Welding

71 languages
 Article
 Talk
 Read
 Edit
 View history

Tools



















Appearance
hide
Text


Small

Standard

Large
Width

Standard

Wide
Color (beta)

Automatic
 Light

Dark

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"Welded" redirects here. For the play, see Welded (play).

Overhead stick welding

Welding is a fabrication process that joins materials,
usually metals or thermoplastics, primarily by using high temperature
to melt the parts together and allow them to cool, causing fusion. Common
alternative methods include solvent welding (of thermoplastics) using
chemicals to melt materials being bonded without heat, and solid-state
welding processes which bond without melting, such as pressure, cold
welding, and diffusion bonding.

Metal welding is distinct from lower temperature bonding techniques such

as brazing and soldering, which do not melt the base metal (parent metal)
and instead require flowing a filler metal to solidify their bonds.
In addition to melting the base metal in welding, a filler material is typically
added to the joint to form a pool of molten material (the weld pool) that
cools to form a joint that can be stronger than the base material. Welding
also requires a form of shield to protect the filler metals or melted metals
from being contaminated or oxidized.

Many different energy sources can be used for welding, including a gas
flame (chemical), an electric arc (electrical), a laser, an electron
beam, friction, and ultrasound. While often an industrial process, welding
may be performed in many different environments, including in open
air, under water, and in outer space. Welding is a hazardous undertaking
and precautions are required to avoid burns, electric shock, vision damage,
inhalation of poisonous gases and fumes, and exposure to intense
ultraviolet radiation.

Until the end of the 19th century, the only welding process was forge
welding, which blacksmiths had used for millennia to join iron and steel by
heating and hammering. Arc welding and oxy-fuel welding were among the
first processes to develop late in the century, and electric resistance
welding followed soon after. Welding technology advanced quickly during
the early 20th century, as world wars drove the demand for reliable and
inexpensive joining methods. Following the wars, several modern welding
techniques were developed, including manual methods like shielded metal
arc welding, now one of the most popular welding methods, as well as
semi-automatic and automatic processes such as gas metal arc
welding, submerged arc welding, flux-cored arc welding and electroslag
welding. Developments continued with the invention of laser beam
welding, electron beam welding, magnetic pulse welding, and friction stir
welding in the latter half of the century. Today, as the science continues to
advance, robot welding is commonplace in industrial settings, and
researchers continue to develop new welding methods and gain greater
understanding of weld quality.[1]

Etymology
[edit]
The term weld is derived from the Middle English verb well (wæll;
plural/present tense: wælle) or welling (wællen), meaning 'to heat' (to the
maximum temperature possible); 'to bring to a boil'. The modern word was
probably derived from the past-tense participle welled (wællende), with the
addition of d for this purpose being common in the Germanic languages of
the Angles and Saxons. It was first recorded in English in 1590. A
fourteenth century translation of the Christian Bible into English by John
Wycliffe translates Isaiah 2:4 as "...thei shul bete togidere their swerdes
into shares..." (they shall beat together their swords into plowshares). In the
1590 version this was changed to "...thei shullen welle togidere her
swerdes in-to scharris..." (they shall weld together their swords into
plowshares), suggesting this particular use of the word probably became
popular in English sometime between these periods.[2]

The Old English word for welding iron was samod ('to bring together')
or samodwellung ('to bring together hot').[3]

The word is related to the Old Swedish word valla, meaning 'to boil', which
could refer to joining metals, as in valla järn (literally "to boil
iron"). Sweden was a large exporter of iron during the Middle Ages, so the
word may have entered English from the Swedish iron trade, or may have
been imported with the thousands of Viking settlements that arrived in
England before and during the Viking Age, as more than half of the most
common English words in everyday use are Scandinavian in origin.[4][5]

History
[edit]

The iron pillar of Delhi, India

The history of joining metals goes back several millennia. The earliest
examples of this come from the Bronze and Iron Ages in Europe and
the Middle East. The ancient Greek historian Herodotus states in The
Histories of the 5th century BC that Glaucus of Chios "was the man who
single-handedly invented iron welding".[6] Forge welding was used in the
construction of the Iron pillar of Delhi, erected in Delhi, India about 310 AD
and weighing 5.4 metric tons.[7]

The Middle Ages brought advances in forge welding, in which blacksmiths

pounded heated metal repeatedly until bonding occurred. In
1540, Vannoccio Biringuccio published De la pirotechnia, which includes
descriptions of the forging operation.[8] Renaissance craftsmen were skilled
in the process, and the industry continued to grow during the following
centuries.[8]

In 1800, Sir Humphry Davy discovered the short-pulse electrical arc and
presented his results in 1801.[9][10][11] In 1802, Russian scientist Vasily
Petrov created the continuous electric arc,[11][12][13] and subsequently
published "News of Galvanic-Voltaic Experiments" in 1803, in which he
described experiments carried out in 1802. Of great importance in this work
was the description of a stable arc discharge and the indication of its
possible use for many applications, one being melting metals.[14] In 1808,
Davy, who was unaware of Petrov's work, rediscovered the continuous
electric arc.[10][11] In 1881–82 inventors Nikolai Benardos (Russian)
and Stanisław Olszewski (Polish)[15] created the first electric arc welding
method known as carbon arc welding using carbon electrodes. The
advances in arc welding continued with the invention of metal electrodes in
the late 1800s by a Russian, Nikolai Slavyanov (1888), and an
American, C. L. Coffin (1890). Around 1900, A. P. Strohmenger released a
coated metal electrode in Britain, which gave a more stable arc. In 1905,
Russian scientist Vladimir Mitkevich proposed using a three-phase electric
arc for welding. Alternating current welding was invented by C. J. Holslag in
1919, but did not become popular for another decade.[16]

Resistance welding was also developed during the final decades of the
19th century, with the first patents going to Elihu Thomson in 1885, who
produced further advances over the next 15 years. Thermite welding was
invented in 1893, and around that time another process, oxyfuel welding,
became well established. Acetylene was discovered in 1836 by Edmund
Davy, but its use was not practical in welding until about 1900, when a
suitable torch was developed.[17] At first, oxyfuel welding was one of the
more popular welding methods due to its portability and relatively low cost.
As the 20th century progressed, however, it fell out of favor for industrial
applications. It was largely replaced with arc welding, as advances in metal
coverings (known as flux) were made.[18] Flux covering the electrode
primarily shields the base material from impurities, but also stabilizes the
arc and can add alloying components to the weld metal.[19]

Bridge of Maurzyce
World War I caused a major surge in the use of welding, with the various
military powers attempting to determine which of the several new welding
processes would be best. The British primarily used arc welding, even
constructing a ship, the "Fullagar" with an entirely welded hull.[20][21]: 142 Arc
welding was first applied to aircraft during the war as well, as some
German airplane fuselages were constructed using the process.[22] Also
noteworthy is the first welded road bridge in the world, the Maurzyce
Bridge in Poland (1928).[23]

Acetylene welding on cylinder water jacket, US Army

1918
During the 1920s, significant advances were made in welding technology,
including the introduction of automatic welding in 1920, in which electrode
wire was fed continuously. Shielding gas became a subject receiving much
attention, as scientists attempted to protect welds from the effects of
oxygen and nitrogen in the atmosphere. Porosity and brittleness were the
primary problems, and the solutions that developed included the use
of hydrogen, argon, and helium as welding atmospheres.[24] During the
following decade, further advances allowed for the welding of reactive
metals like aluminum and magnesium. This in conjunction with
developments in automatic welding, alternating current, and fluxes fed a
major expansion of arc welding during the 1930s and then during World
War II.[25] In 1930, the first all-welded merchant vessel, M/S Carolinian, was
launched.

Portable welder being used for Sydney

stormwater infrastructure
During the middle of the century, many new welding methods were
invented. In 1930, Kyle Taylor was responsible for the release of stud
welding, which soon became popular in shipbuilding and construction.
Submerged arc welding was invented the same year and continues to be
popular today. In 1932 a Russian, Konstantin Khrenov eventually
implemented the first underwater electric arc welding. Gas tungsten arc
welding, after decades of development, was finally perfected in 1941, and
gas metal arc welding followed in 1948, allowing for fast welding of non-
ferrous materials but requiring expensive shielding gases. Shielded metal
arc welding was developed during the 1950s, using a flux-coated
consumable electrode, and it quickly became the most popular metal arc
welding process. In 1957, the flux-cored arc welding process debuted, in
which the self-shielded wire electrode could be used with automatic
equipment, resulting in greatly increased welding speeds, and that same
year, plasma arc welding was invented by Robert Gage. Electroslag
welding was introduced in 1958, and it was followed by its
cousin, electrogas welding, in 1961.[26] In 1953, the Soviet scientist N. F.
Kazakov proposed the diffusion bonding method.[27]

Other recent developments in welding include the 1958 breakthrough of

electron beam welding, making deep and narrow welding possible through
the concentrated heat source. Following the invention of the laser in 1960,
laser beam welding debuted several decades later, and has proved to be
especially useful in high-speed, automated welding. Magnetic pulse
welding (MPW) has been industrially used since 1967. Friction stir
welding was invented in 1991 by Wayne Thomas at The Welding
Institute (TWI, UK) and found high-quality applications all over the world.
[28]
All of these four new processes continue to be quite expensive due to
the high cost of the necessary equipment, and this has limited their
applications.[29]

Processes
[edit]
Gas welding
[edit]
Main article: Oxy-fuel welding and cutting
The most common gas welding process is oxyfuel welding,[18] also known as
oxyacetylene welding. It is one of the oldest and most versatile welding
processes, but in recent years it has become less popular in industrial
applications. It is still widely used for welding pipes and tubes, as well as
repair work.[18]

The equipment is relatively inexpensive and simple, generally employing

the combustion of acetylene in oxygen to produce a welding flame
temperature of about 3100 °C (5600 °F).[18] The flame, since it is less
concentrated than an electric arc, causes slower weld cooling, which can
lead to greater residual stresses and weld distortion, though it eases the
welding of high alloy steels. A similar process, generally called oxyfuel
cutting, is used to cut metals.[18]
Arc welding
[edit]
Main articles: Arc welding, Shielded metal arc welding, Gas tungsten arc
welding, Gas metal arc welding, Flux-cored arc welding, Submerged arc
welding, and Electroslag welding
These processes use a welding power supply to create and maintain an
electric arc between an electrode and the base material to melt metals at
the welding point. They can use either direct current (DC) or alternating
current (AC), and consumable or non-consumable electrodes. The welding
region is sometimes protected by some type of inert or semi-inert gas,
known as a shielding gas, and filler material is sometimes used as well.[30]
Arc welding processes
[edit]
One of the most common types of arc welding is shielded metal arc
welding (SMAW);[31] it is also known as manual metal arc welding (MMAW)
or stick welding. Electric current is used to strike an arc between the base
material and consumable electrode rod, which is made of filler material
(typical steel) and is covered with a flux that protects the weld area
from oxidation and contamination by producing carbon dioxide (CO2) gas
during the welding process. The electrode core itself acts as filler material,
making a separate filler unnecessary.[31]

Shielded metal arc welding

The process is versatile and can be performed with relatively inexpensive
equipment, making it well suited to shop jobs and field work.[31][32] An
operator can become reasonably proficient with a modest amount of
training and can achieve mastery with experience. Weld times are rather
slow, since the consumable electrodes must be frequently replaced and
because slag, the residue from the flux, must be chipped away after
welding.[31] Furthermore, the process is generally limited to welding ferrous
materials, though special electrodes have made possible the welding
of cast iron, stainless steel, aluminum, and other metals.[32]

Diagram of arc and weld area, in shielded metal

arc welding:

1. Coating Flow
2. Rod
3. Shield Gas
4. Fusion
5. Base metal
6. Weld metal
7. Solidified Slag
Gas metal arc welding (GMAW), also known as metal inert gas or MIG
welding, is a semi-automatic or automatic process that uses a continuous
wire feed as an electrode and an inert or semi-inert gas mixture to protect
the weld from contamination. Since the electrode is continuous, welding
speeds are greater for GMAW than for SMAW.[33]

A related process, flux-cored arc welding (FCAW), uses similar equipment

but uses wire consisting of a steel electrode surrounding a powder fill
material. This cored wire is more expensive than the standard solid wire
and can generate fumes and/or slag, but it permits even higher welding
speed and greater metal penetration.[34]

Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), or tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding, is a
manual welding process that uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode,
an inert or semi-inert gas mixture, and a separate filler material.
[35]
Especially useful for welding thin materials, this method is characterized
by a stable arc and high-quality welds, but it requires significant operator
skill and can only be accomplished at relatively low speeds.[35]

GTAW can be used on nearly all weldable metals, though it is most often
applied to stainless steel and light metals. It is often used when quality
welds are extremely important, such as in bicycle, aircraft and naval
applications.[35] A related process, plasma arc welding, also uses a tungsten
electrode but uses plasma gas to make the arc. The arc is more
concentrated than the GTAW arc, making transverse control more critical
and thus generally restricting the technique to a mechanized process.
Because of its stable current, the method can be used on a wider range of
material thicknesses than can the GTAW process and it is much faster. It
can be applied to all of the same materials as GTAW except magnesium,
and automated welding of stainless steel is one important application of the
process. A variation of the process is plasma cutting, an efficient steel
cutting process.[36]

Submerged arc welding (SAW) is a high-productivity welding method in

which the arc is struck beneath a covering layer of flux. This increases arc
quality since contaminants in the atmosphere are blocked by the flux. The
slag that forms on the weld generally comes off by itself, and combined
with the use of a continuous wire feed, the weld deposition rate is high.
Working conditions are much improved over other arc welding processes,
since the flux hides the arc and almost no smoke is produced. The process
is commonly used in industry, especially for large products and in the
manufacture of welded pressure vessels.[37] Other arc welding processes
include atomic hydrogen welding, electroslag welding (ESW), electrogas
welding, and stud arc welding.[38] ESW is a highly productive, single-pass
welding process for thicker materials between 1 inch (25 mm) and 12
inches (300 mm) in a vertical or close to vertical position.
Arc welding power supplies
[edit]
To supply the electrical power necessary for arc welding processes, a
variety of different power supplies can be used. The most common welding
power supplies are constant current power supplies and
constant voltage power supplies. In arc welding, the length of the arc is
directly related to the voltage, and the amount of heat input is related to the
current. Constant current power supplies are most often used for manual
welding processes such as gas tungsten arc welding and shielded metal
arc welding, because they maintain a relatively constant current even as
the voltage varies. This is important because in manual welding, it can be
difficult to hold the electrode perfectly steady, and as a result, the arc
length and thus voltage tend to fluctuate. Constant voltage power supplies
hold the voltage constant and vary the current, and as a result, are most
often used for automated welding processes such as gas metal arc
welding, flux-cored arc welding, and submerged arc welding. In these
processes, arc length is kept constant, since any fluctuation in the distance
between the wire and the base material is quickly rectified by a large
change in current. For example, if the wire and the base material get too
close, the current will rapidly increase, which in turn causes the heat to
increase and the tip of the wire to melt, returning it to its original separation
distance.[39]

The type of current used plays an important role in arc welding.

Consumable electrode processes such as shielded metal arc welding and
gas metal arc welding generally use direct current, but the electrode can be
charged either positively or negatively. In welding, the positively
charged anode will have a greater heat concentration, and as a result,
changing the polarity of the electrode affects weld properties. If the
electrode is positively charged, the base metal will be hotter, increasing
weld penetration and welding speed. Alternatively, a negatively charged
electrode results in more shallow welds.[40] Non-consumable electrode
processes, such as gas tungsten arc welding, can use either type of direct
current, as well as alternating current. However, with direct current,
because the electrode only creates the arc and does not provide filler
material, a positively charged electrode causes shallow welds, while a
negatively charged electrode makes deeper welds.[41] Alternating current
rapidly moves between these two, resulting in medium-penetration welds.
One disadvantage of AC, the fact that the arc must be re-ignited after every
zero crossings, has been addressed with the invention of special power
units that produce a square wave pattern instead of the normal sine wave,
making rapid zero crossings possible and minimizing the effects of the
problem.[42]
Resistance welding
[edit]
Main article: Resistance welding
Resistance welding involves the generation of heat by passing current
through the resistance caused by the contact between two or more metal
surfaces. Small pools of molten metal are formed at the weld area as high
current (1,000–100,000 A) is passed through the metal.[43] In general,
resistance welding methods are efficient and cause little pollution, but their
applications are somewhat limited and the equipment cost can be high.[43]

Spot welder
Spot welding is a popular resistance welding method used to join
overlapping metal sheets of up to 3 mm thick.[43] Two electrodes are
simultaneously used to clamp the metal sheets together and to pass
current through the sheets. The advantages of the method include efficient
energy use, limited workpiece deformation, high production rates, easy
automation, and no required filler materials. Weld strength is significantly
lower than with other welding methods, making the process suitable for
only certain applications. It is used extensively in the automotive industry—
ordinary cars can have several thousand spot welds made by industrial
robots. A specialized process called shot welding, can be used to spot weld
stainless steel.[43]

Like spot welding, seam welding relies on two electrodes to apply pressure
and current to join metal sheets. However, instead of pointed electrodes,
wheel-shaped electrodes roll along and often feed the workpiece, making it
possible to make long continuous welds. In the past, this process was used
in the manufacture of beverage cans, but now its uses are more limited.
[43]
Other resistance welding methods include butt welding,[44] flash
welding, projection welding, and upset welding.[43]
Energy beam welding
[edit]
Energy beam welding methods, namely laser beam welding and electron
beam welding, are relatively new processes that have become quite
popular in high production applications. The two processes are quite
similar, differing most notably in their source of power. Laser beam welding
employs a highly focused laser beam, while electron beam welding is done
in a vacuum and uses an electron beam. Both have a very high energy
density, making deep weld penetration possible and minimizing the size of
the weld area. Both processes are extremely fast, and are easily
automated, making them highly productive. The primary disadvantages are
their very high equipment costs (though these are decreasing) and a
susceptibility to thermal cracking. Developments in this area include laser-
hybrid welding, which uses principles from both laser beam welding and arc
welding for even better weld properties, laser cladding, and x-ray welding.[45]
Solid-state welding
[edit]
 Solid-state welding
processes classification chart [46]

Like forge welding (the earliest welding process discovered), some modern
welding methods do not involve the melting of the materials being joined.
One of the most popular, ultrasonic welding, is used to connect thin sheets
or wires made of metal or thermoplastic by vibrating them at high frequency
and under high pressure.[47] The equipment and methods involved are
similar to that of resistance welding, but instead of electric current, vibration
provides energy input. When welding metals, the vibrations are introduced
horizontally, and the materials are not melted; with plastics, which should
have similar melting temperatures, vertically. Ultrasonic welding is
commonly used for making electrical connections out of aluminum or
copper, and it is also a very common polymer welding process.[47]

Another common process, explosion welding, involves the joining of

materials by pushing them together under extremely high pressure. The
energy from the impact plasticizes the materials, forming a weld, even
though only a limited amount of heat is generated. The process is
commonly used for welding dissimilar materials, including bonding
aluminum to carbon steel in ship hulls and stainless steel or titanium to
carbon steel in petrochemical pressure vessels.[47]

Other solid-state welding processes include friction

welding (including friction stir welding and friction stir spot welding),
 magnetic pulse welding,[49] co-extrusion welding, cold welding, diffusion
[48]

bonding, exothermic welding, high frequency welding, hot pressure

welding, induction welding, and roll bonding.[47]

Geometry
[edit]
Main article: Welding joint

Common welding joint types:

1. Square butt joint

2. V butt joint
3. Lap joint
4. T-joint
Welds can be geometrically prepared in many different ways. The five
basic types of weld joints are the butt joint, lap joint, corner joint, edge joint,
and T-joint (a variant of this last is the cruciform joint). Other variations exist
as well—for example, double-V preparation joints are characterized by the
two pieces of material each tapering to a single center point at one-half
their height. Single-U and double-U preparation joints are also fairly
common—instead of having straight edges like the single-V and double-V
preparation joints, they are curved, forming the shape of a U. Lap joints are
also commonly more than two pieces thick—depending on the process
used and the thickness of the material, many pieces can be welded
together in a lap joint geometry.[50]

Many welding processes require the use of a particular joint design; for
example, resistance spot welding, laser beam welding, and electron beam
welding are most frequently performed on lap joints. Other welding
methods, like shielded metal arc welding, are extremely versatile and can
weld virtually any type of joint. Some processes can also be used to make
multipass welds, in which one weld is allowed to cool, and then another
weld is performed on top of it. This allows for the welding of thick sections
arranged in a single-V preparation joint, for example.[51]

The cross-section of a welded butt joint, with the

darkest gray representing the weld or fusion zone, the medium gray the
heat-affected zone, and the lightest gray the base material.
After welding, a number of distinct regions can be identified in the weld
area. The weld itself is called the fusion zone—more specifically, it is where
the filler metal was laid during the welding process. The properties of the
fusion zone depend primarily on the filler metal used, and its compatibility
with the base materials. It is surrounded by the heat-affected zone, the
area that had its microstructure and properties altered by the weld. These
properties depend on the base material's behavior when subjected to heat.
The metal in this area is often weaker than both the base material and the
fusion zone, and is also where residual stresses are found.[52]

Quality
[edit]
Main article: Weld quality assurance
 The blue area results from oxidation at a
corresponding temperature of 600 °F (316 °C). This is an accurate way to
identify temperature, but does not represent the HAZ width. The HAZ is the
narrow area that immediately surrounds the welded base metal.
Many distinct factors influence the strength of welds and the material
around them, including the welding method, the amount and concentration
of energy input, the weldability of the base material, filler material, and flux
material, the design of the joint, and the interactions between all these
factors.[53]

For example, the factor of welding position influences weld quality, that
welding codes & specifications may require testing—both welding
procedures and welders—using specified welding positions: 1G (flat), 2G
(horizontal), 3G (vertical), 4G (overhead), 5G (horizontal fixed pipe), or 6G
(inclined fixed pipe).

To test the quality of a weld, either destructive or nondestructive

testing methods are commonly used to verify that welds are free of defects,
have acceptable levels of residual stresses and distortion, and have
acceptable heat-affected zone (HAZ) properties. Types of welding
defects include cracks, distortion, gas inclusions (porosity), non-metallic
inclusions, lack of fusion, incomplete penetration, lamellar tearing, and
undercutting.
The metalworking industry has instituted codes and specifications to
guide welders, weld inspectors, engineers, managers, and property owners
in proper welding technique, design of welds, how to judge the quality
of welding procedure specification, how to judge the skill of the person
performing the weld, and how to ensure the quality of a welding job.
[53]
Methods such as visual inspection, radiography, ultrasonic
testing, phased-array ultrasonics, dye penetrant inspection, magnetic
particle inspection, or industrial computed tomography can help with
detection and analysis of certain defects.
Heat-affected zone
[edit]
The heat-affected zone (HAZ) is a ring surrounding the weld in which the
temperature of the welding process, combined with the stresses of uneven
heating and cooling, alters the heat-treatment properties of the alloy. The
effects of welding on the material surrounding the weld can be detrimental
—depending on the materials used and the heat input of the welding
process used, the HAZ can be of varying size and strength. The thermal
diffusivity of the base material plays a large role—if the diffusivity is high,
the material cooling rate is high and the HAZ is relatively small. Conversely,
a low diffusivity leads to slower cooling and a larger HAZ. The amount of
heat injected by the welding process plays an important role as well, as
processes like oxyacetylene welding have an unconcentrated heat input
and increase the size of the HAZ. Processes like laser beam welding give a
highly concentrated, limited amount of heat, resulting in a small HAZ. Arc
welding falls between these two extremes, with the individual processes
varying somewhat in heat input.[54][55] To calculate the heat input for arc
welding procedures, the following formula can be used:

where Q = heat input (kJ/mm), V = voltage (V), I = current (A), and S =

welding speed (mm/min). The efficiency is dependent on the welding
process used, with shielded metal arc welding having a value of 0.75,
gas metal arc welding and submerged arc welding, 0.9, and gas
tungsten arc welding, 0.8.[56] Methods of alleviating the stresses and
brittleness created in the HAZ include stress relieving and tempering.[57]

One major defect concerning the HAZ would be cracking at the toes ,
due to the rapid expansion (heating) and contraction (cooling) the
material may not have the ability to withstand the stress and could
cause cracking, one method the control these stress would be to control
the heating and cooling rate, such as pre-heating and post- heating [58]
Lifetime extension with after treatment methods
[edit]

Example: High Frequency Impact Treatment

for lifetime extension
The durability and life of dynamically loaded, welded steel structures is
determined in many cases by the welds, in particular the weld
transitions. Through selective treatment of the transitions by grinding
(abrasive cutting), shot peening, High-frequency impact
treatment, Ultrasonic impact treatment, etc. the durability of many
designs increases significantly.

Metallurgy
[edit]
Most solids used are engineering materials consisting of crystalline
solids in which the atoms or ions are arranged in a repetitive geometric
pattern which is known as a lattice structure. The only exception is
material that is made from glass which is a combination of a
supercooled liquid and polymers which are aggregates of large organic
molecules.[59]

Crystalline solids cohesion is obtained by a metallic or chemical bond

that is formed between the constituent atoms. Chemical bonds can be
grouped into two types consisting of ionic and covalent. To form an ionic
bond, either a valence or bonding electron separates from one atom and
becomes attached to another atom to form oppositely charged ions. The
bonding in the static position is when the ions occupy an equilibrium
position where the resulting force between them is zero. When the ions
are exerted in tension force, the inter-ionic spacing increases creating
an electrostatic attractive force, while a repulsing force
under compressive force between the atomic nuclei is dominant.[59]

Covalent bonding takes place when one of the constituent atoms loses
one or more electrons, with the other atom gaining the electrons,
resulting in an electron cloud that is shared by the molecule as a whole.
In both ionic and covalent bonding the location of the ions and electrons
are constrained relative to each other, thereby resulting in the bond
being characteristically brittle.[59]

Metallic bonding can be classified as a type of covalent bonding for

which the constituent atoms are of the same type and do not combine
with one another to form a chemical bond. Atoms will lose an electron(s)
forming an array of positive ions. These electrons are shared by the
lattice which makes the electron cluster mobile, as the electrons are free
to move as well as the ions. For this, it gives metals their relatively high
thermal and electrical conductivity as well as being
characteristically ductile.[59]

Three of the most commonly used crystal lattice structures in metals are
the body-centred cubic, face-centred cubic and close-packed
hexagonal. Ferritic steel has a body-centred cubic structure
and austenitic steel, non-ferrous
metals like aluminium, copper and nickel have the face-centred cubic
structure.[59]

Ductility is an important factor in ensuring the integrity of structures by

enabling them to sustain local stress concentrations without fracture. In
addition, structures are required to be of an acceptable strength, which
is related to a material's yield strength. In general, as the yield strength
of a material increases, there is a corresponding reduction in fracture
toughness.[59]

A reduction in fracture toughness may also be attributed to the

embrittlement effect of impurities, or for body-centred cubic metals, from
a reduction in temperature. Metals and in particular steels have a
transitional temperature range where above this range the metal has
acceptable notch-ductility while below this range the material becomes
brittle. Within the range, the materials behavior is unpredictable. The
reduction in fracture toughness is accompanied by a change in the
fracture appearance. When above the transition, the fracture is primarily
due to micro-void coalescence, which results in the fracture
appearing fibrous. When the temperatures falls the fracture will show
signs of cleavage facets. These two appearances are visible by the
naked eye. Brittle fracture in steel plates may appear as chevron
markings under the microscope. These arrow-like ridges on the crack
surface point towards the origin of the fracture.[59]

Fracture toughness is measured using a notched and pre-cracked

rectangular specimen, of which the dimensions are specified in
standards, for example ASTM E23. There are other means of estimating
or measuring fracture toughness by the following: The Charpy impact
test per ASTM A370; The crack-tip opening displacement (CTOD) test
per BS 7448–1; The J integral test per ASTM E1820; The Pellini drop-
weight test per ASTM E208.[59]

Unusual conditions
[edit]

Underwater welding
While many welding applications are done in controlled environments
such as factories and repair shops, some welding processes are
commonly used in a wide variety of conditions, such as open air,
underwater, and vacuums (such as space). In open-air applications,
such as construction and outdoors repair, shielded metal arc welding is
the most common process. Processes that employ inert gases to protect
the weld cannot be readily used in such situations, because
unpredictable atmospheric movements can result in a faulty weld.
Shielded metal arc welding is also often used in underwater welding in
the construction and repair of ships, offshore platforms, and pipelines,
but others, such as flux cored arc welding and gas tungsten arc welding,
are also common. Welding in space is also possible—it was first
attempted in 1969 by Russian cosmonauts during the Soyuz 6 mission,
when they performed experiments to test shielded metal arc welding,
plasma arc welding, and electron beam welding in a depressurized
environment. Further testing of these methods was done in the following
decades, and today researchers continue to develop methods for using
other welding processes in space, such as laser beam welding,
resistance welding, and friction welding. Advances in these areas may
be useful for future endeavours similar to the construction of
the International Space Station, which could rely on welding for joining
in space the parts that were manufactured on Earth.[60]

Safety issues
[edit]

This section needs

expansion with: welding
fume extractor/extraction and
health risks from welding.
You can help by adding to
it. (May 2023)
 A stick welding booth equipped with local
exhaust system (LEV) that removes the toxic fumes, gases, vapours
and dusts before they can mix with the room air. Besides toxic
emissions, the booth also helps protect bystanders from UV light. With a
well-ventilated booth, personal protective equipment is still needed for

the welder. Arc welding with a welding helmet,

gloves, and other protective clothing (1942)
Welding can be dangerous and unhealthy if the proper precautions are
not taken. However, using new technology and proper protection greatly
reduces risks of injury and death associated with welding.[61]

Since many common welding procedures involve an open electric arc or

flame, the risk of burns and fire is significant; this is why it is classified
as a hot work process. To prevent injury, welders wear personal
protective equipment in the form of heavy leather gloves and protective
long-sleeve jackets to avoid exposure to extreme heat and flames.
Synthetic clothing such as polyester should not be worn since it may
burn, causing injury.[62] Additionally, the brightness of the weld area leads
to a condition called arc eye or flash burns in which ultraviolet light
causes inflammation of the cornea and can burn the retinas of the
eyes. Goggles and welding helmets with dark UV-filtering face plates
are worn to prevent this exposure.[63] Since the 2000s, some helmets
have included a face plate which instantly darkens upon exposure to the
intense UV light. To protect bystanders, the welding area is often
surrounded with translucent welding curtains. These curtains, made of
a polyvinyl chloride plastic film, shield people outside the welding area
from the UV light of the electric arc, but cannot replace the filter glass
used in helmets.[64]

A chamber designed to contain welding

fumes for analysisA video describing research on welding helmets and
their ability to limit fume exposure
Welders are often exposed to dangerous gases and particulate matter.
Processes like flux-cored arc welding and shielded metal arc welding
produce smoke containing particles of various types of oxides. The size
of the particles in question tends to influence the toxicity of the fumes,
with smaller particles presenting a greater danger. This is because
smaller particles have the ability to cross the blood–brain barrier. Fumes
and gases, such as carbon dioxide, ozone, and fumes containing heavy
metals, can be dangerous to welders lacking proper ventilation and
training.[65] Exposure to manganese welding fumes, for example, even at
low levels (<0.2 mg/m3), may lead to neurological problems or to
damage to the lungs, liver, kidneys, or central nervous system.[66] Nano
particles can become trapped in the alveolar macrophages of the lungs
and induce pulmonary fibrosis.[67] The use of compressed gases and
flames in many welding processes poses an explosion and fire risk.
Some common precautions include limiting the amount of oxygen in the
air, and keeping combustible materials away from the workplace.[65]

Costs and trends

[edit]
As an industrial process, the cost of welding plays a crucial role in
manufacturing decisions. Many different variables affect the total cost,
including equipment cost, labor cost, material cost, and energy cost.
[68]
Depending on the process, equipment cost can vary, from
inexpensive for methods like shielded metal arc welding and oxyfuel
welding, to extremely expensive for methods like laser beam welding
and electron beam welding. Because of their high cost, they are only
used in high production operations. Similarly, because automation and
robots increase equipment costs, they are only implemented when high
production is necessary. Labor cost depends on the deposition rate (the
rate of welding), the hourly wage, and the total operation time, including
time spent fitting, welding, and handling the part. The cost of materials
includes the cost of the base and filler material, and the cost of shielding
gases. Finally, energy cost depends on arc time and welding power
demand.[68]

For manual welding methods, labor costs generally make up the vast
majority of the total cost. As a result, many cost-saving measures are
focused on minimizing operation time. To do this, welding procedures
with high deposition rates can be selected, and weld parameters can be
fine-tuned to increase welding speed. Mechanization and automation
are often implemented to reduce labor costs, but this frequently
increases the cost of equipment and creates additional setup time.
Material costs tend to increase when special properties are necessary,
and energy costs normally do not amount to more than several percent
of the total welding cost.[68]

In recent years, in order to minimize labor costs in high production

manufacturing, industrial welding has become increasingly more
automated, most notably with the use of robots in resistance spot
welding (especially in the automotive industry) and in arc welding. In
robot welding, mechanized devices both hold the material and perform
the weld[69] and at first, spot welding was its most common application,
but robotic arc welding increases in popularity as technology advances.
Other key areas of research and development include the welding of
dissimilar materials (such as steel and aluminum, for example) and new
welding processes, such as friction stir, magnetic pulse, conductive heat
seam, and laser-hybrid welding. Furthermore, progress is desired in
making more specialized methods like laser beam welding practical for
more applications, such as in the aerospace and automotive industries.
Researchers also hope to better understand the often unpredictable
properties of welds, especially microstructure, residual stresses, and a
weld's tendency to crack or deform.[70]

The trend of accelerating the speed at which welds are performed in

the steel erection industry comes at a risk to the integrity of the
connection. Without proper fusion to the base materials provided by
sufficient arc time on the weld, a project inspector cannot ensure the
effective diameter of the puddle weld therefore he or she cannot
guarantee the published load capacities unless they witness the actual
installation.[71] This method of puddle welding is common in the United
States and Canada for attaching steel sheets to bar joist and structural
steel members. Regional agencies are responsible for ensuring the
proper installation of puddle welding on steel construction sites.
Currently there is no standard or weld procedure which can ensure the
published holding capacity of any unwitnessed connection, but this is
under review by the American Welding Society.

Glass and plastic welding

[edit]
 The welding together of two tubes made from

lead glass A bowl made from cast-glass. The

two halves are joined together by the weld seam, running down the
middle.
Glasses and certain types of plastics are commonly welded materials.
Unlike metals, which have a specific melting point, glasses and plastics
have a melting range, called the glass transition. When heating the solid
material past the glass-transition temperature (Tg) into this range, it will
generally become softer and more pliable. When it crosses through the
range, above the glass-melting temperature (Tm), it will become a very
thick, sluggish, viscous liquid, slowly decreasing in viscosity as
temperature increases. Typically, this viscous liquid will have very
little surface tension compared to metals, becoming a
sticky, taffy to honey-like consistency, so welding can usually take place
by simply pressing two melted surfaces together. The two liquids will
generally mix and join at first contact. Upon cooling through the glass
transition, the welded piece will solidify as one solid piece of amorphous
material.
Glass welding
[edit]
Main article: Glassblowing
Glass welding is a common practice during glassblowing. It is used very
often in the construction of lighting, neon signs, flashtubes, scientific
equipment, and the manufacture of dishes and other glassware. It is
also used during glass casting for joining the halves of glass molds,
making items such as bottles and jars. Welding glass is accomplished
by heating the glass through the glass transition, turning it into a thick,
formable, liquid mass. Heating is usually done with a gas or oxy-gas
torch, or a furnace, because the temperatures for melting glass are
often quite high. This temperature may vary, depending on the type of
glass. For example, lead glass becomes a weldable liquid at around
1,600 °F (870 °C), and can be welded with a simple propane torch. On
the other hand, quartz glass (fused silica) must be heated to over
3,000 °F (1,650 °C), but quickly loses its viscosity and formability if
overheated, so an oxyhydrogen torch must be used. Sometimes a tube
may be attached to the glass, allowing it to be blown into various
shapes, such as bulbs, bottles, or tubes. When two pieces of liquid
glass are pressed together, they will usually weld very readily. Welding
a handle onto a pitcher can usually be done with relative ease.
However, when welding a tube to another tube, a combination of
blowing and suction, and pressing and pulling is used to ensure a good
seal, to shape the glass, and to keep the surface tension from closing
the tube in on itself. Sometimes a filler rod may be used, but usually not.

Because glass is very brittle in its solid state, it is often prone to cracking
upon heating and cooling, especially if the heating and cooling are
uneven. This is because the brittleness of glass does not allow for
uneven thermal expansion. Glass that has been welded will usually
need to be cooled very slowly and evenly through the glass transition, in
a process called annealing, to relieve any internal stresses created by
a temperature gradient.

There are many types of glass, and it is most common to weld using the
same types. Different glasses often have different rates of thermal
expansion, which can cause them to crack upon cooling when they
contract differently. For instance, quartz has very low thermal
expansion, while soda-lime glass has very high thermal expansion.
When welding different glasses to each other, it is usually important to
closely match their coefficients of thermal expansion, to ensure that
cracking does not occur. Also, some glasses will simply not mix with
others, so welding between certain types may not be possible.
Glass can also be welded to metals and ceramics, although with metals
the process is usually more adhesion to the surface of the metal rather
than a commingling of the two materials. However, certain glasses will
typically bond only to certain metals. For example, lead glass bonds
readily to copper or molybdenum, but not to
aluminum. Tungsten electrodes are often used in lighting but will not
bond to quartz glass, so the tungsten is often wetted with
molten borosilicate glass, which bonds to both tungsten and quartz.
However, care must be taken to ensure that all materials have similar
coefficients of thermal expansion to prevent cracking both when the
object cools and when it is heated again. Special alloys are often used
for this purpose, ensuring that the coefficients of expansion match, and
sometimes thin, metallic coatings may be applied to a metal to create a
good bond with the glass.[72][73][failed verification]
Plastic welding
[edit]
Main article: Plastic welding
Plastics are generally divided into two categories, which are
"thermosets" and "thermoplastics." A thermoset is a plastic in which a
chemical reaction sets the molecular bonds after first forming the plastic,
and then the bonds cannot be broken again without degrading the
plastic. Thermosets cannot be melted, therefore, once a thermoset has
set it is impossible to weld it. Examples of thermosets
include epoxies, silicone, vulcanized rubber, polyester,
and polyurethane.

Thermoplastics, by contrast, form long molecular chains, which are

often coiled or intertwined, forming an amorphous structure without any
long-range, crystalline order. Some thermoplastics may be fully
amorphous, while others have a partially crystalline/partially amorphous
structure. Both amorphous and semicrystalline thermoplastics have a
glass transition, above which welding can occur, but semicrystallines
also have a specific melting point which is above the glass transition.
Above this melting point, the viscous liquid will become a free-flowing
liquid (see rheological weldability for thermoplastics). Examples of
thermoplastics
include polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, polyvinylchloride (PV
C), and fluoroplastics like Teflon and Spectralon.
Welding thermoplastic with heat is very similar to welding glass. The
plastic first must be cleaned and then heated through the glass
transition, turning the weld-interface into a thick, viscous liquid. Two
heated interfaces can then be pressed together, allowing the molecules
to mix through intermolecular diffusion, joining them as one. Then the
plastic is cooled through the glass transition, allowing the weld to
solidify. A filler rod may often be used for certain types of joints. The
main differences between welding glass and plastic are the types of
heating methods, the much lower melting temperatures, and the fact
that plastics will burn if overheated. Many different methods have been
devised for heating plastic to a weldable temperature without burning it.
Ovens or electric heating tools can be used to melt the plastic.
Ultrasonic, laser, or friction heating are other methods. Resistive metals
may be implanted in the plastic, which respond to induction heating.
Some plastics will begin to burn at temperatures lower than their glass
transition, so welding can be performed by blowing a heated, inert gas
onto the plastic, melting it while, at the same time, shielding it from
oxygen.[74]
Solvent welding
[edit]
Main article: Solvent welding
Many thermoplastics can also be welded using chemical solvents. When
placed in contact with the plastic, the solvent will begin to soften it,
bringing the surface into a thick, liquid solution. When two melted
surfaces are pressed together, the molecules in the solution mix, joining
them as one. Because the solvent can permeate the plastic, the solvent
evaporates out through the surface of the plastic, causing the weld to
drop out of solution and solidify. A common use for solvent welding is for
joining PVC (polyvinyl chloride) or ABS (acrylonitrile butadiene styrene)
pipes during plumbing, or for welding styrene and polystyrene plastics in
the construction of models. Solvent welding is especially effective on
plastics like PVC which burn at or below their glass transition, but may
be ineffective on plastics like Teflon or polyethylene that are resistant
to chemical decomposition.[75]