couples AC signal to the base
of the transistor. The capacitor C C is the coupling capacitor that connects two stages and
prevents DC interference between the stages and controls the shift of operating point. The
figure below shows the circuit diagram of RC coupled amplifier.

Operation of RC Coupled Amplifier

When an AC input signal is applied to the base of first transistor, it gets amplified and
appears at the collector load RL which is then passed through the coupling capacitor C C to
the next stage. This becomes the input of the next stage, whose amplified output again
appears across its collector load. Thus the signal is amplified in stage by stage action.
The important point that has to be noted here is that the total gain is less than the product
of the gains of individual stages. This is because when a second stage is made to follow the
first stage, the effective load resistance of the first stage is reduced due to the shunting
effect of the input resistance of the second stage. Hence, in a multistage amplifier, only the
gain of the last stage remains unchanged.

As we consider a two stage amplifier here, the output phase is same as input. Because the
phase reversal is done two times by the two stage CE configured amplifier circuit.

Frequency Response of RC Coupled Amplifier

Frequency response curve is a graph that indicates the relationship between voltage gain
and function of frequency. The frequency response of a RC coupled amplifier is as shown in
the following graph.
From the above graph, it is understood that the frequency rolls off or decreases for the
frequencies below 50Hz and for the frequencies above 20 KHz. whereas the voltage gain for
the range of frequencies between 50Hz and 20 KHz is constant.

We know that,

It means that the capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to the frequency.

At Low frequencies (i.e. below 50 Hz)

The capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to the frequency. At low frequencies, the
reactance is quite high. The reactance of input capacitor C in and the coupling capacitor
CC are so high that only small part of the input signal is allowed. The reactance of the emitter
by pass capacitor CE is also very high during low frequencies. Hence it cannot shunt the
emitter resistance effectively. With all these factors, the voltage gain rolls off at low
frequencies.
At High frequencies (i.e. above 20 KHz)

Again considering the same point, we know that the capacitive reactance is low at high
frequencies. So, a capacitor behaves as a short circuit, at high frequencies. As a result of
this, the loading effect of the next stage increases, which reduces the voltage gain. Along
with this, as the capacitance of emitter diode decreases, it increases the base current of the
transistor due to which the current gain (β) reduces. Hence the voltage gain rolls off at high
frequencies.

At Mid-frequencies (i.e. 50 Hz to 20 KHz)

The voltage gain of the capacitors is maintained constant in this range of frequencies, as
shown in figure. If the frequency increases, the reactance of the capacitor C C decreases
which tends to increase the gain. But this lower capacitance reactive increases the loading
effect of the next stage by which there is a reduction in gain.

Due to these two factors, the gain is maintained constant.

Advantages of RC Coupled Amplifier

The following are the advantages of RC coupled amplifier.

 The frequency response of RC amplifier provides constant gain over a wide

frequency range, hence most suitable for audio applications.
 The circuit is simple and has lower cost because it employs resistors and capacitors
which are cheap.
 It becomes more compact with the upgrading technology.
Disadvantages of RC Coupled Amplifier

The following are the disadvantages of RC coupled amplifier.

 The voltage and power gain are low because of the effective load resistance.
 They become noisy with age.
 Due to poor impedance matching, power transfer will be low.
Applications of RC Coupled Amplifier

The following are the applications of RC coupled amplifier.

 They have excellent audio fidelity over a wide range of frequency.

 Widely used as Voltage amplifiers
 Due to poor impedance matching, RC coupling is rarely used in the final stages.

Electronic Instrumentation: Block diagram of an electronic instrumentation system.

It is branch of engineering which deals with various types of instruments to record, monitor,
indicate and control various physical parameters such as pressure, temperature, etc.
Instrumentation and control:
Measurements through an instrument and it is a specific limit is called instruments and
control.

Instrument:

An instrument may be defined as a device or a system which is designed to maintain

functional relationship between physical variable and means of communication to human
observer.
Fig. Block diagram of instrumentation system
The block diagram shown above is of basic instrumentation system. It consist of primary sensing
element, variable manipulation element, data transmission element and data presentation
element.

Primary sensing element

The primary sensing element is also known as sensor. Basically transducers are used as a
primary sensing element. Here, the physical quantity (such as temperature, pressure etc.) are
sensed and then converted into analogues signal.

Variable conversion element

It converts the output of primary sensing element into suitable form without changing information.
Basically these are secondary transducers.

Variable manipulation element

The output of transducer may be electrical signal i.e. voltage, current or other electrical
parameter. Here, manipulation means change in numerical value of signal. This element is used
to convert the signal into suitable range.

Data transmission element

Sometimes it is not possible to give direct read out of the quality at a particular place (Example –
Measurement of temperature in the furnace). In such a case, the data should transfer from one
place to another place through channel which is known as data transmission element. Typically
transmission path are pneumatic pipe, electrical cable and radio links. When radio link is used,
the electronic instrumentation system is called as telemetry system.

Data presentation or controlling element

Finally the output is recorded or given to the controller to perform action. It performs different
functions like indicating, recording or controlling.

(Or)
Electronic Instrumentation System

 Fig shows block diagram of generalized electronics instrumentation system, in which

number of element worked together to perform a desired function accurately i.e. to
measure the measurand quantity and display it or record it.
 We will discuss the different element separately so it is easy for us to understand the
system in detail.
Measurand (physical quantity or electrical quantity) :
 The physical or electrical quantity which is to be measurand is called as measurand. If
the input to the instrumentation is parameter like pressure, force, level, strain,
displacement, temperature, flow, velocity etc. then these parameters are physical
measurand. These measurand are applied to the transducer element.
 If the input is current, voltage and frequency then these parameter are called
electrical measurand. These measurand are applied to the electrical conversion
element.
Transducer and electrical conversion elements:
 If the measurand is physical quantity then it is converted into equivalent electrical
signal with help of element which is called transducer. Transducer is a device which
convert one form of energy into another. (physical to electrical).
 Most of the transducer are primary sensors which sense the measurand then
convert it into electrical signal with the help of conversion element.
 If the measurand is already electrical signal like voltage, current or frequency then it
is give to the electrical conversion element which convert the signal into more
suitable form of signals such as 4-20mA, 1-5VDC, 1-10VDC etc.
Signal processing or signal conditioning:
 The output from the transducer elements is given to the signal processing or signal
conditioning elements. Signal conditioning is a process to modify the output of
transducer so that it can be measurand, controlled and acceptable by next stages.
 In electronic instrumentation system, filter, modulator, A/D converters, D/A
converter, amplifiers, integrators, differentiators are the important signal
conditioning circuits.
 This stage is required to convert the transducer output into an electrical quantity
suitable for proper operation of the last stage or indicator.
Data transmission element:
  If the sensing element and data presentation element of the instrumentation system
are away from each other (physically separated) in that case data transmission
element is very important .
 This element provides a transmission path for the modified signals to travel from
transducer element to the rest of instrumentation elements like recorders,
controllers, displays etc.
 In electronic instrumentation system, typically the transmission path is a conducting
lines (i.e. electrical cables). In electronic instrumentation system some time radio link
is used as a transmission path them the system is called telemetry system.
 This element transmits the data to the remote located control room.
Data presentation element:
 The signal from the data lines are provided to the data presentation element. This
element converts the signal into such from that it can be presented by some visual
or audible means.
 Function performed by this stage may be demodulation, amplification, filtering, A/D
conversion etc.
 This element modifies the signals in such a way that the signals are accepted by
recorders, displays, indicators, printers, announcing systems etc. The out put of the
data presentation element is provided to the recorders, controllers, and indicators as
per the requirement of the user or operator or observer.
Output devices:
 The last stage of instrumentation system is required to provide the information
about the measurand for immediate reorganization by the operator whatever
output is presented on indicator.
 For example, if the system is simple instrumentation with display then measured
parameter is displayed directly on the display. If it is required to produce alarm for
the over range then indicator or buzzer is used. If the recorder like strip-chart or X-Y
recorder etc. To record the data.
 If the system is control system in that case the measured data not only displayed or
recorded but also compared with some reference value and control action is
generated which is used to remove the error.
Power supply:
 This is a common unit for all instrumentation system. This provides power to all
elements working in the instrumentation setup.
 If the transducer is active transducer (self generating), in that case power supply is
not required. For example if that transducer is thermocouple or piezoelectric crystal.
 For passive transducer power supply is required, for example if the transducer is
thermistor or RTD, in that case power supply is important to the transducer block.
Typical applications:
 Data loggers
 Control systems for outdoor equipment
 System modules for automation technology
 Sensor technology and optoelectronics (e.g. control and alarm devices)
 Peripheral devices and data collection in the laboratory and research
Assignment Questions:

1. Explain the working of full wave bridge rectifier with the help of waveforms and circuit
diagrams.
2. Draw the circuit diagram of R-C Coupled amplifier and explain its operation with its
advantages, disadvantages and applications
3. Explain Zener diode as voltage regulator with a neat Sketch.
4. Write short notes on
a) Block diagram of an electronic instrumentation system.
b) Block diagram of a DC power Supply