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E-Paper Displays
Wiley– SID Series in Display Technology
Series Editor: Dr. Ian Sage Fundamentals of Liquid Crystal Devices, Second Edition
Deng-Ke Yang and Shin-Tson Wu
Advisory Board: Paul Drzaic, Ioannis (John) Kymissis, Ray
Ma, Ian Underwood, Michael Wittek, Qun (Frank) Yan 3D Displays
Ernst Lueder
E-Paper Displays
Bo-Ru Yang (Ed.) Illumination, Color and Imaging: Evaluation and
Optimization of Visual Displays
Liquid Crystal Displays -Addressing Schemes and
P. Bodrogi, T. Q. Khan
Electro-Optical Effects, Third Edition
Ernst Lueder, Peter Knoll, and Seung Hee Lee Liquid Crystal Displays: Fundamental Physics and
Technology
Flexible Flat Panel Displays, Second Edition
Robert H. Chen
Darran R. Cairns, Dirk J. Broer, and Gregory P. Crawford
Transflective Liquid Crystal Displays
Amorphous Oxide Semiconductors: IGZO and Related
Zhibing Ge and Shin-Tson Wu
Materials for Display and Memory
Hideo Hosono, Hideya Kumomi LCD Backlights
Shunsuke Kobayashi, Shigeo Mikoshiba, and Sungkyoo
Introduction to Flat Panel Displays, Second Edition
Lim (Eds.)
Jiun-Haw Lee, I-Chun Cheng, Hong Hua, and
Shin-Tson Wu Mobile Displays: Technology and Applications
Achintya K. Bhowmik, Zili Li, and Philip Bos (Eds.)
Flat Panel Display Manufacturing
Jun Souk, Shinji Morozumi, Fang-Chen Luo, and Ion Bita Photoalignment of Liquid Crystalline Materials: Physics
and Applications
Physics and Technology of Crystalline Oxide
Vladimir G. Chigrinov, Vladimir M. Kozenkov, and
Semiconductor CAAC-IGZO: Application to Displays
Hoi-Sing Kwok
Shunpei Yamazaki, Tetsuo Tsutsui
Projection Displays, Second Edition
OLED Displays: Fundamentals and Applications,
Mathew S. Brennesholtz and Edward H. Stupp
Second Edition
Takatoshi Tsujimura Introduction to Microdisplays
David Armitage, Ian Underwood, and Shin-Tson Wu
Physics and Technology of Crystalline Oxide
Semiconductor CAAC-IGZO: Fundamentals Polarization Engineering for LCD Projection
Noboru Kimizuka, Shunpei Yamazaki Michael G. Robinson, Jianmin Chen, and Gary D. Sharp
Physics and Technology of Crystalline Oxide Digital Image Display: Algorithms and Implementation
Semiconductor CAAC-IGZO: Application to LSI Gheorghe Berbecel
Shunpei Yamazaki, Masahiro Fujita
Color Engineering: Achieving Device Independent Color
Interactive Displays: Natural Human-Interface Phil Green and Lindsay MacDonald (Eds.)
Techniques
Display Interfaces: Fundamentals and Standards
Achintya K. Bhowmik
Robert L. Myers
Addressing Techniques of Liquid Crystal Displays
Reflective Liquid Crystal Displays
Temkar N. Ruckmongathan
Shin-Tson Wu and Deng-Ke Yang
Modeling and Optimization of LCD Optical Performance
Display Systems: Design and Applications
Dmitry A. Yakovlev, Vladimir G. Chigrinov, and
Lindsay W. MacDonald and Anthony C. Lowe (Eds.)
Hoi-Sing Kwok
E-Paper Displays
Edited by
Bo-Ru Yang
State Key Lab of Opto-Electronic Materials & Technologies,
Guangdong Province Key Lab of Display Materials and Technologies,
School of Electronics and Information Technology,
Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
This edition first published 2022
© 2022 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
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any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain
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The right of Bo-Ru Yang to be identified as the author of the editorial material in this work has been asserted in accordance with law.
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In view of ongoing research, equipment modifications, changes in governmental regulations, and the constant flow of information
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Yang, Bo-Ru, 1979– editor.
Title: E-paper displays / edited by Bo-Ru Yang, State Key Lab of
Opto-Electronic Materials & Technologies, Guangdong Province Key Lab of
Display Materials and Technologies, School of Electronics and
Information Technology, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China.
Description: First edition. | Hoboken, NJ : John Wiley & Sons, 2022. |
Series: Wiley SID series in display technology | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021061537 (print) | LCCN 2021061538 (ebook) | ISBN
9781119745587 (hardback) | ISBN 9781119745594 (adobe pdf) | ISBN
9781119745600 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Electronic paper.
Classification: LCC TK7882.E44 E24 2022 (print) | LCC TK7882.E44 (ebook) |
DDC 004.5/6–dc23/eng/20220207
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021061537
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021061538
Cover Design: Wiley
Cover Image: © Marko Aliaksandr/Shutterstock.com
Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by Straive, Pondicherry, India

v
Contents
List of Contributors xi
Series Editor’s Foreword xiii
Editor’s Preface xv
1 The Rise, and Fall, and Rise of Electronic Paper 1

Paul S. Drzaic, Bo-Ru Yang, and Anne Chiang
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Why Electronic Paper? 2
1.3 Brightness, Color, and Resolution 2
1.4 Reflectivity and Viewing Angle 4
1.5 Translating Print-on-Paper into Electronic Paper 5
1.5.1 Brightness 5
1.5.2 Grayscale – Analog vs. Digital 6
1.5.3 An Overview of Approaches to Color Electronic Paper 6
1.6 The Allure of Electronic Paper vs. the Practicality of LCDs 10
1.7 The Evolution of Electrophoretic Display-Based Electronic Paper 11
1.7.1 Early History 11
1.8 Initial Wave of Electrophoretic Display Development 12
1.8.1 The Electrophoretic Fluid, Thresholds, and Memory 12
1.8.2 Memory Function, Device Stability, and Control Grids 13
1.8.3 Optics 14
1.8.4 EPD in Decline 16
1.9 The Revival of EPDs 17
1.10 Developing a Commercial Display 18
1.11 Enhancing Brightness and Contrast 19
1.12 Microencapsulation Breakthrough 20
1.13 Image Retention 21
1.14 Active-Matrix Compatibility 23
1.14.1 Reproducible Gray Scale 24
1.14.2 Overcoming “kickback” Phenomena 24
1.14.3 EPD Panel Manufacturing 24
1.15 Electronic Book Products, and E Ink Merger 25
1.16 Summary 26
Acknowledgments 26
References 26
vi Contents
2 Fundamental Mechanisms of Electrophoretic Displays 31

Bo-Ru Yang and Kristiaan Neyts
2.1 General View of Electronic Ink Operation 31
2.2 Charging Mechanism with Inverse Micelle Dynamics 33
2.3 Drift and Diffusion of Charged Inverse Micelles 35
2.4 Motion of Charged Inverse Micelles Under External Field Driving 38
2.5 Stern Layer Formation 41
2.6 Charging Mechanism with Particles and Additives 44
2.7 Observations on a Single Particle 44
2.8 Rheological Effects During Driving 47
2.9 Bistability After Removing External Fields 48
2.10 Full Color E-Paper 49
2.11 Conclusion 50
References 50
3 Driving Waveforms and Image Processing for Electrophoretic Displays 53

Zong Qin and Bo-Ru Yang
Overview 53
3.1 Driving Waveforms of EPDs 53
3.1.1 Fundamental Concepts of Waveforms 53
3.1.2 DC-Balance Waveforms 56
3.1.3 Waveform Design with Temperature Considerations 57
3.1.4 Driving System and Lookup Table 58
3.1.5 Driving Schemes for Color E-Papers 60
3.2 Image Processing 61
3.2.1 Digital Dithering and Halftoning 62
3.2.1.1 Pixel-Wise Method 64
3.2.1.2 Error-Diffusion Method 64
3.2.1.3 DBS Method 66
3.2.2 Image Calibration 67
3.3 Advanced Driving Methods for Future E-Papers 69
3.3.1 Self-Powered EPDs 71
3.3.2 Three-Dimensional Driving 72
References 72
4 Fast-Switching Mode with CLEARInk Structure 75

Robert J. Fleming
4.1 Introduction 75
4.2 CLEARink Display Optics 78
4.3 CLEARink Reflective Color Displays 85
4.4 Electrophoretic Displays with CLEARink Structure 89
4.5 CLEARink Device Architecture 93
4.6 Manufacturing and Supply Chain 96
4.6.1 Status of Technology and Future Projections 96
Acknowledgments 97
References 97
Contents vii
5 Bistable Cholesteric Liquid Crystal Displays – Review and Writing Tablets 99

Clinton Braganza and Mauricio Echeverri
5.1 Introduction 99
5.2 Materials and Optical Properties 99
5.2.1 Optical Properties of Cholesteric Liquid Crystals 100
5.2.1.1 Color from Cholesteric Liquid Crystals 100
5.2.1.2 Optimizing Cholesteric Liquid Crystals for ePaper Applications 101
5.2.1.3 Optical and Mechanical Effects of Polymer Networks 101
5.3 Image Creation Using Cholesteric Liquid Crystals 104
5.3.1 Electrical Addressing 104
5.3.1.1 Driving Schemes 105
5.3.2 Photo Addressing 107
5.3.3 Pressure Addressing 107
5.4 Applications 108
5.4.1 Displays for Reading 108
5.4.2 Rugged Passive Driven Displays 108
5.4.3 Electronic Skins 109
5.5 Writing Tablets 109
5.5.1 Writing Tablet Structure 109
5.5.2 Fabrication of Writing Tablets 110
5.5.3 Polymer Morphology of CHLC Writing Tablets 111
5.5.4 Characteristics of Writing Tablets 114
5.5.4.1 Writing Mechanism 114
5.5.4.2 Electro-Optic Response of Writing Tablets 118
5.5.4.3 Exact Erase 119
5.5.4.4 Writing Reliability 120
5.5.5 Semi-Transparent Writing Tablets 122
5.5.6 Multi-Colored Writing 124
5.5.7 Large Format Writing Surfaces 124
5.5.8 Saving the Written Image 125
5.6 Conclusions 126
References 126
6 The Zenithal Bistable Display: A Grating Aligned Bistable

Nematic Liquid Crystal Device 131
Guy P. Bryan-Brown and J. Cliff Jones
6.1 Introduction 131
6.2 Operating Principles and Geometries 132
6.3 Grating Fabrication and Supply Chain 138
6.4 ZBD LCD Manufacturing Processes 141
6.5 Electrical Addressing 144
6.6 Optical Configurations 145
6.7 Novel Arrangements 149
6.8 Conclusions 150
Acknowledgments 151
References 151
viii Contents
7 Reflective LCD with Memory in Pixel Structure 153

Yoko Fukunaga
7.2 Memory in Pixel Technology and Its Super Low Power Operation 154
7.3 Sub-Pixel Pattern to Show Gray Scale 157
7.4 Reflective LCD Optical Design 158
7.4.1 Light Scattering Functionality 158
7.4.2 LCD Cell Design 159
7.4.3 Pixel Design for Auxiliary Lighting 160
7.4.4 Super Low Power Driving for Auxiliary Lighting 163
7.5 How to Show a Natural Image 163
7.6 Design Characteristics of Current Market-Available Products and Their Super Low Power
Operations 164
7.7 Summary of Power Consumption 167
7.8 Applications 168
7.9 Future Expectations 168
References 169
8 Optically Rewritable Liquid Crystal Display 171

Wanlong Zhang, Abhishek Srivastava, Vladimir Chigrinov, and Hoi-Sing Kwok
8.2 Photoalignment Technology 172
8.2.1 Optically Rewritable Liquid Crystal Display 174
8.2.2 Optical Rewriting Speed Optimization 177
8.2.3 Optical Rewriting Time with Different Liquid Crystals 178
8.2.4 Optical Rewriting Time with Application of External Electrical Field 180
8.2.5 Grayscale Optically Rewritable LCD 180
8.2.6 Three-dimensional Optically Rewritable LCD 183
8.2.7 Full-color Optically Rewritable LCD 184
8.3 Flexible Optically Rewritable LCD 186
8.4 Dye-Doped Optically Rewritable LCD 188
8.5 Conclusion 190
References 190
9 Electrowetting Displays 197

Doeke J. Oostra
9.1 Overviews 197
9.2.1 Reading or Viewing Experience 198
9.2.2 Full Color 199
9.2.3 Video Content 200
9.2.4 Ultra-Low Power Consumption 200
9.2.5 Fitness for the Application 200
9.2.6 Priced for the Application 200
9.3 The Promise of Electrowetting Displays 200
9.4 History of Electrowetting Display Development 204
9.5 Electrowetting Cells 205
Contents ix
9.6 Capabilities for Black and White 206

9.6.1 Black 207
9.6.2 White 207
9.6.3 Cell Pitch, Pixel Pitch and Effect on Maximum White Level 209
9.7 Capabilities for Video and Color 209
9.7.1 Video 209
9.7.2 Color 209
9.7.3 Parallax 210
9.7.4 Application and Design 211
9.7.5 Pixel Pitch and Driving Mechanism 212
9.7.6 Gray Scales 214
9.8 Driving 215
9.8.1 Power Consumption 215
9.8.2 Driving Voltage 215
9.9 Architectures 216
9.9.1 First Generation 216
9.9.2 Second Generation 216
9.9.3 Two Layers 217
9.10 Manufacturing 217
9.10.1 Preparation Superstrate 217
9.10.2 Preparation Substrate 218
9.10.3 Bipane Manufacturing 219
9.10.4 Test and Measurement 219
9.11 Reliability 220
9.12 Failure Mechanisms 220
9.13 In Conclusion: Electrowetting Displays Have Reached Maturity 221
Acknowledgments 222
References 222
10 Electrochromic Display 225

Norihisa Kobayashi
10.2 Structure of Electrochromic Display 226
10.3 EC Materials 228
10.3.1 Inorganic EC Materials 228
10.3.2 Organic Electrochromic Materials 229
10.3.3 Conducting Polymers 234
10.3.4 Electrodeposition (Electroplating) 236
10.4 Summary 239
References 239
11 Phase Change Material Displays 243

Ben Broughton and Peiman Hosseini
11.2 Phase Change Materials and Devices 243
11.3 Strong Interference in Ultra-Thin Absorbing Films 244
11.4 Potential for High Brightness, Low Power Color Reflective Displays 245
x Contents
11.5 Solid-State Reflective Displays (SRD®) 248

11.5.1 Microheater Switched PCM Pixels 248
11.5.2 RGB-to-Pale Pixel Color, Controlled by Layer Thickness 251
11.5.3 Phase Change Material Development 252
11.5.4 LTPS Backplane Development 256
11.6 SRD Prototype – Progress and Performance 259
11.6.1 Fully Functioning Display Demonstrators 260
11.6.2 Potential Applications 263
11.7 Other Approaches 263
11.8 Conclusions 265
Acknowledgments 266
References 266
12 Optical Measurements for E-Paper Displays 271

Karlheinz Blankenbach
12.2 Fundamentals of Reflection 272
12.3 Reflection Measurements Set-Ups 273
12.4 Display Image Quality Parameters 276
12.4.1 Luminance 277
12.4.2 Contrast Ratio 277
12.4.3 Gray Scale 279
12.4.4 Color 279
12.5 Temporal Parameters 281
12.5.1 Switching Time 281
12.5.2 Bi-stability 282
12.5.3 Lifetime 283
12.5.4 Flexible Displays 283
12.6 Further Topics 283
12.7 Summary 283
Glossary incl. Abbreviations 284
References 284
Index 287
xi
List of Contributors
Karlheinz Blankenbach Robert J. Fleming

Pforzheim University CTO CLEARink Displays
Display Lab San Jose, CA, USA
Pforzheim, Germany
Yoko Fukunaga
Clinton Braganza JDI Higashiura Plant
Portage Blvd Aichi-ken, Japan
Kent, USA
Peiman Hosseini
Ben Broughton Bodle Technologies
Oxford, UK Oxford, UK
Guy P. Bryan-Brown J. Cliff Jones

Director of Technology School of Physics and Astronomy
New Vision Display, Inc. University of Leeds
Malvern, UK Cheshire, UK
Norihisa Kobayashi
Anne Chiang
Graduate School of Engineering
Chiang Consulting,
Chiba University
Cupertino, USA
Japan
Vladimir Chigrinov Hoi-Sing Kwok
State Key Laboratory of Advanced Displays and State Key Laboratory of Advanced Displays and
Optoelectronics Technologies Optoelectronics Technologies
Hong Kong University of Science and Technology Hong Kong University of Science and Technology
Hong Kong S. A. R., China Hong Kong S. A. R., China
Paul S. Drzaic Kristiaan Neyts

Apple, Inc. Professor and Head of Liquid Crystals and Photonics
CA, USA Group, ELIS Department, Ghent University,
Belgium
Mauricio Echeverri
Kent Displays Inc. Doeke J. Oostra
Portage Blvd Etulipa, a Miortech company
Kent, USA The Netherlands
xii List of Contributors
Zong Qin Wanlong Zhang

School of Electronics and Information Technology State Key Laboratory of Advanced Displays and
Sun Yat-Sen University Optoelectronics Technologies
Guangzhou, China Hong Kong University of Science and Technology
Hong Kong S. A. R., China
Abhishek Srivastava
State Key Laboratory of Advanced Displays and
Optoelectronics Technologies
Hong Kong University of Science and Technology
Hong Kong S. A. R., China
xiii
Series Editor’s Foreword
Paper is the medium which has dominated the presentation of both the written word and graphics for two thousand
years. The happy partnership of paper with printing was first developed in China before being adopted in the Western
world in the Middle Ages and it initiated the first information explosion. Perhaps no other invention has had such a
fundamental influence on the development of human society and way of life. Printed books and periodicals are attrac-
tive, affordable, and so familiar that we can truly pay attention to the contents alone, and overlook the qualities of the
physical page. With this cultural and technical background, it is not surprising that printed paper is widely regarded as
a reference point for electronic display technologies and since the introduction of the first flat panel displays, achieving
paper-like performance has been a common dream and aspiration of engineers. At the same time, users have bemoaned
the shortcomings of electronic displays and the poor reading experience offered by early generations of displays.
In the present volume, Professor Bo-Ru Yang has brought together an outstanding selection of authors to examine
the technologies which aspire to mimic the properties of printed paper. It is fair to say that no electronic display can
yet rival all the desirable characteristics of paper, and a basic question which arose at an early point in the planning
of the volume, was which technologies or aspects of performance should be included. Professor Yang and his team
have taken an inclusive approach. In this book the reader will find accounts of displays which offer different combi-
nations of desirable properties including paper-like appearance under ambient light, long-term image storage with
zero or ultra-low power consumption, light weight and flexibility, and the ability to accept user input with the ease
of pencil on paper. It follows that a wide range of display technologies are included, with an emphasis on device
modes which offer ambient light viewability. Several liquid crystal modes, both with and without polarizer, can pro-
vide image storage either intrinsic to the display or in ultra-low power drive electronics. Meanwhile, displays based
on electrophoretic or electrowetting effects can offer outstanding optical appearance under a wide range of ambient
lighting. Innovative and emerging displays are also considered, with a chapter on phase-change displays offering an
early view of the potential of this new development. Of course, physics of operation, the fabrication, engineering and
especially the addressing characteristics of each display mode can be very different, and these issues are comprehen-
sively covered, with special attention to those aspects of the devices which are less well covered in earlier sources.
Other, user-related properties of the devices—the difficulty of providing high quality reflective colour, and the rela-
tion of the display performance to human perception of image quality and metrology are carefully considered.
In the 21st century, our priorities regarding electronic displays have changed. Excellent optical performance is
today taken for granted while convenience, light weight and long battery life have increasingly driven user approval.
Especially, the environmental impact of every activity we undertake, now demands scrutiny. Printed media are major
consumers of environmental resources including energy, timber, carbon emissions and chemical residues while elec-
tronic devices have the potential to reduce or eliminate these problems—but only if they are responsibly manufac-
tured and accepted by users sufficiently to displace print over a long period of use and wide range of use cases.
Paper-like display quality can really make a difference to the world. The present book provides a comprehensive and
authoritative overview of the field, authored by leading experts on each aspect of the subject, and I believe it will offer
a most valuable source of reference to display professionals and advanced students, for many years to come.
Ian Sage
Malvern
xv
Editor’s Preface
With the advent of the Internet of Things (IoT), devices and objects around us are being equipped with built-in
sensors and electronics which allow them to analyse and share information in real time, in the manner we associ-
ate with intelligent organisms. It follows that vast numbers of devices will be fitted with displays to present the
information. The needs of such autonomous miniature devices mean that displays with low power consumption,
excellent sunlight readability, and geometrical conformability which are compatible with low-cost fabrication
methods, are becoming critical components in future IoT environments. E-paper displays have the inherent
advantages of reflective operation, zero-power bistability, and in many cases they can be fabricated by printing-
based processes. Therefore, they are regarded as among the most promising display technologies for these applica-
tions. Furthermore, many recent applications, such as fixed and mobile signage for transport, advertising
billboards, architectural coatings, wrapped vehicles, e-readers, retail labelling, dynamic artworks, and many oth-
ers, have started to exploit the unique advantages of E-paper.
Unlike LCD and OLED technologies, E-paper display technologies have not up until now been collectively and
comprehensively reviewed, and there has been no published source which can provide scientists, engineers, and
users with enough broad, insightful, and up-to-date knowledge to support research and development or product
integration in this field. To fill this need, the present book represents the achievement of a three-year collabora-
tion with prestigious scholars, experts, and entrepreneurs in E-paper display fields.
In this book, we have tried to cover as extensive a range of E-paper technologies as possible. Started with the
development history of electrophoretic displays, followed by the fundamental mechanisms, physical models,
driving waveforms, image processing, and advanced structures of electrophoretic displays, we describe the tech-
nological details and review the development progress to show how electrophoretic E-papers become commer-
cially successful. In addition, bistable and reflective LCDs for E-paper applications, including Cholesteric LC,
Zenithally Bistable Display (ZBD), Memory in Pixel (MIP), and Optically Rewritable (ORW) LCDs are also intro-
duced. After that, the emergent technologies such as electro-wetting, electro-chromic, and phase change materi-
als for E-paper display applications are reported and summarized. In the last part, the special needs for metrology
of E-paper displays are explained. This book covers the broad spectrum of state-of-the-art reflective and bistable
E-paper technologies, and we believe it will provide an invaluable handbook and reference for researchers,
advanced students, and professionals in this field.
1
The Rise, and Fall, and Rise of Electronic Paper

Paul S. Drzaic1, Bo-Ru Yang2, and Anne Chiang3
1
Apple, Inc
2
Professor, School of Electronics and Information Technology, State Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Materials and Technologies, Guangdong Province Key
Laboratory of Display Material and Technology, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
3
Principal, Chiang Consulting, Cupertino, CA
1.1 Introduction
For over a thousand years, before the world of electronics, paper was the dominant medium for people to share
written and later printed information. People become familiar with paper at an early age, and there is an enor-
mous worldwide infrastructure for the production and distribution of printed material. Despite this huge built-in
advantage, paper and print now fall short in providing for many demands of modern life. The past few decades
have seen the emergence of electronic networks that transmit vast amounts of information, on-demand, for use
in various ways. Electronic displays are a necessary part of this infrastructure, converting bits to photons and
serving as the final stage of transmitting information to people.
Over the years, several electronic display technologies have waxed and waned; cathode ray tubes, plasma
displays, and super twisted nematic (STN) displays come to mind. A few technologies are dominant; backlit
active-matrix liquid crystal displays, active matrix organic light-emitting diode (OLED) displays, and inexpensive,
passively addressed liquid crystal displays. Along the way, tens of different types of display technologies have been
invented and explored, but ultimately have failed to catch on. A few displays have found a home in niche products
and promise greater future application. Reflective displays, particularly electronic paper, are examples that have
managed to find a place in the display ecosystem, with unique applications best served by these technologies.
This book aims to update on some of the most exciting new areas in electronic paper technology. This introduc-
tory chapter focuses primarily on electrophoretic displays (EPDs) and how they became synonymous with elec-
tronic paper. The story starts in the early 1970’s, with the proposal and first demonstration of the electrophoretic
movement of charged particles to make an optical effect. After intense effort, the technology was mostly aban-
doned, only to be resurrected by a start-up company, E Ink. Several key, and rather improbable inventions had to
be made to develop a technology competitive to the dominant liquid crystal technology. Finally, the right applica-
tion and ecosystem, the Amazon Kindle electronic book, was necessary to cement commercial success.
The field of reflective displays is very rich. The many other chapters in this book and recent reviews [1, 2]
provide a wealth of resources for understanding the many technologies that have been developed in the quest to
achieve a paper-like display. In this chapter, we will examine the following:
●● A description of print-on-paper and how the optics of real paper compare with potential electronic paper
competitors.
E-Paper Displays, First Edition. Edited by Bo-Ru Yang.

© 2022 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2022 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
2 1 The Rise, and Fall, and Rise of Electronic Paper
●● A hierarchical summary of the different technical approaches for reflective displays.

●● A detailed look at the historical development of EPDs, starting with the invention of the technology and
ending with the introduction of the Amazon Kindle. Looking at the various developments in the context of
its times, the EPD story offers some lessons in what it takes for a technology to transition from the laboratory
to commercial success.
1.2 Why Electronic Paper?
Electronic paper has undoubtedly caught the imagination of the world. A Google search for electronic paper in
September 2021 returns over 12 billion hits. This interest reflects people’s love affair with paper as a medium for
transmitting information. Yet, it is easy to recognise that printing ink onto dead trees is not easily compatible with
today’s networked world. What are the attributes of print-on-paper that make it so important?
●● Paper is a reflective medium that automatically adapts to changing lighting

●● Unlike most emissive displays, paper can be easily read in bright sunlight.
●● The appearance of paper is relatively constant over different viewing angles, without significant shifts in lumi-
nance or color.
●● Paper can be lightweight and flexible. The user can easily annotate it. with a pen or pencil.
●● Paper is inexpensive
●● Paper can be archived.
Nevertheless, physical paper cannot be instantly updated with information from electronic networks or easily
serve as an interface with electronic devices. Today’s backlit LCDs and OLED displays are ubiquitous as a means
of transmitting information, but with the limitations that emissive displays possess, including eyestrain and low
visibility in sunlight. Electronic paper can combine the power of electronic devices and networks with all the
attributes of paper.
So what strategies can be taken to enable electronic paper? It is instructive to understand the composition and
design of print-on-paper and see how many of these properties can be converted to something under electronic
control to compete with printed media.
1.3 Brightness, Color, and Resolution
Conventional, non-electronic paper consists of a mat of tightly pressed fibers, most commonly derived from
parchment or wood pulp. The combination of fibers and embedded air pockets scatter light and provide the reflec-
tive characteristics of paper. Historically, additives to the paper pulp during fabrication have also provided glossi-
ness, color, aid in manufacture, or other desirable characteristics (Figure 1.1).
Compared to a white optical standard, the perceived reflectivity of paper often ranges from 50–80%, but can be
even higher. The whiteness or brightness of paper depends on several factors, including the density of fibers,
the paper thickness, the presence of additives such as titanium dioxide, clays, or fluorescent agents, and whether
the viewing surface is made glossy through calendaring and coatings. The color of light reflected from white paper
may differ somewhat from a perfect reflector due to the fluorescing whiteners’ presence, or some underlying color
absorbance from the paper. The human eye readily accommodates for these changes, though, so the perception of
consistent color and lightness of a page relative to its surroundings is easily achieved (Figure 1.2).
Print-on-paper consists of drops of colored ink impregnated into the paper fiber. It is straightforward to devise
dyes and pigments that absorb red, green, or blue. To generate the color characteristics of print, the CMYK sub-
tractive color system can be used (Figure 1.3). The colors in print are usually comprised of cyan (absorb red),
magenta (absorb green), and yellow (absorb blue) (Figure 1.4). Black pigment (the K in CMYK) is also commonly
used, as it is challenging to achieve a neutral black color by mixing cyan, magenta, and yellow.
Figure 1.1 Arches 100% cotton rag paper. Scanning
electron microscope image @100×. Source: http://
paperproject.org [3] Used with permission of CJ Kazilek.
Figure 1.2 CIELAB color system [4] John

Wiley & Sons.
100
80
60
L*
40
50
20 0
–50
0
–100
–60 –40 –20 0 20 40 60 80 b*
a*
Figure 1.3 Color separation of an image into its CMYK components, and the final printed image. The absence of a color
is white.
To achieve a wider color gamut, inkjet printing may use six or

more colors to print. Additionally, spot color printing can deposit
specialty inks (such as fluorescent pigments) that currently have
no analog in emissive displays.
Depending on the industry, a variety of different color spaces
and metrics have been developed for printed and reflected color.
For example, the CIE 1976 (L*a*b*) color space is widely used to
measure reflective colors and print. The human perception of
lightness is measured by L*, which roughly scales as the cube
root as the reflected luminance level.
For color reproduction in the print industries, the SNAP stand-
ard (Specifications for Newspaper Advertising Production) and
SWOP standard (Specifications for Web Offset Publications) are
widely used [1]. These print standards are rarely applied to elec-
Figure 1.4 Subtractive color mixing. Cyan and tronic displays, though the advent of colored reflective displays
magenta overlap to make blue, cyan, and yellow approaching print-like appearance could change this situation.
overlap to make green, yellow, and magenta Grayscale in printing is achieved using halftones (Figure 1.5).
overlap to make red, and all three mixed together
provide black. Each dot on a printed page defines an area where smaller half-
tone dots are printed. The more halftone dots, the deeper the
color or darker the black while white is the absence of halftone dots. The smaller the dots, the higher the resolu-
tion. Print is often defined in lines per inch.″ Some examples of everyday printed objects include:
●● Newspaper (monochrome) – 65–100 LPI
●● Books and magazines (color) – 120–150 LPI
●● Art books (color) – 175–250 LPI
●● Photorealistic inkjet printer (color) – 250–300 LPI
Likewise, the resolution-defined dot for color printing consists of multiple prints of smaller dots. The combina-
tion of different colors and black and the underlying brightness and color of the paper provide the specific color
and lightness of that dot.
With inkjet printing, commercial printers can also control the size
of the drop, such as achieving four different sizes (Figure 1.6). The
number of achievable gray levels is a combination of the number
and size of the printed dots within the equivalent printed pixel [6, 7].
1.4 Reflectivity and Viewing Angle
An important aspect of paper is that the image printed on the page

appears to have constant lightness and color irrespective of the
viewing angle and lighting conditions. If the paper is glossy, there
may be some glare from the surface, but that reflectance rarely inter-
feres with the user interacting with the page. The near-constant
appearance of the printed page is representative of Lambertian
reflectance. The underlying paper scatters light, impinging onto the
surface from many angles and then reflected uniformly into all spa-
tial angles. Whether the page is illuminated by a collimated source
Figure 1.5 Examples of halftone dots of
variable size, enabling grayscale [5] / such as a light bulb in a dark room or a more uniform source such as
Slippens / Public Domain. a cloudy sky, the distribution of reflected light from the paper does
1.5 Translating Print-on-Paper into Electronic Pape 5
Figure 1.6 Printed color generation through printed CMYK halftones [5] / Slippens / Public Domain.
not change that much. Likewise, the amount of light scattered into the viewer’s eyes for a given spot on the paper
is also constant with viewing angle [8].
1.5 Translating Print-on-Paper into Electronic Paper
With this background, we can examine why designing an electronic display with the appearance of high-quality
print-on-paper is challenging.
1.5.1 Brightness
Electronic displays require a transparent front sheet as the top surface of the display. This top surface (usually plas-
tic or glass) provides a flat dielectric interface with air and degrades the optics of electronic paper in several ways.
●● A significant fraction (4–10%) of light is directly reflected off the display without interacting with the display
medium. This reflected light is seen as glare and degrades the contrast of the underlying display to the viewer.
This reflected light also reduces the available light scattered back to the viewer. Anti-reflective coatings can
reduce this reflected light, but with added cost and sometimes compromises in durability.
●● Even if there is perfect diffuse reflectance, a significant fraction of that light will be trapped by internal reflec-
tance at the display-air interface [9]. For an EPD where the dielectric phase is somewhere in the range of
1.38–1.45, the maximum amount of light that can be outcoupled from a white scattering layer, with no other
absorptive losses, is predicted to be no more than 65%. These incoming and outcoupling losses limit the poten-
tial brightness of an embedded Lambertian scatterer within an electronic paper display.
There are strategies to improve the luminance of scattering-based displays by incorporating focusing optical
elements with the display itself. Fleming et al. have demonstrated a display that uses a retroreflective prismatic
element within the display and a black electrophoretic colloid to control the reflection from this element [10, 11].
While the reflectivity of the micro prism layer will depend on the geometric details of the source illumination, in
many lighting conditions, the micro prism itself provides optical gain, and the display can appear “whiter than
white.”[12]. One display by Fleming et al., when illuminated by moderately collimated light, is reported to have
an apparent brightness over 80%, with a 20: 1 contrast ratio. Fleming will describe more information on these
types of displays in Chapter 4 of this volume. Further information about the metrology of measuring reflective
display and e-paper will be described in Chapter 12.
1.5.2 Grayscale – Analog vs. Digital

High-quality images require grayscale, with 256 levels for each color channel being standard in emissive displays.
Today, it is impractical to rely only on halftoning approaches to generate high-quality grayscale, which would
require further subdividing each CMYK subpixel into an additional 4, 8, or 16 subpixels to maintain the native
resolution. Instead, grayscale is generated using analog techniques, in which any pixel can be programmed to
show intermediate reflective states between black and white. While many reflective display technologies, includ-
ing EPDs, can show continuous grayscale within any pixel, maintaining accurate and uniform grayscale across
all pixels is challenging. Analog gray levels are typically restricted to a number that enables uniform luminance
without mura artifacts. For example, today’s commercial e-paper displays from E ink are limited to 16 analog
levels of gray to achieve good uniformity. However the underlying technology is capable of more gray levels [13].
Sophisticated dithering algorithms have been developed to minimize perceptual errors, some of which have
been examined for use in electronic displays [14]. Dithering is analogous in many ways to halftones in print. In an
electronic display, dithering sacrifices resolution to give the appearance of intermediate gray levels or to suppress
non-uniformities between pixels.
1.5.3 An Overview of Approaches to Color Electronic Paper

Many inventive approaches have been proposed to achieve electronic color paper. Some designs take advantage of
an electro-optical medium that can change color at the subpixel level intrinsically. Other approaches use color
filters with an otherwise colorless black and white effect. Accurate and uniform grayscale is essential for high-
quality images and is often very difficult to achieve.
Figure 1.7 illustrates an EPD in combination with color filters [15]. The function of a color filter is to absorb
portions of the visible spectrum so that reflected light is colored. RGB or CMY primary colors can blend the pri-
maries to provide an extended color range. Grayscale is adjusted by controlling the state of the reflective medium,
similar to gray in black and white displays. These displays inevitably must make trade-offs between color satura-
tion, color space coverage, and brightness. Reasonable brightness is usually achieved at the cost of color purity
and a restriction of available colors.
Another approach is the adoption of multiple color particles as electrophoretic elements [16, 17]. Different
colors can be generated in each sub-pixel by mixing C, M, Y translucent particles with scattering white particles,
as shown in Figure 1.8. This approach was firstly demonstrated by Fujifilm in 2012 [16], and later on by E ink [17],
which named it Advanced Color ePaper (ACeP). The colored pigments have different electrophoretic mobilities
and responsivities, which facilitate to shuffle the color particles with driving waveforms of different voltage and
pulse widths. As shown in Figure 1.8, different primary colors can be presented by positioning the white particle
layer above or underneath the translucent C, M, Y particles. Integrating the CMYW particles into a display unit,
ACeP can present different colors and gray levels in each subpixel by controlling the driving waveforms.
Color filter Barrier film

Common electrode
Transparent fluid
Sealing layer
Sub-pixel electrode R Sub-pixel electrode B

Sub-pixel electrode G
Figure 1.7 Color electrophoretic display using B/W particles and subpixel color filters [15] / John Wiely & Sons.
1.5 Translating Print-on-Paper into Electronic Pape 7
White Yellow Magenta Cyan
Black Blue Green Red
Figure 1.8 Eight primary colors of ACeP by different pigment arrangements [17] / John Wiely & Sons.
These driving waveforms are complex, and frame rates are currently slower than other EPD approaches.
Nevertheless, the multiple color particle design dramatically increases the color saturation and reflective lumi-
nance achievable compared to the color filter approach. Figure 1.9 compares the color performance of these two
types of color EPD prototypes [16, 17].
Many other inventive approaches have tackled the problem of making the electro-optical medium capable of
switching color. Controlled lateral migration of colored fluid and particles enables a bi-primary color system. This
design allows a single pixel to be changed through mixtures of color states [19].
A variety of other physical phenomena can be used to modulate reflected light electrically. The following table
describes several varieties of reflective displays that have been developed over the past several decades. The fact
that so many technologies have been pursued shows both the interest in the electronic paper and the difficulty in
achieving a paper-like display. We compare the various reflective display technologies in Table 1.1, showing the
strengths and weaknesses of the different approaches. More information on these different technologies can be
found in reviews [1, 2, 20] and other chapters in this book.
Figure 1.9 Prototypes of colored electrophoretic displays: the left image uses a color filter and front light, while the
middle and right images use the multiple color particles design [16–18] A. [18] Ian French, et al. 2020; B.[16] Hiji N, et.al,
2012 / John Wiley & Sons, Inc.; C.[17] Telfer S J, MD Mccreary, 2016 / John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Table 1.1 Summary of performance and other key factors for monochrome e-Paper technologies.
Reflect Zenithal
Electrophoretic Electrophoretic In-plane Electro Liquid Electro MEMs Cholesteric LCD w\ bistable
(commercial) (eTIR) EPD kinetic powder Electrochromic Electrowelting fluidic (IMOD) LC PDLC polarizer Flip dot device
White, 44% W [21] 60% [10] 75% [23] ∼62% 25 ∼ 30% 70% [30] 70% W [34] 72% W [37] 61% (Indoor) 40% [35] 50% W 42% W [43] 80% [45] 39% [48]
color %R [15] [28] 80% (Outdoor)
[40]
Black %R 3% [21] 4% [10] 3% [23] 2% 3 ∼ 4%[28] – 3–5% <3% [37] >3% [35] 5% [35] 5% 2% 6% 2% [48]
Contrast ∼15 : 1 [21] 15 : 1 [10] 23 : 1 [23] 30 : 1 8:1 38.1 : 1 [31] >35 : 1 [35] >30 : 1 [37] 15 : 1 8 : 1 [35] 10 : 1 >20 : 1 [43] 13.3 : 1 20 : 1 [48]
ratio
Lambertian Yes Partial [10] Yes Yes Yes Yes Partial Yes No Partial No Partial Yes Partial[48]
mono – Maybe Maybe SNAP – Maybe SNAP [34] SNAP SNAP – Maybe Maybe – –
SNAP/ SWOP [10] SWOP [23] SWOP [30] SNAP SNAP [43]
SWOP
Driving 15 2–4 [11] <10 ∼5 [26] 40–70 1.4 [31] 15 ∼ 20 10–20 5–10 (lab) < 4 5 ∼3 [43] 4 ∼ 125[46] 20
voltage (product)
25–40 [41]
Bistable Yes Yes [10] No No Yes Yes [32] Yes [34] Yes Yes Yes No (Yes Yes Yes yes
with
matrix)
Switching 100’s (33 fps) 33 [10] 15 (100 V) <300 <0.2 [29] <10 [33] 10 ∼4 [38] 0.01’s 300 51 [42] 48 [43] ∼66 [47] 20 ms
speed 30 (40 V) [27] (vertical) 5
(msec) [24] (in-
plane) [41]
Matrix AM AM [11] AM, PM AM PM PM AM AM, PM PM PM AM PM – AM [49]
drive
Greyscale Pulse Pulse [10] Analog/ Pulse Multi- – Analog/Partial Pulse Spatial/ Pulse Analog Halftone Pulse Analog [49]
approach Pulse write filling/Spatial Temporal
dithering [36]
Grayscale 4 4 [10] 5 >4 [27] 2 6 [30] 4 4 [39] 6 4 8 (60 Hz) 1 2 [44] 1 4 [49]
bit level (∼30) [25] (6 Hz) [42]
Neutral Yes – Yes Yes Yes Possible Yes Yes Yes No Yes Possible – Yes [48]
white point
Lifespan Good – Unproven Unproven Good/ltd. Ltd./unproven Unproven Unproven Good Good Good Great Commercial Good
Power None None [10] Very low Very low None Very low None [34] None Very None Low Moderate None Very low
(Static) low
Power Low Low [11] n/a n/a Low Very high High High High Moderate Moderate Low High Very low
(Video)
Years of Since 1969 [22] Reported Since Since Since Since 1989 [1] Since 2003 [1] Since Since 1997 Since In mid Since – Since
research 2018 [10] 2000 [1] 2009 [1] 2003 [1] 2009 [1] [1] 1994 [1] 1980s [1] 2001 [1] 1995 [48]
Maturity Many products Prototype [10] AM & PM AM demo ESL Smart card AM demo Segment PM PM AM Products Products Products
demo product/ products product products products prototypes
large PM
There are several interesting aspects of Table 1.1 worth noting:
●● Several e-paper technologies reach the reflective luminance of monochromatic SNAP (R ~ 60%), and a few of
them move toward SWOP (R ~ 76%).
●● The required driving voltages for many e-paper technologies are below 15 V, the maximum voltage provided by
mainstream active matrix backplanes. As we will describe in a later section of this chapter, active-matrix back-
plane compatibility is a significant practical advantage.
●● Many e-paper technologies have demonstrated a video speed response. However, it is important to note that
high-quality video reproduction requires accurate grayscale performance, and accurate color if present. Not all
technologies report this metric.
Later chapters in this book provide an up-to-date review of several essential e-paper technologies.
●● In Chapters 2 and 3, the fundamental mechanisms, physical models, driving waveforms, and image processing
of EPDs will be reviewed.
●● Chapter 4 describes the Clear Ink EPD with a total internal reflective structure, enhancing the display’s brightness.
●● Chapters 5 through 8 describe several different categories of reflective liquid crystal displays. Chapter 5 introduces
reflective displays based on cholesteric liquid crystals that rely on Bragg reflection from helical liquid crystal struc-
tures. Chapter 6 introduces the zenithal bistable display (ZBD), which utilizes a grating-type surface alignment
structure to achieve bistable reflective states. Chapter 7 introduces the memory-in-pixel (MIP) liquid crystal dis-
play technology, which realizes a bistable display by building a static memory circuit behind the reflective elec-
trode for each pixel. Chapter 8 introduces optically rewritable (ORW) technology, which uses a photoalignment
layer to control the orientation of the liquid crystals and spatially generate bright and dark reflective states.
●● Chapter 9 reviews electrowetting display technology, in which an applied voltage causes the physical transla-
tion of a dyed fluid within the pixel, with a resulting optical appearance change.
●● Chapter 10 discusses electrochromic technology, generating reversible color change through an electrochemi-
cal redox reaction.
●● Chapter 11 introduces the phase transition material technology. Under optical or electrical energy stimulation,
a phase change material cycles between amorphous and crystalline states with a resulting change in reflectivity.
●● Chapter 12 reviews the metrology of reflective displays, providing the means to characterize the performance of
different technologies.
It is fair to say that the electronic paper technology that has seen the greatest success in transitioning to high vol-
ume products is the microencapsulated EPD technology from E Ink Corporation. The next section of this chapter
will review the historical development of EPDs, including the many inventions and milestones needed to achieve a
competitive device. It took over 35 years to go from the initial concept, proposed by Xerox and Matsushita, to a suc-
cessful high-volume product, the Amazon Kindle. During this development period, many engineers and scientists’
insights and hard work developed a combination of technical achievements and manufacturing scale that could
enable competitive display products. Even with the baseline technology resolved, it still took the right product con-
cept ready at the right time to lead to the commercial success of the Amazon Kindle. There are lessons to learn from
observing how a laboratory curiosity was transformed into a technology and product that opened up a new industry.
1.6 The Allure of Electronic Paper vs. the Practicality of LCDs
The idea of a personal electronic device allowing user input and a display output screen is widely attributed to
work done in the late 1960’s by Alan Kay of Xerox PARC. Kay coined the term DynaBook for the apparatus [50].
He also laid out many of the characteristics of the device, including that the visual output should be, at the very
1.7 The Evolution of Electrophoretic Display-Based Electronic Pape 11
least, of higher quality than what can be obtained from newsprint. While electronic paper was not explicitly called
out as a display medium, that analogy to newsprint is a natural precursor for an electronic book. Nevertheless,
until the late 2000’s, liquid crystal displays dominated all implementations of personal electronic devices.
Why did it take so long to develop attractive electronic paper products? One overwhelming factor is the success
of the liquid crystal display. LCD technologies started development about the same time as EPDs, and one suc-
cessful variant (the super twisted nematic, STN) LCD did not appear until over ten years later. Reflective LCDs’
suffered from poor brightness, poor contrast, and poor viewing angle characteristics. Nevertheless, LCDs can be
matrix addressed to enable high pixel count, have reasonable response time, and be used in transmissive mode.
LCDs were seen as “good enough” for many early applications. With volume production came incremental
improvements in performance, reliability, and cost year-by-year. For a new electronic paper technology to take
hold, it must outperform LCDs in multiple aspects and have an application important enough to attract invest-
ment in manufacturing at scale. For decades, no reflective display technology seriously challenged LCDs.
1.7 The Evolution of Electrophoretic Display-Based Electronic Paper
1.7.1 Early History

Electrophoresis is the movement of charged colloidal particles under the influence of an external electric field.
Electrophoretic deposition is a well-known technology, with an early patent dating to 1919 [51]. In electrophoretic
printing [52], charged colloidal particles suspended in a dielectric fluid were directed to deposit in specific elec-
trode areas by applied electric fields. Various methods were used to fuse the particles to form a permanent coating.
Such liquid toner technology was later applied to xerography, where it competed with the more successful dry
toner technology developed by companies such as Xerox.
An EPD could harness a similar effect, using a reversible translation of the colloid to form an image visible
through a transparent electrode. Perhaps inspired by liquid toner technology, Evans et al. applied for a US patent
in 1969 (granted in 1971) on a “Color Display Device,” which described an EPD [53]. Many essential elements in
an EPD were disclosed, including:
●● Charged particles in a dielectric fluid

●● The dielectric fluid may be clear or opaque (colored)
●● Different colored pigments may be used at the same time
●● Charge control agents may be added to the particle suspension to aid in particle charging
●● Bistability in the display was claimed, with image retention after the field is removed
●● The potential for matrix (X-Y) addressing
Despite the wide-ranging descriptions, no actual working embodiments were described. There does not appear to
be any public record of immediate follow-up work by Evans or his coworkers. EPDs did become an important area
of development by others at Xerox in the late 1970’s, under a different group of researchers and engineers.
Nearly contemporaneously, Ota of the Matsushita Corporation applied for a patent in 1970 (granted in 1972) for
an EPD Device [54]. Many of the same concepts described by Evans were disclosed in that patent. Ota also
described an embodiment where the electrophoretic fluid was separated into distinct compartments within the
display. Compartmentalizing the electrophoretic fluid foreshadowed a critical development area 25 years into the
future when the electrophoretic fluid across the display would be separated into tiny, active microcapsules for
improved stability.
In 1973, Ota et al. published the first peer-reviewed article on EPDs [55]. This paper disclosed specific examples
of the electrophoretic medium and display construction and showed photographs of digital clocks with seven-
segment display digits. These were the first public examples of working EPDs.
In the early 1970’s, commercial electronic displays typically meant emissive displays such as cathode ray tubes,
vacuum fluorescent displays, or Nixie tubes. There was a growing need for low-power reflective displays in con-
sumer devices, but these technologies were still under development and not yet widely used. A 1975 paper by
Goodman of RCA Laboratories [56] described the landscape for low power reflective displays: liquid crystals
(dynamic scattering and twisted nematic type), electrophoretic, and electrochromic. A wide range of properties
was compared within the paper. However, the paper acknowledged that all these technologies were still at an
early stage of development with unknown future potential.
An advantage of LCDs is that they could be matrix addressed to enable 48-line displays, whereas the other tech-
nologies could not. If the application required more than a limited number of pixels, then LCDs were the only
choice at that time. The paper concluded that “Although (none of the three display types) are yet not suitable for
matrix address video displays, LCDs, ECDs, and EPIDs are potentially useful in those applications where low power
consumption is important, and matrix address of a large number of elements is not important.” LCDs were being
used in “watches, calculators, and panel displays.” Still, “Primarily because of the somewhat limited viewability of
LCDS, ECDs, and EPIDS are being investigated for utilization. . . .” EPDs suffered from poor reliability and the need
for high operating voltages, but the race was on to overcome these difficulties and supplant low visual-quality LCDs.
1.8 Initial Wave of Electrophoretic Display Development
The 1970’s and early 1980’s were a period of intense development in EPDs. Multiple companies developed the
technology, including Matsushita, Xerox, Philips, Plessey, EPID Inc., Thomson-CSF, Seiko Epson, Exxon, and
Copytele. It is instructive to describe what was and what was not accomplished by these pioneering companies.
During this period, the development focus was primarily on single color electrophoretic pigments suspended in a
contrasting fluid. Many papers described progress on the electrophoretic suspension and in controlling the switching
and memory characteristics of the panel. Some highlights in the technology development are described as follows.
1.8.1 The Electrophoretic Fluid, Thresholds, and Memory

In theory, the notion of charged pigment particles suspended in a dielectric fluid, being attracted or repelled from
a transparent conductor to change a display’s appearance, seems quite simple. In practice, the electrophoretic
fluid was a witch’s brew of particles with particular surface chemistries, low viscosity, high resistivity oil, one, or
more dyes, surfactants, and charge control agents.
In 1977 Lewis et al. published a study describing several key behaviors of an EPD and the potential chemistry
and physics behind them [57]. Topics such as stability against permanent flocculation, the challenges of creating
a switching threshold, and the usefulness of various pigment, fluid, and polymer chemistries were described. The
following list provides a snapshot of the characteristics of an EPD that Lewis et al. were able to achieve:
●● 38 μm cell gap, comprising polymer-coated titania in a diethyl phthalate solution of Sudan Black
●● Drive voltage of 15 V
●● one second switching time
●● Erase/conditioning voltage of 30 V for one second required before addressing
●● 1 μA/cm2 drive current
●● Memory of weeks
Lewis et al. also provided a physics-based analysis for reversible display memory based on the competition of
van der Waals attraction and electrostatic repulsion between two particles within the electrical double layer. While
this model provided some qualitative guidance, the authors recognized that the complex multi-component
composition found in actual displays was beyond the scope of a simple analysis. The authors postulate that steric
1.8 Initial Wave of Electrophoretic Display Developmen 13
stabilization by modification of the particle surface could be a helpful approach, which was an important area of
future development by many companies.
A 1978 paper by Murau and Singer provided additional insight into the physics behind electrophoretic device
stability and memory functions [58]. This paper described a further theoretical framework for particle attractions
and repulsions. It also provided dynamic electrical measurements of working displays that demonstrated the
complex behavior of multiple charge carriers with different mobilities. They claimed that properly stabilized sus-
pensions could achieve over 250 000 000 switches without severe degradation.
Croucher and Hair later provided an additional detailed description of desirable properties for the electrophoretic
fluid, along with examples for many categories [59]. They examined several aspects of dispersion stability, including
the tendency of different suspensions to settle (gravity-induced sedimentation), the tendency toward flocculation,
and the ease of redispersion of the particles with time. They concluded that steric stabilization of the pigment parti-
cles is essential, and described the characteristics of polymers for stable physisorption onto the particles. They also
speculated on potential advances, such as chemisorption (chemical attachment) of the stabilizing polymers onto the
pigment, and demonstrated the potential of charge control characteristics into the steric stabilizer.
Novotny and Hopper published an analysis of the electro-optical characteristics of an EPD device [60]. The
paper described a model where the device’s memory characteristics relied on particle-electrode and particle-
particle attraction, and observed devices with memories on the order of many hours. They concluded that the
wide distribution of such forces would work against the appearance of a voltage threshold for switching.
The lack of a voltage threshold was a major drawback for EPDs, as it reduced the ability of the device to use
simple row and column electrodes (passive addressing) to enable displays with a large number of pixels. Other
approaches toward enabling x-y addressing are described later in this chapter, but the problem wasn’t truly solved
until the active matrix addressing became practical in the early 2000’s.
1.8.2 Memory Function, Device Stability, and Control Grids

From the earliest times, the memory function for EPDs was noted as an essential feature of these displays. EPD
memory was attributed to the EPD particles remaining in place after removing the switching voltage. Long-term
memory could lead to a low power device, which would consume power only during switching. Of course, if the
particles stick too firmly to the panel electrodes, they could become stuck and degrade the contrast of the device
due to lack of switching. Any particle adhesion to the panel electrodes or other particles would need to be finely
balanced to offset gravitational settling (which could erase the image) and permanent particle stiction and floc-
culation (which could cause permanent ghosting).
The location of the pigment particles within the display will vary with the images rendered by the display.
The local distribution of pigments would tend to vary from region to region within the display over time. This
history dependence could require reset pulses to be applied to the EPD to erase the history. Moreover, the particles
could migrate over time within the panel to give a non-uniform distribution of pigment, which could cause a
temporary or permanent reduction in contrast. Neither characteristic is attractive in a display and provided seri-
ous challenges to developing EPDs.
Despite the strong interest in EPD memory function, there is no complete description of the chemistry and
physics of the EPD memory effect in this time. In his original paper, Ota noted that the EPD has a memory func-
tion, because the pigment particles deposited on the surface of the electrode remain on the surface even after
removal of an applied voltage mainly due to van der Waals attractive force between the pigment particle and the
electrode. No specific details beyond this simple description were given, though.
Further mentions of memory function were made by Dalisa and coworkers in two 1977 papers, though again,
no detailed description of explanation was provided [61, 62].
To enable matrix addressing, Dalisa and coworkers proposed adding a third electrode layer, a “control grid,” between
the other two cell electrodes to enable matrix addressing. The electrode rows in the control grid would be perpendicu-
lar to the columns in the bottom electrode. While the top electrode would uniformly attract (or repel) the
electrophoretic particles, the control grid could provide an additional potential to either enhance or diminish the
effective voltage between the top and bottom electrodes. Dalisa et al. claimed that the device demonstrated 5 ms
switching per line at ±15 V and a resolution of 5 lines/mm. While the paper contended that further improvements
could be made, the dimensions of the control grid and added complexity would limit this approach to low or medium-
resolution displays.
Hopper and Novotny published two papers in 1979 that provided detailed descriptions of some EPD systems
and treated important topics such as response times, memory, and device addressing [63, 64].
●● These papers described device dynamic and optical trade-offs with cell thickness, electric field, particle concen-
tration, and other formulation variables. They noted a complex electrical transient behavior due to the contribu-
tions of the many charged components present in the electrophoretic fluid.
●● Similar to Ota, the papers described a hypothesis where the device’s memory characteristics relied on particle-
electrode and particle-particle attraction and observed devices with memories on the order of many hours. They
concluded that the wide distribution of such forces would work against the appearance of a voltage threshold
for switching. The device switching was dependent on the voltage history of the device. No other physical
mechanisms regarding the memory effect were provided, though.
●● Hopper and Novotny recognized that passive addressing of EPDs to achieve high pixel count displays was not
likely. They noted that thin-film transistor (TFT) active-matrix addressing was possible, though the capability to
fabricate useful TFT backplanes was not very developed.
●● Hopper and Novotny noted that particle migration and settling where serious problems in EPD displays. Along
with Harbor, they used a public invention disclosure to propose that subdividing the EPD panel into subdivisions
could potentially resolve this issue [65]. As will be noted later, subdivided EPD panels were reported in 1986, and
the microencapsulated EPDs described later in this chapter provided the ultimate segregation for particles.
Murau and Singer published a detailed study examining the mechanisms behind various factors leading to insta-
bility in electrophoretic panels [58]. They attributed the steric repulsion due to adsorbed polymers and modeled the
balance between these repulsive forces between particles with the electric fields that induce tight packing of parti-
cles at the electrode surface. They also described two interesting phenomena that degraded display reliability:
●● Particles undergoing vertical switching can migrate laterally outside of the electrode area and then become
effectively stuck in field-free regions.
●● Electrohydrodynamic fluid instabilities caused by slow-moving background changes in the suspension, leading
to undesirable particle clustering
By carefully optimizing several aspects of the electrophoretic fluid, Murau and Singer were able to demonstrate a
device that was switched over 2.5 × 108 times without serious degradation.
1.8.3 Optics
While the white TiO2 pigment is similar to the pigments used in white paint, there are multiple aspects of the EPD
that significantly reduce the reflectivity of a display compared to white paint. The reflectivity of a white pigment
below a clear, dielectric surface will be reduced due to refraction and total internal reflection within the device
and the reduction of illuminating light reflected from the display surface. An EPD device containing a dyed fluid,
there will be additional losses due to residual colored dye in the fluid above the electrophoretic particles, even in
the bright state. Reducing the dye concentration improved brightness, but at the cost of contrast due to reduced
hiding of the white pigments in the dark state (Figures 1.10 and 1.11).
One of the first analyses of this interplay between brightness and contrast was provided by Vance [66]. Vance
modeled the reflectivity of TiO2 pigment suspended in a dielectric fluid medium without dye to estimate the upper
limit to reflectivity. He then analyzed experimentally the potential contrast for different dye concentrations and
1.8 Initial Wave of Electrophoretic Display Developmen 15
1.0
Device reflectance, Rm
74%
d = 250μ
0.5 d = 125μ
d = 50μ
d = 25μ
0
0 10 20 30
Contrast ratio
Figure 1.10 Device reflectance vs contrast ratio for EPD at different device thicknesses. From Vance 1977 [66].
Figure 1.11 First EPD product for point-of-purchase (POP) use, and the experimental numeral display EPD [70] / U.S
Patents / Public Domain.
cell thickness and the impact on bright state reflectivity. (Figure 1.12) shows the relationship predicted between
device reflectance and contrast ratio at different cell thicknesses and dye concentrations. Realizing that significant
cell gaps will result in unacceptably high voltages and slow response times, for a 25 μm cell thickness, he esti-
mated that an ideal device could achieve brightness between 35% and40% for a contrast ratio between 5 and 10.
However, this estimate assumed that the electrophoretic medium contained a particle concentration of 10% or
higher, which was considered unrealistic for a stable device.
Fitzhenry-Ritz published a similar analysis in 1981, examining the combinations of yellow pigment/red dye and
green pigment/black dye from both a simulation and experimental perspective [67]. While her results were com-
plicated by using color-contrasting states, the results were similar to Vance in that it did not seem possible to
achieve true paper-like brightness and contrast with EPD systems.
Vance states, “It thus appears unlikely that displays with the contrast (10:1) and reflectivity (>70%) of black and
white printed pages can be produced by these systems. Rather, as has been universally observed, practical ‘black and
white’ EP displays will operate between two shades of gray.” Interestingly,

he notes that “devices employing undyed suspending fluids state (sic)
such as those disclosed in the patent literature will be capable of much
higher reflectance than the dye cells described here.” Despite this predic-
tion, the appearance of two-particle black and white EPDs will need to
wait until the introduction of the microencapsulated EPDs more than
10 years later.
Analysis by Shu et al. determines that the relative reflectivity of white
pigment in a dielectric fluid under glass is limited to <65% due to total
internal reflection and other incoming and outcoupling losses [9].
Additional optical elements can be deployed to raise the effective
brightness under some lighting conditions, as will be described in
Chapter 4.
Figure 1.12 Demonstration of the first
active-matrix electrophoretic display.
Source: From A. Chiang. (1980). 1.8.4 EPD in Decline
“Electrophoretic Display Technologies and
Characteristics,” presented at the Seminar While steady progress was being made in EPDs, progress in LCDs was
Notes, SID Technical Symposium. faster. In a 1986 IEEE Spectrum article entitled “Whatever happened to
pp. 1–32 [78].
Electrophoretic Displays?,” Werner and Kmetz essentially announced
the demise of EPDs [68]. They pointed out that while great progress
was made in developing practical high pixel count EPDs with reasonable switching time, poor reliability still
plagued the technology. Over time, the particles would tend to agglomerate, causing image nonuniformities.
Moreover, the relatively high switching voltages for EPDs added complexity and cost to the driving electronics.
STN LCDs could achieve similar contrast ratios, high pixel counts, and even faster switching speeds, with lower-
cost electronics. The future for EPDs seemed grim, with the article ending:” The two major players in EPDs have
weighed these complexities and cast their votes. Philips has cut back its research effort, and the EPID division, which
presented the only paper on electrophoretics at the 1986 SID Symposium, has been put on the block by Exxon.”
Additional perspective is provided in the 2005 book Liquid Gold by Joseph Castellano [69]. While the book’s pri-
mary focus is the development of the liquid crystal flat panel display industry, there is mention of competition by
EPD displays. For example, Castellano reports that EPID displays (Exxon) had installed equipment to fabricate
EPD displays in 1980; expansion was planned to enable 12.5″ displays (7.5″ × 10″) with 70 000 pixels. The EPD
displays were able to show white pixels on a darker background, and the contrast was quite good. Nevertheless,
the technology was plagued by image sticking, and long-term reliability was unknown.
Philips commissioned a study by Castellano in 1985 to determine if there was still a market segment available
for EPDs, given the rise of LCDs. Castellano writes that the only potential entry was to build large screen, high-
information content displays without the need for an active matrix backplane. Such products could replace CRT
monitors or serve as the displays in portable computers. Unfortunately, the Philips technology suffered from simi-
lar reliability and matrix addressing limitations to EPID, Inc. and other companies. Castellano states that Philips
ended the project a few years later.
Before closing out the section on the initial wave of EPD displays, it is useful to describe some of the achieve-
ments by the teams at that time, recognizing that the technology was moving into a near-dormant phase in the late
1980’s and 1990’s.
●● Matshushita developed EPDs with yellow-red, white-blue, and white-black color pairs around the 1975 time
period (Figure 1.11) [70].
●● Murau at Philips Laboratories published a paper in 1984 describing an EPD with a control grid structure.
The 9 × 16 cm display possessed 230 000 pixels at a pixel size of 250 × 250 μm in 360 rows by 640 column
arrangement. Using encapsulated TiO2, the display achieved a relative brightness of 23% with a contrast
ratio of 15 : 1 and an addressing time of 10 ms/line [71].
1.9 The Revival of EPD 17
●● Chiang described a 1 in2 32 × 32 display addressed using only a passive x-y addressing scheme, enabled by a
“packing pulse” followed by complex 2/1 or 3/1 selection Schemes [72].
●● Chiang also reported a stylus-addressed EPD in 1979, which finessed the x-y addressing limitations by enabling
the user to write an image using a charged stylus [73].
●● Shiffman and Parker reported in 1984 an EPD display driven by NMOS circuitry on single-crystal silicon. This
first demonstration was limited to 16 × 16 pixels on a 4 × 4 mm display area, with peripheral circuitry filling the
6 mm wafer [74].
●● Beilin and coworkers reported in 1986 a 9″ diagonal 2000-character (8 × 8 pixels each) EPD display using control
grid technology. The display employed honeycomb grid compartments to segregate the electrophoretic material
into single pixels, claiming that five years of a lifetime is feasible. Interestingly, they reported that they improved
the particle stability by chemically grafting the stabilizing polymers to the particle surface and several proprietary
charging agents and stabilizers. The device was reported to have a reflectance of 13% with a 9: 1 contrast ratio [75].
●● Chiang reported the first active matrix-driven EPD panels in 1980 [76-78]. The varistor comprised back-to-back
ZnO diodes, the panel incorporated pixel-level storage capacitors and enabled a display with 32 × 32 pixels and
an area of 1 in2. Switching voltages were reported as 70 V, with image switching times of either 16 ms (blue to
white) or 11 ms (white to blue). Importantly, the paper also reported that the images were written line-at-a-time,
at 20 μs/line without crosstalk, flickering, or refreshing with the incorporation of local storage capacitors. This
capability is unique to bistable reflective displays.
Despite these advances, for over 10 years, there was little activity in the development of electrophoretic technol-
ogy. EPDs had developed the reputation as not viable for primary display application.i
The controversial company Copytele, founded in 1983, filed and was granted several patents in EPD technology.
While raising millions of dollars from investors and claiming to develop displays for data and graphics, a report in
1992 indicated no evidence of any successful commercialization [79].
Nippon Mektron, in a 1994 paper, reported a 5 × 7 direct drive display aiming for large-area applications [111].
The drive electronics were bonded directly to the backplane on a printed circuit board. More importantly, this
paper demonstrated that EPD switching times could be fast (1.7 ms frame rate) and reliable (with over one 20 mil-
lion switching cycles with only minor performance loss, and the equivalent of five years exposure to sunlight).
Still, the contrast ratio was modest (4 : 1).
1.9 The Revival of EPDs
By the late 1990’s several pieces of the puzzle started coming together.
●● There was little progress in improving the optical appearance of reflective LCDs. If people wanted high-quality,
bright images on a portable electronic device, then backlit LCDs were required, with the usual limitations for
emissive displays compared to paper.
●● While several other technologies were investigated for reflective displays that could potentially be considered a
rival for paper, none met with any commercial success.
●● The steady growth of the LCD display marketplace led to a significant investment in TFT panel manufacturing
plants. While TFT panels for LCDs were not optimized for EPDs, they potentially could solve the pixel address-
ing a problem that plagued early versions of EPDs.
EPDs did see a revival in the 1990’s, with the introduction of microencapsulated EPDs. In a paper published in the
journal Nature, Comiskey et al. from MIT demonstrated that it is possible to create an EPD by microencapsulating
i The reputation for EPD displays remained poor into the late 1990s. One of this chapter’s authors (PSD) was introduced to display
technology luminary Sir Cyril Hilsum at an SID event in 1998. When Hilsum learned that he was planning to join a new start-up
company (E Ink) as Director of Technology to work on EPDs, Hilsum’s response was “I’m so sorry.”
the electrophoretic medium in urea-formaldehyde microcapsules [22].

The microcapsules were subsequently coated between two electrodes
with an in-situ polymerized polyurethane binder. Many of the positive
features of EPDs were preserved, including near-Lambertian viewing
characteristics and bistability. Moreover, the microencapsulation
seemed to provide a means of solving the agglomeration and pigment
migration problems that plagued conventional EPD displays. Since the
pigments and fluid were confined within a small microcapsule, migra-
tion of particles across the panel could be avoided.
Since the microcapsules that contained the electrophoretic fluid
were dispersed in a polymer film, the display could be flexible as well.
A 1998 SID Digest paper by Drzaic et al. demonstrated a fixed (bista-
ble) image microencapsulated EPD display wrapped around a pencil
in Figure 1.13 [80]. The display material comprised titanium dioxide
particles and a blue dielectric fluid and was reported to exhibit ±90 V
switching voltage, 12% luminance, and a 6:1 contrast ratio.
As an interesting footnote, the company Nippon Mektron had filed
for several Japanese patents in the area of microencapsulated EPD, the
Figure 1.13 SID 1998 Digest paper [80] earliest filed in 1987 and published in 1996 [81]. There is no evidence
Drzaic P, et.al, 1998 / John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
that these patents were filed outside of Japan or publications on this
technology until 1998. That year, Nakamura et al. from the Japanese
company NOK published a paper on microencapsulated EPDs at the 1998 SID symposium [82]. NOK showed an
actual working display images, with a 5 × 7 matrix design-driven with external switches connected by through-
film vias to reflective electrodes. Display characteristics included:
●● TiO2 in blue dye dielectric

●● 50 μm capsules made from gelatin/gum arabic
●● Mixing of microcapsules into silicone binder, coating into a single layer, and laminating onto flexible film
●● +/50 V switching voltage
●● 50 nA/cm2 driving current
●● Contrast ratio 4:1
●● 1000-hour stability (memory function)
Despite this early entry, further activity at NOK on the technology seems limited. There appears to be only one
additional publication by that company, in 1999, using a flexible sheet of microencapsulated electrophoretic mate-
rial with the photoconductive drum of a laser printer to form a rewritable flexible paper.
There are also several Japanese patents on microencapsulated EPDs filed in the late 1980’s and early 1990’s by
Nippon Mektron Corporation, with the earliest appearing in 1987 [83]. Nevertheless, there are no technical pub-
lications in this area until the NOK 1998 paper, and no technical papers afterward. For the balance of this chapter,
we will focus on developing EPDs at E Ink Corporation and collaborators.
1.10 Developing a Commercial Display
The startup company E Ink Corporation was founded in 1997 to commercialize “electronic ink” based on the MIT
technology, and set up shop in Cambridge, MA. Professor Joseph Jacobson first drew attention to the concept in a
1997 publication aptly titled “The Last Book.” [84]. In 1998, the company received significant publicity, including
being named one of Fortune Magazines 30 Cool Companies of 1998. The company also secured US$15.8 M in
1.11 Enhancing Brightness and Contras 19
venture and industrial funding by mid-1998, backed by the Hearst Corporation, Motorola, and others [85].
The venture capital model expected that E Ink would develop products that would enable the company to scale
rapidly, supplying products in high-volume markets such as publishing and advertising.
Much of the interest was driven by the vision of radio paper. In a 2000 interview, Jacobson described radio paper
as “electronic paper, coated with e-ink, with tiny transistors in it to act as electrodes, solar cells, and radio receivers.”
The paper “would be able to upload pretty much anything, even video, using no more energy than it draws from ambi-
ent light.” “I fundamentally think five years is the right time scale for the static paper to be phased out and replaced
by radio paper’ Jacobson says.” [86].
While the microencapsulated technology seemed promising, there was a long way to go to achieve any com-
mercial product, let alone “radio paper.” Issues to overcome included:
●● Contrast and brightness were not better than reflective LCDs and certainly inferior to backlit LCDs.
●● The operating voltage was high. ±90 V switching is not compatible with high-resolution devices
●● The displays could not be passively addressed. Options were either direct drive (for low pixel count displays) or,
in principle, active-matrix backplanes (for high pixel count/high resolution) displays. At that time, TFT panels
were expensive, hard to source, and not designed for the switching characteristics needed for EPDs.
●● No scalable manufacturing method was demonstrated.
●● Reproducibility and reliability not demonstrated
The vision of “radio paper” was compelling but incredibly challenging. Remarkably, the engineers at E Ink and
their collaborators managed to make multiple inventions, overcome these limitations, and develop a competitive
display technology that, while not quite “radio paper,” still met a market need in a compelling way. The following
sections describe many of the key achievements to developing a practical display suitable for use in high-volume
electronic paper products, up to the introduction of the Amazon Kindle.
1.11 Enhancing Brightness and Contrast
The expectation that electronic paper would look like print on paper requires a display with reasonable brightness
and contrast. As mentioned previously in this chapter, for EPDs using titanium dioxide dispersed in a dyed fluid,
Fitzhenry-Ritz pointed out a tradeoff in dye concentration, display brightness, and display contrast [67]. Using
titanium dioxide in a dyed fluid, the microencapsulated EPD E Ink display exhibited a brightness of 12% and a
contrast ratio of 6 : 1, well under the theoretical maxima predicted for EPD displays. While brightness and con-
trast ratio could be traded off by adjusting dye concentration, there was no expectation that a brightness >40%
with good contrast could be achieved in this system.
A way out of this dilemma would be implementing a two-particle system with white and black pigments. If one
color of the colloid could be brought to cover the top surface of the microcapsule, with the other color hiding
behind this layer, then higher brightness and contrast could be achieved. The challenge is that while previous
papers and patents had disclosed the concept of such two-particle systems, there is little indication that such a
system was reduced to practice. There are significant challenges to such an implementation:
●● There are two types of particles needed to possess opposite charges to respond to the applied field properly. Such
opposite charges would attract, so that irreversible particle flocculation was a serious issue.
●● The electrophoretic mobilities of the particles would need to be made stable, and any charging agents within
the fluid compatible with both types of particles.
●● This two-particle system would need to be compatible with the microencapsulation process.
Honeyman and coworkers developed a means of grafting polymers onto the colloid surface, which achieved these
goals [87]. They first attached a polymerizable or polymerization-initiating group to the particle, then reacted with
one or more polymerizable species. These secondary polymers could comprise branched polymer chains, which
would present a barrier retarding the flocculation of oppositely-charged particles. These polymers could also
incorporate charged or chargeable groups. Since the polymers were chemically bonded to the particle surface,
they would be much more stable over time previous methods of merely physabsorbing polymers onto a surface.
Achieving a two-particle system resulted in a dramatic increase in display brightness compared to the single-
particle/dye system. As described in the following section, carefully engineered microcapsules were equally
important in improving device optics.
1.12 Microencapsulation Breakthrough
While the microcapsules used by E Ink promised to resolve many of the instabilities found in conventional EPD
displays, they introduced another problem regarding reduced contrast and high switching voltages. The following
Figures 1.14–1.16 can be used to understand the source of these issues [80]:
200 μm
Figure 1.14 Microphotograph of Microcapsules in blue state [112].
200 μm
Figure 1.15 Microphotograph of Microcapsules in white state. From SID 1997 Digest paper [112].
1.13 Image Retentio 21
Figure 1.16 Largest capsules are on the order of 100 μm. From 1998 Digest paper [80] Drzaic P, et.al, 1998 / John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
●● There is a wide distribution of microcapsule sizes. Since the particles are rigid, they tend to layer on top of each
other, increasing the cell gap across the film. This increased cell gap raises the total voltage required to switch.
●● The rigid particles do not close pack. There are large gaps between microcapsules in which no switching occurs.
These optically “dead” areas do not switch between light or dark states and degrade brightness and contrast.
●● The distribution of the electrophoretic particles within the microcapsule is not uniform. Particularly in the dark
state, the centers of the microcapsules showed larger optical contrast than the edges, which did not switch to
the same degree.
Loxley and colleagues deftly resolved many of these issues by introducing microencapsulation chemistries to
make the microcapsule walls compliant and developing a coating formulation to deposit a monolayer of capsules
in an aqueous binder [89]. As the coating dried, surface tension pulled the microcapsules together. The compliant
sidewalls enable the microcapsules to close pack, with minimal gaps between capsules. Additionally, the sidewalls
between neighboring capsules take on a more vertical profile, which minimizes any curvature-induced packing
issues in the microcapsules.
Figure 1.17 shows a schematic-view of the close packed capsules in a complete display. Figure 1.18 shows a top
view of the microcapsules, with each square spaced at 200 ppi (127 μm on a side). Switching voltages of ±15 V
became much more compatible with active-matrix backplanes [90].
The photograph also illustrates another key feature of this formulation. The size of the microcapsules does not
directly define the achievable resolution of the display. It is seen that with a given microcapsule, part of the micro-
capsule can be switched dark, and the remaining part light, depending on the field applied by adjacent electrodes.
As such, high-resolution images can be rendered.
1.13 Image Retention
One of the potential advantages of microencapsulated EPD systems is that the display’s image can be retained for
long periods. While this phenomenon had been noted in the early EPD work, the controlling factors were not fully
understood. Sedimentation due to gravity was recognized as a cause of images fading over time, particularly
severe in high-density particles such as titanium dioxide. Coating the particles with polymer could reduce their
density somewhat.
Ink Capsule Close-up Figure 1.17 Schematic cross-section of microcapsules

e-Paper display.
(+)White Pigment
Clear fluid
(–) Black
Pigment PET
ITO
Ink
Layer
Adhesive
Rear
Electrode
Figure 1.18 Each square is 127 μm on a side.

From Bouchard 2004 [88].
As mentioned previously, Ota and Novotny and Hopper’s publications attributed memory effects to van der
Waals and electrostatic attractive force between the pigment particles and the electrode. In principle, the particle
surfaces could be modified to enable sufficient attractive forces to counteract sedimentation forces. Still, the real-
ity is that it is challenging to alter the particles to weakly and reversibly flocculate this way. In a two-particle sys-
tem, the problems become even more serious.
Webber developed stable and reversible image stability for two particle systems [91]. Webber discovered that
adding an oil-soluble high molecular weight polymer (>20 000) to the electrophoretic fluid can dramatically
increase image stability without increasing the fluid viscosity. If the polymer is non-absorbing onto the particle
surfaces, the well-known phenomenon of depletion flocculation will create osmostic pressure between the parti-
cles and induce soft flocculation [92]. Webber demonstrated image stability of 106 seconds in a black and white
system (Figure 1.19).
1.14 Active-Matrix Compatibilit 23
Figure 1.19 Lightness (L*) as a function of time (t). 80

Lightness states were achieved from different starting
lightness states as indicated by the notation b → w, w → g,
etc. The display was unpowered after completion of the b->w
optical change, i.e. t>0.3 s [91] / John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 65
w->g
50
L*
b->g
g->g
35
w->b
20
10–2 10–1 100 101 102 103 104 105 106
t (s)
1.14 Active-Matrix Compatibility
High-resolution images for EPDs require an active matrix backplane for addressing. Moreover, to fulfill the vision
of “radio paper,” it seemed important that the active matrix backplane was scalable, flexible, and ultimately print-
able. Fortunately, silicon-based TFT arrays were becoming available, and new flexible and printable technologies
were on the horizon.
The first achievement of a silicon TFT, matrix-addressed EPD, was made in late 1999. Bob Wisnieff of IBM
provided to E Ink some active-matrix panels designed for use in LCDs that would likely be compatible with the
EPD material. This initial demonstration led to a successful collaboration with IBM, resulting in a 2001 report of
active-matrix driven EPDs with high pixel counts.ii Just as importantly, these prototypes demonstrated compati-
bility with technology already being deployed in the massive liquid crystal display industry [93].
In 2001 the engineers at E Ink further demonstrated microencapsulated EPD display driven by two other flexi-
ble active-matrix panels.
●● Using facilities at Princeton University, Chen designed and fabricated an a-Si TFT array on a flexible stainless
steel backplane. The resulting display is the first example of a flexible a-Si microencapsulated EPD array [94].
●● In collaboration with Lucent/Bell Labs, a 16 × 16 TFT array was built using organic transistors fabricated using
a stamp-transfer methods [95,96]. The resulting array was the first example of using organic semiconductors to
fabricate a flexible display. This achievement gained international attention, winning the American Chemical
Society Team Innovation award in 2002 and is designated as an “Editor’s Choice Best-of-the-Best” R&D100
award from R&D Magazine in 2001.
After this basic active-matrix compatibility was demonstrated, custom electronic controllers and backplane
designs enabled low power driving of high-resolution panels. Early work leveraged existing AMLCD TFT back-
plane architectures, using specialized controllers to interface with the panel drivers, and providing specialized
pixel-level voltage pulses unique to the E Ink EPD material [97]. Gates et al. described an improved controller for
EPD that elegantly repurposed the 16 bit wide LCD interface used for driving color panels to two 8-bit representa-
tions of the current and to-be-updated EPD pixel gray levels. The display subsystem was also shut off between
updates, allowing for ultra-low power operation due to the EPD image stability [97,98].
ii The E Ink-IBM collaboration was mentioned briefly in a 2000 article in the Wall Street Journal. Interestingly, the reporter noted
that IBM had a longstanding interest in newspapers, and was “supplying E Ink with millions of its laptop transistors for testing.”
A. Klein, “Will the Future Be Written in E-Ink?,” The Wall Street Journal, pp. 1–4, 04 Jan 2000.
The collaboration with Philips Corporation was critical for the successful evolution of the E Ink displays. Many
such improvements are described in the paper by Henzen et al. [98]. EPD-specific backplane modifications
included two series transistors per pixel to enable large swing voltages, an enlarged storage capacitor to suppress
kickback effects, and the adoption of a thick acrylate coating as an inner-layer dielectric to create a field-shielded
pixel design. The Philips collaboration included a team from the Netherlands (Alex Henzen, Jan van de Kamer,
Neculai Aileni, Roger Delnoij, Guofu Zhou, Mark Johnson), and Japan (Michael Pitt, Masaru Yasui, Tadao
Nakamura, Tomohiro Tsuji).
1.14.1 Reproducible Gray Scale

Relying only on halftones for grayscale limits displaying images at high resolution. Microencapsulated EPD sys-
tems can partially switch between black and white states by applying an impulse (voltage*time) less than required
to fully switch the pixel state. In principle, a large number of grayscales can be achieved this way. The challenge
is that the impulse needed to achieve a specific gray level depends on the prior state of the display. If there is a set
of pixels showing white, some showing black, and some showing a certain gray, the impulse to switch to another
gray level will be different for each prior state.
Moreover, each pixel can have a somewhat different internal distribution of particles, depending on the history,
even at the same nominal gray level. As more and more switching events take place, greater variations are built
into each pixel, which appears in varying gray levels to the viewer. The pixels can be reset to a common starting
state by applying a series of strong impulses, but the viewer sees these reset pulses as annoying flashes.
Amundson, Zehner, and coworkers demonstrated that it is possible to achieve reliable 4-bit (16 level) grayscale
using an algorithm that tracks the history of each pixel’s switching for a period of time, applying an impulse based
on that history and the target gray level [99]. Through this approach and further application of other pulse wave-
forms, reasonably accurate 2-bit (4 gray level) images could be achieved without visible flashing. This capability
was extended to 16 levels in 2009 [100].
1.14.2 Overcoming “kickback” Phenomena

Since the early days of electrophoretic displays; it was known that charged species besides the pigments within the
electrophoretic fluid could affect the performance of the displays. For the microencapsulated EPD, there is the
additional complication that the “external phase” (polymer outside of the microcapsules) can also contain mobile
ions, leading to deleterious phenomena due to time-dependent polarization that external phase. This polarization
can lead to phenomena where the switching characteristics depend on the time between pulses, or where the
image slowly erases over time due to this polarization. However, work by Cao, Danner, and others showed that
careful selection of the external phase chemistry could prevent these phenomena from occurring, leading to pre-
dictable switching and long-term stable images [101,102]. The mechanism why kickback occurs and the wave-
form for alleviating this phenomenon will be described in more detail in Chapters 2 and 3, respectively.
1.14.3 EPD Panel Manufacturing

Unlike liquid crystal displays, microencapsulated EPDs required the development of several new manufacturing
techniques. These include:
●● volume production of electrophoretic suspension with all necessary pigment modifications and additives and
incorporation of this fluid into a coatable microcapsule suspension
●● roll-to-roll coating
●● lamination to mechanical protection layer to enable handling
1.15 Electronic Book Products, and E Ink Merge 25
Figure 1.20 Encapsulation construction with [98] / Protective sheet

John Wiely & Sons, Inc.
Edge seal
E Ink base layer
epoxy
Lamination adhesive
TFT backplane (Glass)
●● creating an aperture through the electro-optical material to allow interconnection to a backplane

●● mechanical protection layers, and
●● edge sealing to protect the microencapsulated EPD from water and humidity
Some engineers responsible for these essential practical advances include Duthaler, Danner, Zehner, Steiner,
Doshi, Geramita, Valianatos, LeCain, and others [89,98,103] (Figure 1.20).
1.15 Electronic Book Products, and E Ink Merger
The first EPD-based electronic reader, The Sony Librie EBR 1000, was introduced for sale in Japan in April
2004 [104]. The device was developed through a collaboration between Sony, E Ink, Philips, and Toppan
Printing.
The device used a proprietary Sony eBook format. Content could only be purchased from content providers
like Publishing Link via a PC and then transferred to the Libre by USB cable or memory stick. Digital rights
management built into the system allowed for content to be accessible for 60 days, after which it expired and
became unreadable. No support for pdf or other ebook formats was enabled. The device opened to middling
reviews, in large part due to these content-based restrictions. While the screen appearance was well-received,
many complained about the slow device interface, limited book offering, and the forced erasure of
content [105].
Over the next decade, Sony released a series of upgraded readers and started marketing them outside of Japan
in 2006. The devices never reached the volumes expected for such a product, and Sony exited the e-reader market
entirely in 2014 [106,107].
The Amazon Kindle was released in November 2007 and set the stage for a flourishing ebook ecosystem. This
first device was a 6″ diagonal display, 800 × 600 @167 pixels per inch, and four gray levels per pixel. E Ink provided
the microencapsulated electrophoretic material, the packaging design, and the driving scheme. Toppan printing
mass-produced the coating and conversion into sheet form the moisture-barrier protective sheet. Philips devel-
oped the backplane, timing controller, and other ICs, and assembled the final module. Amazon sold the Kindle
reader provided a large library of content for sale, and made it easy for customers to access that content. Year-by-
year improvements led to greater adoption and increasing sales of e-paper displays [107].
Despite the technical and product success of the Kindle, E Ink, the company was burdened by significant debt.
The company had invested in many years of technology and business development. Its large area sign business
only achieved modest success, and the Libre did not become a breakout product. Rather than maintain status as
a standalone company, E Ink was sold to the Taiwanese Company Prime View International (PVI) in 2009 to
enable further commercialization of the EPD technology [108]. Since then, PVI has renamed itself E Ink Holdings
and continues to develop electronic ink for ebooks, signage, and other products. Later on, SiPix was merged with
E Ink, with the microcup embossing technology enhancing the realization of high-performance color
e-paper [109,110].
1.16 Summary
As is true for many technologies, the path for success for the electronic paper was not predictable. Periods of rapid
technical progress were followed by periods of little interest due to combinations of application status, competi-
tive technologies, and the commercial and financial landscape. Still, the rise, fall, and rise of electronic ink pro-
vides a nice success story for a technology that was envisioned to overcome a limitation of electronic displays and
eventually managed to do just that.
The development of electronic paper did not end with the introduction of the Kindle. The remaining chapters
of this book describe many exciting areas of development in this important field.
Acknowledgments
PSD is grateful for the assistance of Rob Zehner, Guy Danner, Howie Honeyman, Rich Webber, Glen Crossley,
Andrew Loxely, and Gregg Duthaler for useful discussions, and in proofreading the chapter.
BRY is grateful for the assistance of Guangyou Liu, Mingyang Yang, Zheng Zeng, Linyu Song, Hao Shu, Yifan
Gu, Yunhe Liu, Jie Liu, Xinzao Wu for manuscript preparation and in proofreading the chapters.
AC would like to acknowledge Joel Pollack for oral accounts of early development activities on Electrophoretic
Display Technology at various Xerox R&D Centers up to mid-1970; and Warren Jackson for facilitating fact-checks
from Xerox document archives.
References
1 Heikenfeld, J., Drzaic, P., Yeo, J. et al. (2011). Review paper: a critical review of the present and future prospects for
electronic paper. J. Soc. Inf. Disp. 19(2): 129–156.
2 Eshkalak, S.K., Khatibzadeh, M., Kowsari, E. et al. (2019). Overview of electronic ink and methods of production
for use in electronic displays. Opt. Laser Technol. 117: 38–51.
3 http://paperproject.org/semgallery/semgallery1a.html#imagetop.
4 Smith, E., Heckaman, R.L., Lang, K. et al. (2020). Evaluating display color capability. Inf. Disp. 36(5): 9–15.
5 https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Halftoningcolor.svg.
6 https://inkjetinsight.com/knowledge-base/high-speed-inkjet-devices-take-on-commercial-print-quality.
7 https://inkjetinsight.com/knowledge-base/understanding-gray-areas-inkjet.
8 The International Committee for Display Metrology, (2012). Information Display Measurement Standard, v 1.03, 477.
SID Publishers.
9 Shu, Y., Hagedon, M., and Heikenfeld, J. (2011). Light out-coupling for reflective displays: simple geometrical
model, MATLAB simulation, and experimental validation. J. Disp. Technol. 7(9): 473–477.
10 Robert, F., Sri, P., Robert, H. et al. (2018). 48-2: Electronic paper 2.0: frustrated eTIR as a path to color and video.
In: SID Symposium Digest of Technical Papers, 49(1): 630–632.
11 Fleming, R., Kazlas, P., Johansson, T. et al. (2019). 36-3: Tablet-size eTIR display for low-power ePaper applications
with color video capability. In: SID Symposium Digest of Technical Papers, 50(1): 505–508.
12 Mossman, M.A., Whitehead, L.A., and Rao, S.P. (2002). P-83: Grey scale control of TIR using electrophoresis of
sub-optical pigment particles. SID Symp. Dig. Tech. Pap. 33(1): 522–525.
13 Satoshi, N., Kodama, Y. et al. (2013). 6.1: Invited paper: electronic paper system using high resolution
electrophoretic display. SID Symp. Dig. Tech. Pap. 44(1): 34–37.
14 Lee, J.H., Horiuchi, T., and Saito, R. (2007). Confined-error-diffusion algorithm for flat-panel display.
J. Soc. Inf. Disp. 15: 507–518.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Sicilien gebracht. Der Corduan, der Saffian, das Chagrinleder und
die Juchten gaben ein vortreffliches Material für Bucheinbände ab.
Der Corduan (so nach der Stadt Cordova, von den Franzosen
Maroquin, von den Engländern Morocco genannt) ist ein narbiges
Ziegenleder, von dem sich der Saffian nur durch seine Glätte
unterscheidet. Der Chagrin (persisch Sagre) ist wie mit runden
Körnchen übersät, was durch Hineintreten von Samenkörnern
hervorgebracht wird. Juchten ist meist Rinds- oder Pferdeleder,
welches mit Laugen, Beizen und Farbstoffen behandelt und durch
Birkenöl geschmeidig gemacht wird.
Durch Verzierungen wurden die Lederflächen belebt, in der

ältesten Zeit sind diese gewöhnlich in das Leder eingeschnitten und
die vertieften Stellen mit Farbe ausgemalt. Der Grund wird öfters
punktiert oder mit kleinen eingetriebenen Verzierungen in Kreisform
ausgefüllt. Das feuchte Leder wurde auch mit dem Modellier-Eisen
plastisch bearbeitet und reiche Figurenbilder hergestellt. Manchmal
kam die Schrotmanier zur Anwendung. Von den mit Stanzen und
Rollen eingepressten Ornamenten wurde ein sehr freigebiger
Gebrauch gemacht. Die Ecken waren gewöhnlich mit, meist
durchbrochenen, Metallbeschlägen versehen. Spangen (Klausuren,
Schleissen), teils von Leder, teils von Metall, hielten die Deckel
zusammen. Die grossen Folianten waren ungemein schwer, ruhten
gewöhnlich auf Schrägpulten und waren oft in den Bibliotheken an
Ketten gelegt.
Den Übergang zur Renaissancezeit bilden

Die Einbände des
die Arbeiten, welche der ungarische König König Matthias
Matthias Corvinus in seiner ausgezeichneten Corvinus.
Bibliothek zu Ofen gesammelt hatte. Sämtliche
Bücher dieser Bibliothek, für welche jährlich 33000 Dukaten
verwendet wurden, wurden in Sammet oder Leder gebunden, mit
goldenen oder silbernen Spangen und mit dem Wappen des Königs
geschmückt. Dreissig Schreiber und Maler, darunter bedeutende
Künstler, waren regelmässig für die Bibliothek beschäftigt.
DIE LITTERARISCHE PRODUKTION[8]. Es Segensreicher

ist nicht die Aufgabe eines Handbuches der Einfluss der
Geschichte der Buchdruckerkunst, die Werke alle Buch-
druckerkunst.
aufzuzählen, welche den Pressen ihr Dasein
verdanken, noch weniger eine Kritik zu üben, aber es dürfte doch
geboten sein, in aller Kürze zu überblicken, in welcher Weise die
Presse und der Buchhandel sich bei der Verbreitung der
Erzeugnisse des Geistes in der ersten Zeit — der Periode der
Wiegendrucke (Inkunabeln) — beteiligten[9].
Musste auch die Presse in ihren Anfängen vielfach der

mystischen Schwärmerei, der pedantischen Scholastik und
spitzfindigen Dialektik sowie dem Aberglauben und der
Charlatanerie dienen, so dauerte es doch nicht lange, bis ihr
segensreicher Einfluss sich auf das ganze wissenschaftliche und
Kulturleben geltend machte. In allen Fächern entbrannte ein
Wettkampf der Gelehrten und Kunstverständigen, um durch die
Presse ihre Kenntnisse, Erfahrungen und Entdeckungen weiter zu
verbreiten, Irrtümer aufzuklären und die Fesseln des Wahnes zu
sprengen.
Als die segensreichste Wirkung der

Verbreitung der
Erfindung der Buchdruckerkunst ist die rasche heil. Schriften.
Durchführung der Reformation zu bezeichnen.
Die Presse bemächtigte sich sofort der heiligen Schriften, und wie
schon oben berichtet wurde waren nicht weniger als drei Ausgaben
der lateinischen Bibel die Hauptwerke des Erfinders und seiner
Geschäfts-Nachfolger. Zu diesen kamen die weiteren Bibel-
Ausgaben des Mentelin und des Eggesteyn in Strassburg, des
Günther Zainer und des Ant. Sorg in Augsburg, des Bernh. Richel in
Basel, des Ulrich Zell und des Nik. Götz in Köln, des Sweynheim und
Pannartz in Rom, des Sensenschmid und der Koberger in Nürnberg.
In Paris erschien die Bibel 1476, in Venedig 1475, in Neapel 1476;
deutsche Bibeln wurden verbreitet in Strassburg 1466, in Augsburg
1469, in Nürnberg 1471; Ausgaben in französischer, italienischer,
spanischer und holländischer Sprache gab es in den siebenziger
Jahren; plattdeutsche in Köln 1480, in Lübeck 1494; englische,
dänische, schwedische und polnische Bibeln folgten zu Anfang des
xvi. Jahrhunderts. Wie es die lateinisch gedruckte Bibel war, welche
Luther das Licht anzündete, so war es wieder die deutsch gedruckte
Bibel in Luthers unübertroffener Übersetzung, die im Verein mit
seinen eigenen Schriften und denen Philipp Melanchthons, Ullrich
Zwinglis, Joh. Calvins, John Knox' und anderer Reformatoren, unter
das Volk ein helles, nicht mehr zu verlöschendes Licht verbreiten.
Neben der Bibel wurden namentlich die

Die Kirchenväter
Kirchenväter in korrekten und schönen und Scholastiker.
Ausgaben gedruckt, als: Lactantius, Augustinus,
Eusebius, Nemesius, Clemens von Alexandrien u. a. War der Nutzen
dieser und ähnlicher Werke für die Wissenschaft auch kein
durchweg unzweifelhafter, so wurde durch sie doch manche
nützliche Kenntnis verbreitet. Selbst die Häupter der Scholastik
Thomas von Aquino, Michael Scotus, Albertus Magnus blieben nicht
ohne fruchtbringende Anregungen, nicht zu vergessen Roger Baco.
Gross waren die Fortschritte auf dem
Gebiete der klassischen Litteratur und der Die klassische
Philologie. Italien, dessen Boden am besten Litteratur.
vorgeebnet war, ging voran; es folgten in
ruhmwürdiger Weise namentlich Frankreich und die Niederlande.
Zuerst kamen die römischen Klassiker an die Reihe, dann die
griechischen in lateinischer Übersetzung, schliesslich die Ausgaben
in der griechischen Ursprache. Die ersten Förderungsmittel der
Linguistik waren die Donate, denen dann viele andere Grammatiken
folgten.
Die Zahl der Klassiker-Ausgaben und der Kommentare war eine

bedeutende. Den Anfang machte Cicero de officiis (1465 bei Fust
und Schöffer); bis zum Jahre 1500 erschienen verschiedene Werke
Ciceros zusammen in über 100 Ausgaben. Den Vorrang in dem
Klassikerdruck behauptete Venedig, dann folgten Rom, Florenz,
Mailand, Neapel, Bologna, Paris, Köln, Augsburg, Nürnberg, Ulm.
Die römischen Dichter erschienen fast alle in den ersten 25 Jahren
der Kunst, die griechischen in den letzten Dezennien des xv. und in
den ersten des xvi. Jahrhunderts. Der Lieblingsdichter war Virgil
(1469 bei Sweynheim), von welchem im Jahre 1500 schon siebenzig
Ausgaben existierten.
Unter den Philosophen und

Philosophen und
Naturforschern stand Aristoteles Naturforscher.
begreiflicherweise obenan. Seine Werke
erschienen, jedoch sehr entstellt, in lateinischer Übersetzung nach
syrischen oder arabischen Bearbeitungen; eine vollständige
lateinische Ausgabe nach dem Originale erblickte erst 1473 das
Licht durch Andreas de Asola in Venedig; die erste Original-Ausgabe
brachte Aldus Manutius (1495-1498) in 5 Bänden; Plato fand erst
später Anerkennung.
Auch die Historiker, Geographen und Mathematiker der

Alten wurden verbreitet. Bemerkenswert sind namentlich die
Ausgaben des Ptolomäus mit 27 grossen in Kupfer gestochenen
Karten von Arnold Buckink e Germania und des Euklid in der
prachtvollen Ausstattung durch Ratdolt (1482).
Dass die Typographie sich auch der neuen

Die Reise-
Erd- und Reisebeschreibung zuwendete, war beschreibung.
schon durch die einflussreichen Ereignisse der
Kreuzzüge und der grossen Entdeckungen gegeben. Die Kreuzzüge
hatten nicht nur die Streiter für die Kirche massenhaft in Bewegung
gesetzt, sondern auch manche friedliche und wissbegierige
Reiselustige, Minstrels und auch Abenteurer aller Art wurden nach
dem Orient gelockt. Dadurch entstanden nicht nur jene romantischen
Legenden von dem heiligen Lande, von den Heldenthaten und
Abenteuern der Ritter, sondern auch Beschreibungen von Reisen
und Erlebnissen auf letzteren. Öfters gingen auch Gesandtschaften
an die Herrscher Asiens. Berühmt geworden vor allen Reisenden in
Asien ist der Venetianer Marco Polo. Eine italienische Ausgabe
seiner Reisen ist erst aus dem Jahre 1496 bekannt; ob eine frühere
existierte, weiss man nicht, eine deutsche, nach einer lateinischen
Ausgabe veranstaltete Übertragung war schon 1477 vorhanden. Die
Reise Bernh. Breydenbachs fand grossen Anklang.
Eine noch grössere Bedeutung für die

Die Entdecker.
geographische Litteratur als die Kreuzzüge hatten
die grossen Entdeckungen von Christoph
Columbus, Amerigo Vespuzzi, Fernando Cortez in Amerika, sowie
von Vasco de Gama, Albuquerque in Afrika und Indien. Berichte über
diese Entdeckungen lieferten teils die Entdecker selbst, teils Andere.
Bedeutend für die Kosmographie und die Kartographie war Martin
Behaim aus Nürnberg (1436-1507).
Weniger anziehend waren die

Die Chroniken.
Erscheinungen auf dem Gebiete der
Geschichte. Die Annalen und Chroniken waren
meist trockene kritiklose Aufzählungen von Daten, oder mehr oder
weniger dichterisch ausgeschmückte Erzählungen von den
Heldenthaten der Ritter. Durch ihre reiche Illustrierung
epochemachend war die Schedelsche Chronik.
Unter den Werken der Jurisprudenz waren

Die juristische
namentlich die Institutiones juris Justiniani, zuerst Litteratur.
von Schöffer 1468 gedruckt, welche in
zahlreichen Ausgaben verbreitet wurden.
Die Werke auf dem Gebiete der gesamten

Die Naturwissen-
Naturwissenschaften und der Heilkunde schaften und die
blieben zumeist ohne grossen Wert. Den Anfang Heilkunde.
machte auch hier der Druck der Schriften der
alten römischen, griechischen und arabischen Ärzte, namentlich des
sogenannten Fürsten der Ärzte, Avicenna, von dessen Schriften
bereits vor 1500 mehr als 25 Ausgaben im Druck erschienen waren.
Bedeutende wissenschaftliche Ausbeute geben sie nicht. Leerer
Dogmatismus, Alchemismus und Astrologismus hemmten die freie
Forschung. Die grossen geographischen Entdeckungen sollten
jedoch auch nicht ohne wohlthätigen Einfluss auf die
Naturwissenschaft und ihre Litteratur bleiben, man lernte neue
Pflanzen, neue Heilmittel und leider auch neue Krankheiten kennen.
Es entstanden hierdurch die zahlreichen mit Illustrationen
geschmückten Kräuterbücher und Gärten der Gesundheit.
Italien hatte, wie oben schon erwähnt wurde,

Die Poesie.
noch vor der Erfindung der Buchdruckerkunst
seine grossen Dichter: Dante Alighieri,
Boccaccio und Petrarca hervorgebracht. Dantes Divina commedia
wurde zum erstenmale 1472 in Foligno gedruckt; seine
gesammelten Gedichte 1500. Boccaccios Decamerone erschien
schon 1470 und dann in sehr vielen Ausgaben, unter welchen die
berühmte Valdarfersche (1471). Die erste Gesamtausgabe des
Boccaccio datiert aus dem Jahre 1490. Petrarcas Sonetti e trionfi
wurden 1471 durch den Druck veröffentlicht.
An die Meisterwerke der Poesie Italiens reichen die

dichterischen Erzeugnisse der anderen Länder nicht heran. Mit
wenigen Ausnahmen bewegen sich diese in der breiten, epischen
Romantik des Rittertums, in den Heldenliedern, in den lyrisch-
elegischen Gesängen der Troubadours und Minnesänger, in den,
teils scherzhaften, teils ernsten Volksliedern oder in langweiligen
didaktischen Gedichten. Unter den humoristischen und satirischen
Schriften macht namentlich Sebastian Brants Narrenschiff mit seinen
Illustrationen Epoche.
Der BUCHHANDEL. Mit den steigenden

Trennung der
Bedürfnissen der Lesewelt und der Verbreitung Buchdruckerei
der Pressen selbst nach kleineren Städten vom Buchhandel.
musste die Vereinigung des Schriftgiessers,
Buchdruckers, Verlegers und Händlers in einer Person von selbst
fallen und die einzelnen Geschäftszweige lösten sich nach und nach
vom Stamme ab. Zuerst musste der Buchdrucker-Verleger bei der
Schwierigkeit des Betriebs Persönlichkeiten suchen, die seine
Fabrikate an das Publikum verhandelten. So nahmen schon Peter
Schöffer den Conrad Henliff; Joh. Mentel den Adolf Rusch als
Bevollmächtigte und Teilnehmer an, welche weite Reisen machten,
um die Bücher an den Mann zu bringen, wozu sie sich auch der
Kaufleute bedienten, die Bücher zugleich mit anderen Waren
führten. Neben dem kaufmännisch organisierten Vertrieb fand auch
das Kolportieren, das Webern, statt. Schon im xv. Jahrhundert
fanden sich bedeutende Buchhändler. Niederlagen wurden an den
Knotenpunkten des Verkehrs errichtet, und gegen Ende des
Jahrhunderts war der Buchhandel in Venedig, Lyon, Frankfurt am
Main schon von grosser Bedeutung. Auch Köln war, wenn als
Verlagsplatz auch unter dem drückenden Einfluss der geistlichen
Bevormundung stehend, ein wichtiger Ort namentlich für die
Vermittelung des Absatzes nach den reichen Niederlanden, wo die
Buchhändler der angesehenen St. Lucas-Gilde angehörten, und
nach England, wo indes der Buchhandel sich nur langsam
entwickelte, da es keine Bücher in Tausch anzubieten hatte. Um
bedeutende Werke erscheinen lassen zu können, wurde öfters zur
Association unter Buchdruckern und Buchhändlern geschritten. Man
teilte dann gewöhnlich die Auflagen.
Als die Bedeutung der neuen Kunst den

Die Zensur.
geistlichen und weltlichen Behörden klar
geworden war, fand sich, als unwillkommener
Gast, baldigst die Zensur ein, schon in den sechziger Jahren in
Köln, später in Mainz. Die Formel in Köln lautete: admissum ac
approbatum ab alma universitate Coloniensi. Ob jedoch vom Beginn
ab die Einholung der Approbation ein Zwang war, oder ob diese
mehr als eine Empfehlung nachgesucht wurde, ist nicht ganz klar.
Gegen das Ende des xv. Jahrh. findet man jedoch in allen deutschen
Erzdiözesen eine wirkliche geistliche Zensur eingeführt.
[1] Unter den eingangs erwähnten Werken enthalten namentlich

die von W. Blades und Th. de Vinne Beachtenswertes über die
ältere Technik.
[2] Eigentliche Beschreibung aller Stände auf Erden etc. Frankfurt
a. M. 1568. Mit Stichen von Amann und Versen von Hans
Sachssen.
[3] Der Verlagsbuchhändler und Redacteur H. Klemm in Dresden,
der mit grossen Kosten in einer verhältnismässig sehr kurzen Zeit
eine bedeutende Anzahl typographischer Seltenheiten sammelte,
hat auch die in einem Keller des früheren Hofes „Zum Jungen“ in
Mainz aufgefundenen Bruchstücke einer Schraubenpresse
erworben, von welchen einerseits (vergl. K. Klein, Über
Gutenberg und das im ersten Druckhause aufgefundene
Fragment der ersten Druckerpresse. Mit 2 Abbd. Mainz 1851)
angenommen wird, dass sie der „ersten“, noch aus Strassburg
stammenden Presse Gutenbergs angehörten, was andererseits
angezweifelt wird, und zwar namentlich auf Grund der Inschrift J.
MCDXLI G., die in den erhaltenen Oberbalken eingeschnitten ist,
indem man sowohl an der Jahreszahl und der ungewohnten Art
diese zu schreiben (CD statt CCCC) als auch an den römischen
Buchstaben J. G. Anstoss nimmt. Herr Klemm hat die Presse
nach seinen Annahmen vervollständigen lassen. Wie nahe er,
namentlich in Betreff des, aus vier Stücken sinnreich konstruierten
Rahmens, der sich leicht für verschiedene Formate einrichten
lässt, der Wirklichkeit gekommen, ist ja nicht zu entscheiden.
Nach H. Klemms Konjektur ist mit den „vier Stücken“, um deren
Auseinandernahme (vergl. S. 25) man bei Dritzehns Tod so sehr
besorgt war, ein solcher Rahmen gemeint.
[4] De la Lande, Art de faire le Papier. 2. Ed. Paris 1820. — De
la Lande, Art de faire le parchemin. Paris 1762. (Beide Werke
auch deutsch.) — G. Peignot, Essai sur l'hist. du parchemin et
du velin. Paris 1812. — J. D. F. Sotzmann, Über ältere
Papierfabrikation. Leipzig 1846 (Serapeum). — Über
Papierzeichen vergl. die in der Einführung erwähnten Werke von
Sotheby und Weigel sowie Ames, Typogr. Antiquities, ferner: G.
Fischer, Versuch die Papierzeichen als Kennzeichen etc.
anzuwenden. Nürnberg 1804; La Serna Santander, Les livres
impr. dans le XV Siècle. Brüssel 1803 (Suppl. zu der
Beschreibung der Bibliothek des Verfassers). Über Papierzeichen
in Italien: Esame sui principii della etc. typogr. Lucca 1797.
[5] Mit dem tierischen Pergament ist nicht zu verwechseln das
Pergamentpapier (vegetabilische Pergament), das in der neueren
Zeit eine ziemlich grosse Verwendung findet.
[6] D. E. Beyschlag, Beiträge zur Kunstgesch. von Nördlingen.
Heft IV u. V. Nördlingen 1798-1801.
[7] Rich. Steche, Zur Geschichte des Bucheinbandes. (Archiv z.
G. d. Buchh. I.) Leipzig 1878. — G. Peignot, Essai etc. sur la
reliure des livres. Dijon 1834. — J. Cundall, On bookbinding
ancient and modern. London 1880. — Monuments inédits ou peu
connus, faisant partie du Cabinet du G. Libri. London 1864. — M.
Michel, La relieure française depuis l'invention de l'impr. Paris
1880.
[8] Von den vielen bibliographischen Werken, welche die früheren
Erzeugnisse der Presse verzeichnen und zumteil näher
beschreiben, nennen wir nur einige wenige der hervorragendsten
und vollständigsten, da kaum anzunehmen ist, dass viele der dem
Buchdruckfach angehörenden Leser dieses Handbuches in
solchen Werken Belehrung suchen werden, und andere, dem
Litteraten- und Buchhändlerberufe sich widmende, die betreffende
Litteratur kennen:
Mich. Maittaire, Annales typographici ab artis inventæ origine ad

Annum MD. (Die bis zum Jahr 1500 erschienenen Werke
bezeichnet man im engeren Sinn als Wiegendrucke, Inkunabeln.)
Tom. I des ganzen Werkes. Haag 1719, vervollständigt durch die
Ed. nova (als Tom. IV). Amsterdam 1733. — Georg Wolfg.
Panzer, Ann. typ. ab etc. ad annum MDCXXXVI. 11 Bände.
Nürnberg 1793-1803. — Ludw. Hain, Repertorium Bibliogr. ab
etc. usque ad annum MD. Stuttgart 1826-1838. — J. Ch. Brunet,
Manuel du libraire et de l'amateur de Livres. 5. Aufl. 6 vols. Paris
1860 u. flg. — J. G. Th. Grässe, Trésor de livres rares et
précieux. Dresden 1859 u. flg. Des näheren verweisen wir auf Dr.
Julius Petzholdt, Bibliotheca Bibliographica, Kritisches
Verzeichnis der das Gesamtgebiet der Bibliographie betreffenden
Litteratur des In- und Auslandes. 938 S. gr. 8. Der Umfang
beweist schon den enormen Reichtum dieser Litteratur.
[9] Ch. F. Harless, Die Litteratur der ersten hundert Jahre nach
der Erfindung der Typographie. Leipzig 1840. — A. Kirchhoff,
Die Handschriftenhändler des Mittelalters. 2. Ausg. Leipzig 1853.
— A. Kirchhoff, Beiträge zur Gesch. des deutschen Buchh. 2
Bde. Leipzig 1851-1853; weitere Beiträge 1855. — Dr. F.
Sachse, Die Anfänge der Büchercensur in Deutschland. Leipzig
1869.
[←]
ZWEITES BUCH.
GLANZPERIODE UND VERFALL
DER
BUCHDRUCKERKUNST
1500—1750.
EINFÜHRUNG IN DAS ZWEITE BUCH. [←]
IR haben in dem vorstehenden gesehen, wie

überraschend schnell die Verbreitung der
Buchdruckerkunst durch alle Länder Europas sich vollzog,
auch die Verhältnisse und Gründe kennen gelernt, welche
zu diesen ausserordentlichen Erfolgen beitrugen. Wir treten jetzt an
die zweite, die schönste, Periode der Typographie heran, in welcher
sie ihren Weltgang vollendete und in Europa zur hohen Blüte
gelangte.
Gelehrte von Ansehen wenden sich, teils direkt als praktische

Ausüber, teils indirekt als fördernde Herausgeber, Redaktoren und
Korrektoren, der Buchdruckerei zu, als dem vollendetsten Mittel,
Aufklärung überallhin zu verbreiten. Sie schaffen durch dieselbe
zahlreiche Ausgaben der Klassiker und andere Werke, deren
äussere Ausstattung mit dem inneren Wert harmoniert. Eine Anzahl
von Familien, die man als den Adel der Buchdrucker bezeichnen
kann, erwirbt durch treffliche Arbeiten Ruhm und bewahrt diesen
durch lange Reihen von Jahren. Gebildete Herrscher, in Deutschland
voran der Kaiser Maximilian i. und die sächsischen Fürsten, in
Frankreich Franz i. und fast alle seine Nachfolger, verschmähen es
nicht der Typographie und den mit ihr verwandten Gewerben ihre
persönliche Aufmerksamkeit zu schenken.
Die Buchdruckerkunst ist in den Dienst der Wissenschaft

getreten, sie ist ihr aber mehr eine sorgsame Genossin denn eine
rastlos für alles schaffende Magd.
Die schönsten Früchte der ersten Hälfte des xvi. Jahrhunderts

reifen jedoch erst durch die enge Vereinigung der Xylographie mit
der Typographie. Bedeutende Künstler, die zum Teil nur durch die
Holzschnitte ihren Ruf haben, welche, wenn nicht von ihnen selbst,
so doch unter ihrer Leitung ausgeführt wurden, widmen sich mit
Vorliebe der Illustration. So entstehen sowohl viele, heute noch
mustergiltige ganze Werke, als zahllose Einzelblätter.
Diese Hinneigung zum Holzschnitt war nicht dem Zufall oder nur
der Bequemlichkeit, für ihn zu zeichnen, zuzuschreiben, sondern sie
lag in den Verhältnissen tiefer begründet. Es konnte nicht anders
sein, als dass die Maler der Reformationszeit, welche Zeugen der
Segnungen der Erfindung Gutenbergs waren, die populärste Kunst,
die Xylographie, deren Erzeugnisse so leicht und so weit durch die
Druckerpresse verbreitet werden konnten, freudig begrüssen und
begierig eine Gelegenheit ergreifen würden, durch welche auch sie
berufen waren, an dem grossen Werke der Reformation thätig
mitzuwirken.
So wurde das Zeitalter der Reformation, wie die Gegenwart,

zugleich ein Zeitalter der Illustration und die glückliche Verbindung
von Bild und Wort hat denn auch gar viel zur schnellen Verbreitung
der Bildung durch alle Schichten beigetragen. Die Geschichte der
illustrierenden Künste, speziell der Xylographie, ist deshalb nicht von
der Geschichte der Typographie dieser Periode zu trennen.
Bei den in der Gegenwart mächtig sich kundgebenden ernsten

Bestrebungen, die zur Zeit der Renaissance bestandene innige
Verbindung der Kunst mit dem Gewerbe wieder herzustellen, musste
sich notwendigerweise auch die Aufmerksamkeit aller strebenden
Jünger Gutenbergs den goldenen Tagen der Druckkunst zuwenden.
Ehrt man auch die vorangegangenen Anfänge der druckenden

Künste als die ältesten ehrwürdigen Denkmale, verfolgt man auch
mit lebhafter Teilnahme die allmählichen Fortschritte der Kunst bis
zum Beginn des xvi. Jahrhunderts, so kann doch nur ein einseitiges
Schwärmen für die Vergangenheit in diesen Leistungen — mit
wenigen Ausnahmen — nachahmungswürdige Vorbilder erblicken.
Anders verhält es sich jedoch mit den Werken derjenigen

Periode, vor welcher wir jetzt stehen. Hier haben wir es nicht mehr
mit nur historisch interessantem oder relativ gutem zu thun, sondern
mit Erzeugnissen der besten Schriftschneider, Buchdrucker und
Holzschneider und mit meisterlichen Schöpfungen noch heute nicht
übertroffener Künstler. Die Werke der Renaissancezeit bilden einen
Born, aus dem man immer und immer schöpfen kann, ohne dass ein
Versiegen bemerkbar wäre.
Deshalb kann auch ein Zurückgreifen der Schriftschneider auf

die besten Schriften des späteren Mittelalters oder ein Hervorholen
der, lange Zeit in den Kunstsammlungen und Bibliotheken für das
grosse Publikum begraben gewesenen Ornament- oder sonstigen
Illustrations-Schätze nicht als ein Rückschritt zu etwas „veraltetem“
bezeichnet werden. Nach den Ausschreitungen über die Grenzen
des Schönen, des Zweckmässigen und der wirklichen Fortschritte
hinaus, an welche die neuere Zeit ebenso reich ist wie an wirklichen
Verbesserungen, trat das Bedürfnis ein, die ruhigen, einfachen und
doch kräftigen Formen der Glanzperiode wieder aufzusuchen, und
was die Illustration betrifft, so kehren Künstler ersten Ranges mit
Befriedigung zu der edlen einfachen Weise eines Dürer oder Holbein
zurück.
Damit sei aber nicht behauptet, dass in dieser Richtung nicht

das rechte Mass vielfach überschritten werde und dass nicht
sklavische Nachahmungssucht auf Irrwege geführt habe, aber im
grossen und ganzen bleibt es doch wahr, dass der denkende
Schriftgiesser, der illustrierende Künstler und der Typograph in der
Renaissancezeit die reichste Anregung und schönste Ermunterung
für ein gedeihliches Schaffen auf ihren Gebieten suchen können und
finden werden.
Darum bedarf es auch nicht der Entschuldigung, wenn wir bei

dieser bevorzugten Zeit und den hervorragenden Persönlichkeiten
derselben mit Vorliebe etwas länger verweilen; mussten doch gar zu
bald fast in allen Ländern die Folgen der kirchlichen und politischen
Spaltungen sich kund geben und der helle Glanz dem mehr oder
weniger tiefen Dunkel des Verfalls weichen.
Leider sollte dieser Rückfall auf das empfindlichste das

Heimatland der Erfindung treffen. Der Bauernkrieg, die langen
inneren religiösen Kämpfe, vor allem der unselige dreissigjährige
Krieg und die verwüstenden Züge der Franzosen schlugen der
geistigen Entwickelung Deutschlands und seinem nationalen
Wohlstande tiefe Wunden, die nur langsam vernarben konnten. Erst
zu Ende der vorliegenden Periode zeigten sich der aufgehende
Stern des preussischen Staates und die Anfänge der neueren
nationalen Litteratur als Vorboten des Fortschrittes auf dem Gebiete
der politischen und geistigen Machtstellung Deutschlands.
Je höher der Gipfel war, den Kunst und Bildung in Italien

erreicht hatten, um so tiefer war der Fall, der auch hier eintrat. Zu
gleicher Zeit seufzte Spanien unter dem Joche der Jesuiten und den
Greueln der, den physischen und geistigen Tod verbreitenden
Inquisition.
Frankreich musste unter politischen und Religionskämpfen

bluten, erreichte jedoch trotzdem in dieser Periode unter der
glanzvollen Regierung Ludwigs xiv. sein höchstes äusseres
Ansehen und seinen litterarischen Zenith. Infolgedessen sinkt die
Typographie hier auch nicht so schnell und erst zu einer Zeit, wo wir
bereits von einem beginnenden Wiederaufblühen in anderen
Ländern, namentlich in England, zu berichten haben.
Hier war eine Regierungsumwälzung der anderen gefolgt und

die Presse hatte in schweren Fesseln gelegen, bis gegen den
Schluss der Periode die Freiheit für immer einen festen Boden
gewann, auf dem dann auch die Buchdruckerkunst sich eben so
mächtig wie schnell entfaltete.
Im skandinavischen Norden wüteten die verwandten Stämme

gegen einander und Schweden verzehrte ausserdem seine Kräfte in
dem dreissigjährigen Krieg und in den Kämpfen mit Russland. Die
Türken überschwemmten Ungarn und Österreich. Schwere und
weitverbreitete Seuchen glichen in ihren Folgen den Kriegen.
Somit war ein grosser Teil des zweiten und des dritten
Jahrhunderts der Buchdruckerkunst eine, dieser sehr ungünstige
Zeit, in der sie nothwendigerweise leiden musste, und erst das vierte
Jahrhundert sollte sie zum neuen Glanz wieder erstehen sehen.
Werke, welche ein Gesamtbild dieser interessanten Periode der

typographischen und xylographischen Thätigkeit geben, oder auch
nur die Geschichte der einzelnen Hauptländer in ihrer Totalität
schildern, besitzen wir nicht. Dagegen giebt es eine stattliche Reihe
erschöpfender Schilderungen der Wirksamkeit hervorragender
Familien oder einzelner Persönlichkeiten, welche den Kern dieser
Zeit bilden. Was die Meister der Typographie betrifft, so befindet sich
das Ausland in einer besseren Lage als Deutschland, welches nicht
einmal ein biographisch-kritisches Werk über die Familie Breitkopf
aufzuweisen hat. Es sind namentlich die Franzosen, die sich durch
solche Arbeiten Verdienste erworben haben.
Dahingegen bietet Deutschland vorzügliche Werke über seine

grossen Künstler, die auch für die Illustration thätig gewesen sind.
Solche Quellen des In- und Auslandes werden an den betreffenden
Stellen angeführt, hier sei nur der bereits eingangs erwähnten
allgemeinen Schilderungen Jackson, Chattos und Firmin Didots
gedacht, sowie des, von Dr. Rob. Dohme herausgegebenen
Kollektiv-Werkes: „Kunst und Künstler des Mittelalters und der
Neuzeit“. 5 Bde. (Leipzig 1875-1881), das kritische Würdigungen
und biographische Skizzen fast aller der Kleinmeister, die für die
Illustration so Bedeutendes geschaffen haben, enthält.
Einen grossen Vorteil bieten die Kunstverfahren der Neuzeit:

Photographie, Lichtdruck, Photolithographie und Zink-Hochätzung,
durch die Möglichkeit, mittels derselben eine Anzahl von Werken aus
der Renaissancezeit, die auf Grund ihrer Seltenheit und ihrer hohen
Preise nur einem kleinen Kreis zugänglich waren, in getreuen
Nachbildungen allgemein zu verbreiten; denn Werke, die wie R.
Weigels wertvolles „Holzschnitte berühmter Meister“ (Leipzig 1857),
vorzügliche Nachbildungen in Xylographie bringen, sind nur bei
grosser Opferwilligkeit des Verlegers möglich.
Unter den Kollektivwerken, welche durch die oben erwähnten

Verfahren eine reiche Auswahl des für den Typographen zu Studium
und Nacheiferung Geeigneten bringen, sind namentlich die von G.
Hirth in München und Leipzig herausgegebenen: „Der
Formenschatz der Renaissance 1500-1600“ und „Die
Bücherornamentik der Renaissance“ erwähnenswert.
Die Schriften der deutschen Fachgenossen aus älterer Zeit

geben in Bezug weder auf äussere noch innere Verhältnisse der
Buchdruckereien eine nennenswerte Ausbeute. Zu erwähnen sind:
J. H. G. Ernesti, „Die wol-eingerichtete Buchdruckerey“,

(Nürnberg 1721). Mit vielen deutschen, lateinischen und
orientalischen Schriften.
Chr. Fr. Gessner, „Die so nöthig als nützliche

Buchdruckerkunst und Schriftgiesserey“. 4 Teile. (Leipzig 1740-
1745). Ein reichhaltiges, fleissig zusammengetragenes Buch mit
vielen Illustrationen technischer und geschichtlicher Natur.
Ch. G. Täubel, „Theoretisch praktisches Wörterbuch der

Buchdruckerkunst und Schriftgiesserei“ (Wien 1805).
Höher stehen folgende Werke des Auslandes.
M. D. Fertel, La science pratique de l'imprimerie. Avec des fig.

2 Bde. (St. Omer 1723).
P. S. Fournier, Le Jeune, Manuel typographique. 2 Bände
(Paris 1764). Das auf vier Bände berechnete Werk wurde durch den
Tod des Verfassers unterbrochen.
Joseph Moxon, Mechanick Exercises; or the doctrine of Handy-

works, applied to the art of printing (London 1677-1696). Das Buch
ist sehr selten und Schreiber dieses nicht zurhand gewesen.
John Johnson, Typographia or the Printers Instructor. 2 Bde.

(London 1824), und Thomas Curson Hansard, Typographia
(London 1825), erschienen fast gleichzeitig und beide Verfasser
waren tüchtige Typographen.
C. H. Timperley, Encyclopaedia of literary and typographical

anecdote (London 1842) ist als eine vorsorglich gefüllte
Vorratskammer zu betrachten. Die unzähligen Artikel sind nach den
Jahreszahlen, aus allen Ländern untereinander, gereiht.
Ein sehr schätzbares Werk aus allerneuester Zeit ist:
E. C. Bigmore and C. W. H. Wyman, A Bibliography of printing

with notes and illustrations. I. Band. A-L (London 1880). Das Buch
enthält nicht nur eine reiche, wir möchten fast sagen überreiche,
typographische Bibliographie aller Länder von der ältesten Zeit bis
auf heute, sondern auch eine Menge von schätzbaren historischen
Notizen und Illustrationen. Die Fortsetzung des Werkes erscheint
vorerst in der von C. Wyman herausgegebenen vortrefflichen
Fachzeitschrift: Printing times and Lithographer.
Die bereits in dem i. Buch erwähnten Spezialgeschichten

einzelner Druckorte werden in dem ii. Buch nicht wiederholt.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by Straive, Pondicherry, India

1 The Rise, and Fall, and Rise of Electronic Paper 1

2 Fundamental Mechanisms of Electrophoretic Displays 31

3 Driving Waveforms and Image Processing for Electrophoretic Displays 53

4 Fast-­Switching Mode with CLEARInk Structure 75

5 Bistable Cholesteric Liquid Crystal Displays – Review and Writing Tablets 99

6 The Zenithal Bistable Display: A Grating Aligned Bistable

7 Reflective LCD with Memory in Pixel Structure 153

8 Optically Rewritable Liquid Crystal Display 171

9 Electrowetting Displays 197

9.6 Capabilities for Black and White 206

10 Electrochromic Display 225

11 Phase Change Material Displays 243

11.5 Solid-­State Reflective Displays (SRD®) 248

12 Optical Measurements for E-­Paper Displays 271

Karlheinz Blankenbach Robert J. Fleming

Guy P. Bryan-Brown J. Cliff Jones

Paul S. Drzaic Kristiaan Neyts

Zong Qin Wanlong Zhang

­Series Editor’s Foreword

The Rise, and Fall, and Rise of Electronic Paper

E-Paper Displays, First Edition. Edited by Bo-Ru Yang.

●● A hierarchical summary of the different technical approaches for reflective displays.

1.2 ­Why Electronic Paper?

●● Paper is a reflective medium that automatically adapts to changing lighting

1.3 ­Brightness, Color, and Resolution

Figure 1.2 CIELAB color system [4] John

To achieve a wider color gamut, inkjet printing may use six or

1.4 ­Reflectivity and Viewing Angle

An important aspect of paper is that the image printed on the page

1.5 ­Translating Print-­on-­Paper into Electronic Paper

1.5.2 Grayscale – Analog vs. Digital

1.5.3 An Overview of Approaches to Color Electronic Paper

Color filter Barrier film

Sub-pixel electrode R Sub-pixel electrode B

White Yellow Magenta Cyan

Black Blue Green Red

There are several interesting aspects of Table 1.1 worth noting:

1.6 ­The Allure of Electronic Paper vs. the Practicality of LCDs

1.7 ­The Evolution of Electrophoretic Display-­Based Electronic Paper

1.7.1 Early History

●● Charged particles in a dielectric fluid

1.8 ­Initial Wave of Electrophoretic Display Development

1.8.1 The Electrophoretic Fluid, Thresholds, and Memory

4 Fast-Switching Mode with CLEARInk Structure 75

11.5 Solid-State Reflective Displays (SRD®) 248

12 Optical Measurements for E-Paper Displays 271

Series Editor’s Foreword

1.2 Why Electronic Paper?

1.3 Brightness, Color, and Resolution

1.4 Reflectivity and Viewing Angle

1.5 Translating Print-on-Paper into Electronic Paper

1.6 The Allure of Electronic Paper vs. the Practicality of LCDs

1.7 The Evolution of Electrophoretic Display-Based Electronic Paper

1.8 Initial Wave of Electrophoretic Display Development

1.9 The Revival of EPDs

the electrophoretic medium in urea-formaldehyde microcapsules [22].

1.10 Developing a Commercial Display

1.11 Enhancing Brightness and Contrast

Ink Capsule Close-up Figure 1.17 Schematic cross-section of microcapsules

●● creating an aperture through the electro-optical material to allow interconnection to a backplane

1.15 Electronic Book Products, and E Ink Merger