Endocrine system

• The endocrine system is a network of glands that manufacture

and secrete chemical messengers. Our bloodstream carries
information, along with oxygen and nutrients. It does so by
serving as the communication pathway for the endocrine
system. Anatomically, glands are broadly classified into two
types based on the presence or absence of ducts. Endocrine
glands are the glands that secrete hormones without ducts,
while exocrine glands secrete hormones through ducts.
• The glands comprising the endocrine system (which takes its
name from the Greek endo for “within” and krinein for
“secrete”) transmit information by releasing hormones into
the bloodstream.
 Contd.
• Much like neurotransmitters in the nervous system, hormones
are chemical messengers that influence not only body functions
but behaviors and emotions (Damasio, 2003; LeDoux, 2002). For
example, hormones from the pituitary stimulate body growth.
• Hormones from the ovaries and testes influence sexual
development and sexual responses.
• Hormones from the adrenals produce the arousal accompanying
fear.
• And hormones from the thyroid control metabolism (the body’s
rate of energy use). Once secreted into the blood, hormones
circulate throughout the body until delivered to their target
muscles, glands, and organs.
 Contd.
• Under normal (unaroused) conditions, the endocrine system works in
parallel with the parasympathetic nervous system to sustain our
basic body processes. But in a crisis, the endocrine system shifts
into a new mode, supporting the actions of the sympathetic nervous
system. So, when you encounter a stressor or an emergency (such as
the speeding car headed at you), the hormone epinephrine
(sometimes called adrenalin) is released into the blood stream,
sustaining the body’s defensive reaction that we called “fight or flight.”
In this way, the endocrine system finishes what your sympathetic
nervous system started, by keeping your heart pounding and your
muscles tense, ready for action.
• Hormones from one endocrine gland may excite or inhibit the
production of hormones by another gland or it can be said that
interactions occur between endocrine glands.
 Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland
• The endocrine system is regulated by feedback in much the same
way that a thermostat regulates the temperature in a room. For
the hormones that are regulated by the pituitary gland, a signal is
sent from the hypothalamus to the pituitary gland in the form of a
"releasing hormone," which stimulates the pituitary to secrete a
"stimulating hormone" into the circulation. The stimulating
hormone then signals the target gland to secrete its hormone. As
the level of this hormone rises in the circulation, the
hypothalamus and the pituitary gland shut down secretion of the
releasing hormone and the stimulating hormone, which in turn
slows the secretion by the target gland. This system results in
stable blood concentrations of the hormones that are regulated by
the pituitary gland.
• All endocrine glands, with the exception of the
anterior pituitary, are directly regulated by signals
from the nervous system. Endocrine glands located
in the brain (i.e., the pituitary and pineal glands)
are regulated by cerebral neurons. In contrast,
those endocrine glands located outside the CNS
are innervated by the autonomic nervous system—
usually by both the sympathetic and
parasympathetic branches, which often have
opposite effects on hormone release.
• Hormones are involved in a variety of functions and behaviors.
• The endocrine system promotes the survival of an organism by
helping fight infections and diseases.
• It advances the survival of the species through regulation of
sexual arousal, production of reproductive cells, and production
of milk in nursing mothers.
• In charge of the endocrine system is hypothalamus, a bundle of
small nuclei that reside at the base of brain. Specialized cells in
the hypothalamus receive messages from other brain cells
commanding it to release a number of different hormones to
the pituitary gland, where they either stimulate or inhibit the
release of other hormones.
• Exocrine glands are the glands of external secretion. These
are those that secrete substances on the body surface
through a duct. They perform functions like, regulate body
temperature, lubrication, lactation, helps in digestion.
• Lacrimal Glands– include tear ducts near each eye,
Pancreas– Secretes pancreatic juice along with the
digestive enzymes into the stomach, Salivary
Glands- secretes saliva along with digestive enzymes,
Liver- secretes bile that contains salts and digestive
substances, Mammary Glands- secrete breast milk, Sweat
Glands- release salty water through perspiration.
• The endocrine system is a network of glands and
organs that produce, store, and secrete hormones.
• Hormone Production and Regulation
• Glands and Organs
• Slow but Long-lasting Effects
• Feedback Mechanisms
• Interconnected with the Nervous System
• Chemical Messengers
• Influence on multiple functions
 Pituitary Gland
• The “master gland” that produces hormones
influencing the secretions of all other endocrine
glands, as well as a hormone that influences growth.
• The pituitary is also known as hypophysis i.e. 0.5 to 1
gm in weight and about 1 cm in diameter . It lies at
the base of brain and attached to the hypothalamus
with pituitary stalk, from which it takes its orders.
• Physiologically, two portions ;anterior
pituitary(adenohypophysis) and posterior
pituitary(neuro hypophysis).
 Contd.
• Both portions differ in structure and
functions.APG consists of chromophobe (not
secretory in nature but they do play a role in
regulating pituitary hormone secretion) and
chromophil cells secrete GH, TSH, ACTH, FSH,
LH(females) and ICSH(in males), and Prolactin.
• The anterior pituitary, composed of glandular
tissue, synthesizes six hormones, although
the hypothalamus controls their release.
• Thyroid-stimulating hormone(Thyrotric hormone):
Stimulates thyroid gland ,influence the uptake of iodine,
the release of stored hormones into blood stream.

• Luteinizing hormone :Stimulates ovulation ,ICSH activates

interstilial cells to secrete androgens.

• Follicle-stimulating hormone :stimulates the growth of

ovarian follicles and secretion of estrogens, Promotes
ovum maturation (female), accelerates sperm production
(male).
• Adenocorticotropic(ACTH): The secretion of ACTH by the
pituitary is itself regulated by another polypeptide,
corticotropin-releasing hormone(CRH), which is discharged
from the hypothalamus in the brain. Increases steroid
hormone production by stimulating adrenal cortex.
• Prolactin : stimulates breast to secrete milk, promotes
mammary gland development and Increases milk production.
• Growth hormone :Increases body growth, promotes protein
anabolism, absorption of calcium, converts glycogen into
glucose, conserves carbohydrates, highest concentration in
blood till an individual achieves its full stature, and repairs
body tissue.
 Applied Physiology
• Hyperactivity of growth hormone leads to
Gigantism, Acromegaly ( bones enlargement, jaw
protrudes forward, soft tissue organs such as
tongue, liver and especially kidneys become
greatly enlarged), Acromegalic gigantism.
• Hyperprolactinaemia(infertility, impotence).
• Cushing’s disease( Harvey Cushing neurosurgeon ,
higher secretion of ACTH) hypertension, impaired
glucose intolerance, insomnia, facial hair growth.
• Hypoactivity :Dwarfism(stunted growth)
• Acromicria: hypothyroidism , obesity, lethargic
and loss of sexual function.
• Simmond’s disease: hair loss, dry and wrinkled
skin, shrunken of facial features.
 Posterior Gland
• The posterior pituitary or neurohypophysis,
composed of neural tissue, can be considered an
extension of the hypothalamus. It is composed of glial
cells ‘pituicytes’ which do not secrete hormones but
act as supporting structure for large number of
terminal nerve fibers. Neurons in the hypothalamus
synthesize the hormones oxytocin and vasopressin
(also known as antidiuretic hormone), which
migrate down axons to the posterior pituitary,
Later, the posterior pituitary releases these
hormones into the blood.
• Oxytocin :Uterine contractions, milk release,
sexual pleasure.
• Vasopressin :Raises blood pressure, decreases
urine volume or Conservation of water in the
body.
• A combination of both is used to aid child
birth.
 Applied Physiology
• Hyperactivity: concentrated urine due to
increased re absorption of water and loss of
sodium in the urine.
• Precocious puberty: pubertal changes prior to
the age of nine.
• Hypoactivity: Diabetes Insipidus ( deficient of
vasopressin) a large water intake, constant
headaches, visual disturbances.
 Thymus Gland
• The thymus is located just below the breast bone. It is a
soft, pinkish bi-lobed mass of lymphoid tissue and develops
as a large gland of two roughly equal lobes that lie between
the breast bone and the heart. It is a prominent gland at the
time of birth but it gradually atrophies or becomes weaker
in adults . The size of the gland increases in step with
general growth in the human until the child is of 8 to 10
years.
• This gland secretes hormones that are commonly referred
to as humoral factors and are important during puberty. The
role of these hormones is to make sure a person develops a
healthy immune system.
 Contd.
• It is the primary source of lymphocytes i.e. white blood cells
that combat diseases, bacteria, viruses and react to infections.
The thymus is instrumental in the production and maturation of
T-lymphocytes or T cells.
• It releases lymphocytes in the blood stream and lymph glands
and spleen store it . Its production is at its peak before and after
few days of birth. So lymphocytes perform two functions i.e.
they produce antibodies that neutralize diseases, bacteria and
viruses . Secondly, they recognize and react against infections.
• Once T cells have fully matured in the thymus, they migrate to
the lymph nodes (groups of immune system cells) throughout
the body, where they aid the immune system in fighting disease.
 Contd.
• Thymus gland is covered on the outside by loose connective tissue.
There is an outer cortex of densely packed thymocytes and inner
medulla having connective tissue with few lymphoid cells. The main
hormone is thymosin that stimulates the development of certain
kinds of white blood cells involved in producing immunity.
Secondly, it helps in acceleration of cell division, lymphocyte
formation and attainment of sexual maturity.
• With increase in age its production ceases. As it grows smaller, it
seems the organ becomes less important. "Removal of the organ in
the adult has little effect, but when the thymus is removed in the
newborn, T-cells in the blood and lymphoid tissue are depleted,
and failure of the immune system causes a gradual, fatal wasting
disease," according to Encyclopedia Britannica.
 Applied Physiology
•Myasthenia gravis (an autoimmune disease that may cause
a disorder in transmission at the neuromuscular junction)
occurs when the thymus is abnormally large and produces
antibodies that block or destroy the muscles' receptor sites.
This causes the muscles to become weak and easily tired.
weak arms, legs or neck. difficulty making facial
expressions. problems chewing and difficulty swallowing.
•Pure red cell aplasia is thought to be caused commonly by
the patient's own immune cells attacking blood-forming
stem cells. This can happen when the thymus has a tumor.
• Hypogammaglobulinemia is a disorder where
the body doesn't produce enough antibodies.
Infants with this condition typically grow out
of it without medical intervention.
 Pineal Gland
• It is a small pea shaped structure , develops from the
roof of the diencephalon, and is located behind the
third ventricle in the brain and midline between the two
cerebral hemispheres. Its name is derived from its
shape, which is similar to that of a pinecone (Latin
pinea). In adult humans it is about 0.8 cm (0.3 inch)
long and weighs approximately 0.1 gram (0.004 ounce).
• It consist of pineal cells and supporting glial cells that
resemble the astrocytes present in the brain. The
adrenergic nerves entering the pineal gland regulate its
functions.
 Contd.
• It is the major site for melatonin secretion, which
regulates the body’s internal clock (Circadian rhythm) and
also certain reproductive hormones.
• The pineal gland synthesizes melatonin and serotonin . It
makes melatonin out of serotonin and serotonin's supply
depends upon the brain reactions to the light dark cycle.
• The secretion of melatonin hormone depends upon the
amount of light a person is exposed to. This hormone is
produced in large amounts when it is dark. The presence
of light inhibits the secretion of melatonin which controls
our circadian rhythms.
 Contd.
• Melatonin concentration in the blood appears to flow with day-
night cycle as it arises in evening and through the night, drops to a
low around noon. Light suppresses pineal gland secretion.
• It lightens skin color.
• It governs the reproductive system. Melatonin inhibits the
secretion of reproductive hormones from the anterior pituitary,
which are responsible for the development and functioning of
reproductive organs. It may affect fertility and the menstrual cycle.
• It also suppresses or inhibits the activity of the gonads and
therefore affects sexual behavior.
• The melatonin secretion has a positive impact on the heart and
blood pressure (Sun et al., 2016) .
 Applied Physiology
• Too much of melatonin secretion (Hyper secretion) can lead to low blood
pressure and improper functioning of the thyroid and adrenal glands . It
also results in delayed sexual development in children.
• Though pineal gland malfunction is rare but due to tumor in gland, the
cells multiply and secrete more melatonin.
• Seasonal Affective Disorder, a depressive disorder, is caused in winters
when melatonin secretion is high due to low sunlight.
• Hypo secretion: if the pineal gland stops functioning, there is a disruption
in sleep patterns. Low melatonin secretion also leads to anxiety, low
thyroid hormone production, menopause symptoms, and precocious
puberty in children.
• If a tumor develops in the pineal gland, it affects several other factors in
the body : Seizures, Memory disruption, Headache, Nausea, Impaired
vision and other senses.
 Contd.
• Though the conclusion by 17th-century French
philosopher René Descartes that the pineal
gland is the seat of the soul has endured as a
historical curiosity, there is no evidence to
support the notion that secretions from the
pineal have a major role in cognition.