VERSES OF THE WEEK

Oct. 26-30, 2020 “When the righteous cry for help, the Lord hears and delivers them out of all their troubles. The Lord is
near to the brokenhearted and saves the crushed in spirit.” Psalm 34:17

November Verses (Growing in Patience)

Nov. 2-6, 2020 “The Lord is good to those who wait for him, to the soul who seeks him. It is good that one should wait
quietly for the salvation of the Lord.” Lamentations 3:25-26

Nov. 9-13, 2020 "I therefore, a prisoner for the Lord, urge you to walk in a manner worthy of the calling to which you have
been called, with all humility and gentleness, with patience, bearing with one another in love." Ephesians 4:2

Nov. 16-20, 2020 “The LORD will fight for you, and you have only to be silent.” Exodus 14:14

Nov. 23-27, 2020 "And let us not grow weary of doing good, for in due season we will reap, if we do not give up.”
Galatians 6:9

MODULE 5: MOTIVATION AND REGULATION OF INTERNAL STATES

MOST ESSENTIAL LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this module, students are able to:

 Define motivation
 Discuss historical explanations of motivation and regulation of internal states
 Discuss biological explanations of motivation and regulation of internal states
 Discuss cognitive explanations of motivation and regulation of internal states

Motivation video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A9GWhSndmf0

Defining Motivation

Motivation is a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior toward a goal.

Historical Explanations

Instinct

•A complex, inherited behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species.

•William James listed 37 instincts (crying, maternal/paternal instincts, etc.)

•Difficulty using instincts to both label and explain behaviors

Drives

•Aroused tension states created by imbalances

•Prompt an organism to restore the balance, typically reducing the drive

•Part of drive-reduction theory

Drive-Reduction Theory (Clark Hull and Kenneth Spence

1
According to the theory, the reduction of drives is the primary force behind motivation. While the drive-reduction
theory of motivation was once a dominant force in psychology, it is largely ignored today.

The idea that a physiological need creates a state of tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the
need.

• Eating and drinking are examples of drive-reducing behaviors.

Biological Explanations

Arousal (Yerkes-Dodson)

•Level of alertness and responsiveness

Yerkes-Dodson Law

•The theory that a degree of psychological arousal helps

performance, but only to a point.

•Optimum level of arousal depends on the difficulty of the task.

•Each person has an optimum level of stimulation they like to

maintain.

Homeostasis
2
•A tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state.

•The regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level

•Any change in levels, up or down, results in being motivated to bring the level back to normal.

Functions of the Endocrine System

• Controls the processes involved in movement and physiological equilibrium

• Includes all tissues or glands that secrete hormones into the blood
• Secretion of most hormones is regulated by a negative feedback system
• The number of receptors for a specific hormone can be altered to meet the body’s demand

Endocrine Overview

• Hormones- chemical messengers travel through body

• Target cell or organ- organ or cells that a hormone affects

Control of Hormone Release

• Negative feedback mechanism- hormone release is triggered by stimulus, rising levels of hormone inhibit further
release
• Endocrine stimuli-
o Hormonal- hormones stimulate the release of other hormones
o Humoral- blood stimulates release of hormones
o Neural- nerves stimulate hormone release

• Hormonal- hormones stimulate the release of other hormones

For example, the hypothalamus produces hormones that stimulate the anterior portion of the pituitary gland. The
anterior pituitary, in turn, releases hormones that regulate hormone production by other endocrine glands. The anterior
pituitary releases the thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), which then stimulates the thyroid gland to produce the hormones
T3 and T4. As blood concentrations of T3 and T4 rise, they inhibit both the pituitary and the hypothalamus in a negative
feedback loop.

• Humoral- blood stimulates release of hormones

For example, a rise in blood glucose levels triggers the pancreatic release of insulin. Insulin causes blood glucose
levels to drop, which signals the pancreas to stop producing insulin. This is an example of a negative feedback loop.

• Neural- nerves stimulate hormone release

In a short-term stress response, the hormones epinephrine and

norepinephrine are important for providing the bursts of energy required for the
body to respond. Here, neuronal signaling from the sympathetic nervous
system directly stimulates the adrenal medulla to release the hormones
epinephrine and norepinephrine in response to stress.

Anterior Pituitary Gland

• Growth Hormone (GH)- affects growth of skeletal muscles and bones

• Prolactin (PRL)- stimulates milk production after pregnancy

• Gonadotropic- regulates hormone activity of sex organs

• Also effects adrenal cortex and thyroid hormone release

3
Posterior Pituitary

• Oxytocin- helps during pregnancy, also called the “love hormone”

• Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)- inhibits urine production

o Alcohol inhibits ADH causing increased output of urine

Thyroid Gland

• Thyroid hormone

o Controls the rate at which glucose is “burned”

• Calcitonin

o Decreases calcium levels in blood deposits on bone

Parathyroid Gland

• Parathyroid hormone (PTH)- regulates Ca2+ in blood

o If Ca2+ level drops bones is broken down

Adrenal Gland

• Adrenal Cortex

o Releases hormones that regulate mineral content in blood

• Adrenal Medulla

o Produces epinephrine and norepinephrine

o Helps with stressful situations

Adrenal Cortex

The adrenal cortex produces three hormones:

1. Mineralocorticoids: the most important of which is aldosterone. This hormone helps to maintain the body’s salt
and water levels which, in turn, regulates blood pressure. Without aldosterone, the kidney loses excessive
amounts of salt (sodium) and, consequently, water, leading to severe dehydration and low blood pressure.

2. Glucocorticoids: predominantly cortisol. This hormone is involved in the response to illness and also helps to
regulate body metabolism. Cortisol stimulates glucose production helping the body to free up the necessary
ingredients from storage (fat and muscle) to make glucose. Cortisol also has significant anti-inflammatory effects.

3. Adrenal androgens: male sex hormones mainly dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and testosterone. All have
weak effects, but play a role in early development of the male sex organs in childhood, and female body hair
during puberty.

Adrenal Medulla

1. Catecholamines include adrenaline, noradrenaline and small amounts of dopamine

4
 – these hormones are responsible for all the physiological characteristics of the stress response, the so called 'fight
or flight' response.

Pancreas

• Insulin- increases glucose uptake into cells and stores in liver

• Glucagon- stimulates breakdown of glucose stores in the liver

Pineal Gland

• Melatonin
o Establishes body’s day/ night cycle

Thymus

• The thymus gland, located behind your sternum and between your
lungs, is only active until puberty.
• After puberty, the thymus starts to slowly shrink and become replaced
by fat.
• Thymosin is the hormone of the thymus, and it stimulates the
development of disease-fighting T cells.

Fun Fact

• The thymus is special in that, unlike most organs, it is at its largest in

children. Once you reach puberty, the thymus starts to slowly shrink and
become replaced by fat. By age 75, the thymus is little more than fatty
tissue. Fortunately, the thymus produces all of your T cells by the time
you reach puberty.

Gonads

• Androgens (male)- sperm formation, development of male characteristics

• Estrogens (female)- development of female characteristics

REVIEW

5
 SYSTEM FUNCTION ASSOCIATED ORGANS INTERACTION W/ NERVOUS SYSTEM

Endocrine The endocrine Pineal body, pituitary • Hormones provide feedback to

System system secretes gland, hypothalamus, the brain to affect neural
hormones into thyroid, parathyroid, processing.
blood and other heart, adrenal gland,
body fluids. These kidney, pancreas, • Reproductive hormones affect
chemicals are stomach, intestines, the development of the
important for ovary nervous system.
metabolism, • The hypothalamus controls
growth, water and the pituitary gland and other
mineral balance, endocrine glands.
and the response
to stress.

How do endocrine hormones “know” which cells are their target cells?

Role of the Hypothalamus

• The thalamus receives sensory information, relays some to the hypothalamus.

• Hypothalamus monitors the body for temperature, pH, other conditions.

• Hypothalamus signals pituitary gland if conditions need to be corrected.

Role of the Pituitary

• The pituitary is the “master gland” that signals other glands to produce their hormones when needed.

• The anterior lobe of the pituitary receives signals from the hypothalamus, and responds by sending out the
appropriate hormone to other endocrine glands.

• The posterior pituitary receives oxytocin or antidiuretic hormone (ADH) from the hypothalamus, relays them to the
body as necessary.

6
Pituitary Hormones

Endocrine Hormones

Hunger: A Closer Look: Physiology of Hunger

Control systems and Homeostasis

•Control system: (Nervous/ Endocrine System)

- System which sustains a (life) function

- Has a variety of loops and functions

- Uses a set point to determine optimal performance.

7
- Negative feedback loop:

Glucose

•Form of sugar which circulates through the body

•One feels hunger when the levels become low.

Insulin

•Hormone which allows the body to use glucose for energy or fat production

•As insulin levels increase, glucose levels decrease.

Leptin

•Protein produced by bloated fat cells

•Send a message to “stop eating”

Orexin

•Hunger-triggering hormone

•Produced by the hypothalamus

•As glucose levels drop, orexin levels increase and person feels hungry

Hypothalamus

•Regulates appetite

•Monitors leptin levels

Set Point - point of equilibrium for the system

•For weight, it is the point at which an individual’s “weight thermostat” is supposedly set;

•when the body falls below this weight, an increased hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost
weight.

Environment and Hunger

Incentive theory (Bolles, 1967)

- recognizes alternative sources of drive beside internal

- Notes that people and animals motivated by external stimuli, not just internal needs.

External Incentives

•Include the sight, sound, and smell of food

Cultural Influences on Eating

•Cultural views on obesity can vary

•Culture influences the foods we like and dislike

Eating Disorders:

Anorexia Nervosa

•An eating disorder in which normal-weight people (usually in adolescent females) have a distorted self-perception of
being “fat,” put themselves of self-starvation regimens, and become dangerously underweight (15 percent or more below
normal).

8
•Anorexics put themselves on self-starvation regimens

•May become dangerously underweight (15% of more below normal)

Bulimia Nervosa

•An eating disorder characterized by episodes of overeating –

•usually of high-calorie foods -

•followed by vomiting, use of laxatives, fasting, or excessive exercise.

Cognitive Explanations

Extrinsic Motivation

•A desire to perform a behavior because of promised rewards or threats of punishment.

Intrinsic Motivation

•A desire to perform a behavior for its own sake and to be effective.

Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)

•Humanistic psychologist who proposed the hierarchy of needs, with self-

actualization as one of the ultimate psychological needs.

Hierarchy of Needs

• Maslow’s pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with

physiological needs that must be satisfied before higher-level safety
needs and then physiological needs become active.

• Continually higher-level needs won’t become active until lower-level

needs have been satisfied.

Henry Murray (1893-1988)

•Neo-Freudian who first established the concept of achievement

motivation and developed important personality testing tools.

Achievement Motivation

•A desire for significant accomplishment;

•for the mastery of things, people, or ideas; and

•for attaining a high standard.

MODULE 6: THE BIOLOGY OF SEX AND GENDER

MOST ESSENTIAL LEARNING OUTCOMES:

At the end of this module, the students are able to:

 Define sex and gender

 Differentiate sex and gender
 Discuss the biology behind sex
 Identify the chromosomal aberrations and deletion (chromosomal disorders)
 Discuss the gender, culture, and identity
 Discuss various cultural/racial views on division of labor among men and women

INPUT

DEFINING SEX AND GENDER

9
Sex versus Gender

• sex refers to the biological differences between males and females based on physiological factors, including:
sex chromosomes, reproductive organs, hormones, secondary characteristics

• gender refers to the way a society perceives, evaluates, and expects males and females to behave
- all societies have gender categories but the traits assigned to each differ from culture to culture

There are two main biological differences that are useful in a comparative study of sex and gender cross-culturally

1.sexual dimorphism

-physical differences based on genetic differences between males and females

ex: differences in size and strength

2. reproductive physiology

-women's ability to become pregnant, carry and birth children, and produce milk to nurse them

-men's contribution of sperm

*both areas are interpreted differently depending on the culture

THE BIOLOGY OF SEX

Day One

The first cell of a new human being, called a zygote, is formed when a sperm fertilizes an
egg. When the nuclei of the egg and sperm fuse, fertilization is accomplished.

Day Three

The zygote begins its journey down the Fallopian tube. About 36 hours after fertilization, cell
division begins in the Fallopian tube, and continues to occur about twice a day. In three to
four days, the cluster of dividing cells completes the 10 cm (4 in) journey through the
Fallopian tube to the uterus.

Day Six

About the fifth day after fertilization, a cluster of about a hundred cells floats in the uterus. It
soon takes the form of a fluid-filled ball of cells called a blastocyst. After one or two days in
the uterus, the blastocyst burrows into the uterine lining, which grows over the blastocyst
and provides it with nutrients. This process is known as implantation, and the blastocyst is
now called an embryo.

Week Four

10
After implantation, cells of the embryo begin to specialize and form primitive organs. In the four week-old embryo shown
here, the head (bottom, left) can be distinguished. The heart beats, and limb buds of the arms and legs are visible. The
placenta develops at this stage and provides the embryo with nutrients from the mother. The four-week-old embryo
measures about 5 mm (about 0 .2 in) from crown to rump.

Week Eight

After eight weeks of development, all the rudimentary structures of a human have formed, and the embryo passes
into the fetal stage of development. The fetus floats in the watery amniotic fluid, which is contained by the
transparent, tough, amniotic membrane. The amniotic fluid acts as a shock absorber, preventing damage to the
developing fetus. The eight-week-old fetus measures about 30 mm (about 1.2 in) from crown to rump.

Development of the Human Fetus

Although the total gestation period for humans lasts nine months, the fetus has a
recognizable human form by the 12th week of development.

The vital organs are not sufficiently developed to sustain life outside the uterus until the
seventh month. The sex of the child can be determined at this point.

Human karyotype

• Human karyotype (individual’s collection of chromosomes) revealed that one pair of chromosomes differs in males
and females:

• females have two X chromosomes

• males have one X and one Y chromosome

• Meiosis makes _______________ cells from diploid cells.

• Meiosis occurs in _______________ cells.

• Meiosis produces _______________.

• (_________________)

Your cells have autosomes and sex chromosomes.

• Your body cells have _______ pairs of chromosomes.

- Chromosome pairs

# 1-22 are ________________.

• Sex chromosomes, # ______determine gender in humans. They are referred to as _________________

MEIOSIS

MEN VS. WOMEN

WHAT IS THE SAME?

• 4 CELLS ARE PRODUCED

• EACH CELL HAS ONLY HALF THE NUMBER OF CHROMOSOMES AS THE ORIGINAL
11
WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE?

• MALES: ALL FOUR CELLS ARE “GOOD” SPERM

• FEMALES: 3 CELLS ARE CONSIDERED “POLAR BODIES” ONLY 1 CELL IS A VIABLE EGG

(THIS IS DUE TO AN UNEVEN DIVISION OF CYTOPLASM DURING MEIOSIS)

Haploid cells develop into mature gametes.

_________________ is the production of gametes.

Gametogenesis differs between _________ AND _______.

– Sperm become _____________ and ______________

– Sperm primarily contribute _______ to an embryo.

– Eggs contribute _______, _____________, and _________________ to an embryo.

– During meiosis, the ______ gets most of the contents; the other cells form _________________.

DID YOU KNOW?

The sperm is the smallest cell in the body, whilst the egg is the largest,

it is estimated that it will take 175,000 sperm to weigh as much as a female egg, which is a lot of sperm!

Average males produce 150 million sperm daily!

Females are born with all the oocytes (eggs) that they will ever have in a lifetime?

Infertility: sperm counts drop as low as 20 million per ml

Chromosomal Aberrations Trisomy 21 (Down syndrome)

12
KARYOTYP DISEASE
E

47 XX , +21 Trisomy 21 (Down syndrome)

47 XX , +18 Trisomy 18 (Edward’s

syndrome)

47 XX, +13 Trisomy 13 (Patau syndrome)

47 XXY Klinefelter syndrome

47 XXX Trisomy X

Trisomy 18 (Edward’s syndrome) Trisomy 13 (Patau syndrome)

13