B.

SC CSIT 3rd Semester

1
Population:
 Population:
 The word population or statistical population refers to the
all totality of cases (or items) under investigation. In other
words a population is the entire group of items or members
or individuals of interest in a study. For example all
patients in a hospital, all the children in the school, all the
cattle in a cattle farm , all the fruit trees in a garden, etc.
 There are different types of population some of them are:
i. Finite Population Target
Population
ii. Infinite Population Sampling
iii. Homogeneous population Population
iv. Heterogeneous Population
v. Real population
vi. Hypothetical population 2
Sample, Sampling Unit & Sampling Frame:
 Sample:
 A finite number of subsets of individuals drawn from population ,
which represents that population is called sample. The number of
individuals in a sample is called sample size.
 Sampling Unit:
 The population units selected as a sample from the population is
called sampling unit. In other words, the units to be selected as
sample are called sampling units. For example a house, a college, a
district, a city, an individual etc.
 Sampling Frame:
 It is a list of all the elements that are in the population. When the
population is defined according to the characteristic under study
it is known as frame consisting of the sampling units in the
population . It is used to select sample units from the population
as a sample.
3
Sampling:
 Sampling is the act, process, or technique of selecting a
representative part of a population for the purpose of
determining parameter or characteristics of the whole
population. In other words Sampling is concerned with
the selection of a subset of individuals from population
to estimate characteristics of the whole population.

Sampling

Population Sample

4
Important Of Sampling:
 When the population is very large, It can be
satisfactory covered through sampling.
 It saves a lot of time, energy and money.
 Especially when the units of an area are
homogeneous, sampling techniques is really useful.
 When the data are unlimited, the use of this method
is really useful.
 When cent percent accuracy is not required, the use
of this technique becomes inevitable.
 When the number of individuals to be studied is
manageable intensive study becomes possible.
5
Advantages:
1. Reduce Cost: It is economical.
2. Greater Speed: Sampling is less time consuming than
the census technique.
3. Greater Scope: It has great scope and flexibility
4. Greater accuracy: Sampling ensure high degree of
accuracy due to a limited area of operation.
5. Mandatory in some cases: If population is too large, as
for example, of trees in a jungle, we are left with no way
but to resort to sampling.
6. Saves Destruction: If testing is destructive, i.e. if the
measurement can be done only by destroying the article
the complete enumeration is impracticable sand
sampling technique is the only method to be used in
such cases.
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Disadvantages:
1. Less accuracy: Conclusion derived from
sampling are more liable to error.
2. Changeability of units
3. Difficulties in selection a truly representative
sample: The results of a sample are accurate
and usable only when the sample is
representative of the whole population
4. Needs for specialized knowledge: Sampling
method requires a specialized knowledge in
sampling technique statistical analysis and
calculation of probable error. 7
Basic Steps in sampling:
Define Population

Define Sampling Units

Making Sampling Frame

Determine Sampling Procedure

Probability Sampling Non-Probability Sampling

Simple Random sampling Convenience Sampling
Systematic Sampling Purposive sampling
Stratified Sampling Quota Sampling
Cluster Sampling Snowball Sampling
Determine Appropriate
Sample size

Execute Sampling Design 8

Sampling & Non Sampling Error:
 The errors occurred in the process of collecting, processing and
analyzing data may be classified into the following two types.
i. Sampling errors.
ii. Non- Sampling errors.
 Sampling error:
 A sampling error is the error, which is occurred during the
selection of sample that are not representative of population. It
arises due to the fact that only a part of the population has been
to estimate population parameter and draw inferences about the
population. As such sampling errors are absent in a complete
enumeration.
 Following are some of the reason for sampling error.
i. Faulty selection of sample
ii. Substitution
iii. Faulty demarcation of sampling unit
iv. Improper choice of statistic to estimate population parameter.
9
Non-Sampling Error:
 Non sampling errors primarily arise at the stages of
observation, ascertainment and processing of data.
They may occur both in the complex enumeration
survey and in the sample survey. Thus, it is very difficult
task to identify and control non-sampling error. Some
of the sources of non-sampling errors are:
i. Faulty Planning and Definition
ii. Response Error
iii. Non Response Error
iv. Errors in Coverage
v. Compiling Error
vi. Publication Error
10
Sample Survey & Census Survey:
 Sample Survey:
 The enumeration of the selected sample unit is known as
Sample Survey. Information regarding the population may be
collected in two ways either by census where every unit in the
population is enumerated or enumeration is limited to only a
part or portion or a sample selected from the defined
population. Such enumeration of the selected sample units is
known as sample survey.
 Census Survey:
 The complete enumeration of all units of population is
known as Census Survey. It is the process of complete
enumeration in which every member of the define
population is included. 11
Probability Sampling(Random Sampling)
 Probability sampling is a scientific method of
selecting sample from the population based on
some laws of chance, in which each unit in
population has same probability of being
selected in the sample. It can be categorized
under following categories:
a. Simple Random Sampling.
b. Systematic Sampling
c. Stratified Random Sampling
d. Cluster Sampling
e. Multistage Sampling. 12
Simple Random Sampling:
 It is a simple and common most method of sampling in which
sample is drawn unit by unit with equal probability of selection
for each unit at each drawn. It is the technique of drawing a
sample in such way that each unit of the population has an equal
and independent chance of being included in the sample. There
are two ways of taking a simple random sample:
i. Simple Random Sampling With Replacement(SRSWR)
 The method of sampling in which an item previously drawn is
replaced before the net drawn in which the same unit may be
included more than once in the sample
ii. Simple Random Sampling without Replacement(SRSWOR)
 The method of sampling in which an item previously drawn is not
replaced before the net draw in which all units in the sample are
distinct.

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Conti……….
 Merits:
1. All elements in the population have an equal chance of being
selected.
2. Of all the probability sampling techniques simple random
sampling is the easiest to apply.
3. It is the most simple type probability sampling to understand.
4. It does not require prior knowledge of true composition of the
population.
 Demerits:
1. It is often impractical because of non availability of
population list.
2. The use of simple random sample may be wasteful if we fail to
use all of known information.
3. It does not ensure proportionate representation of various
groups constituting the population.
4. Imprecise for heterogeneous. 14
Systematic Sampling:
 This method of sampling is employed if the complete and up to
date lists of sampling units are available. This technique
consists of the selection of first unit at random and rest being
automatically selected according to same pre determined
pattern involving regular spacing of units. Suppose that 𝑵 units
in the population are numbered 𝟏 to 𝑵 in some order to select a
sample of n units, we take a unit (first unit) at random from the
first 𝑲 unit and every 𝒌𝒕𝒉 unit thereafter, where 𝑵 = 𝒏𝒌 and
𝒌 = 𝑵Τ𝒏 and 𝒌 is usually called the sampling interval and is an
integer.
 Systematic sampling consists in drawing a random number say
𝒊 ≤ 𝒌 and selecting the unit corresponding to this number and
every 𝒌𝒕𝒉 unit subsequently. Thus the systematic sample of size
n will consist of units 𝒊, 𝒊 + 𝒌, 𝒊 + 𝟐𝒌, 𝒊 + 𝟑𝒌, … . . , 𝒊 + ሺ𝒏 −
𝟏ሻ𝒌. The random number 𝒊(first unit) is also called random
start and its value determines the whole sample.
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16
Example:
 Select sample of size 10 from population of size 100
using systematic sampling.
 First of all numbered the population of size 100 from 1
to 100.
Population Size(𝑵ሻ = 𝟏𝟎𝟎
Sample size 𝒏 = 𝟏𝟎
Sampling Interval 𝒌 = 𝑵Τ𝒏 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎Τ𝟏𝟎 = 10
Select a number at random from 𝟏𝟎𝟎 numbers. Let the
first number is 𝟕 then other numbers will be
𝟏𝟕, 𝟐𝟕, 𝟑𝟕, 𝟒𝟕, 𝟓𝟕, 𝟔𝟕, 𝟕𝟕, 𝟖𝟕, 𝟗𝟕.

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Conti……….
 Merits:
1. This method is simple and convenient to use.
2. In selecting the sample by this method, it takes less time
and labour.
3. Most of the results obtained from this method are
satisfactory.
4. If the complete list of the population is available and if the
items are arranged systematically, this method is more
efficient.
 Demerits:
1. The sample selected may not be the representative of the
population in some cases.
2. The items of the population must be arranged in some
order, otherwise the result obtained will be misleading.
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Stratified Sampling:
 Simple random sampling is based upon the
assumption that the population from which
sample selected is homogeneous. If the
population is heterogeneous then simple
random sampling can not be used, in such case
stratified sampling is used. According to this
method divide the non homogeneous
population into different groups or strata such
that population within strata is homogeneous
and between strata is heterogeneous. Then
from each strata, samples are selected using
simple random sampling. 19
Stratified Sampling:

POPULATION

Group One Group Two

SRS SRS

Sample

Group Four Group Three

SRS SRS

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Conti………………..
 Merits:
1. The selected units represents whole universe.
2. It is an objective method of sampling.
3. The estimation of population parameters is more
efficient.
4. For large and heterogeneous population, stratified
sampling is the best design.
 Demerits:
1. This method requires more time and cost.
2. Sampling frame is needed for each stratum.
3. Stratification of units is quite cumbersome.

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Cluster Sampling:
 It is sampling method used when the
population is not homogeneous. The
population is divided into non overlapping sub
population called clusters. A simple random
sample of cluster is selected and all elements
belonging to the cluster are studied. Here
construction of cluster are made in such a way
that population within cluster is heterogeneous
and between cluster is homogeneous. In cluster
sampling, clusters should be as small as
possible and the number of sampling units in
each cluster should be approximately same. 22
Cluster Sampling:
POPULATION

Group One Group Two

SRS SRS

Sample

Group Four Group Three

SRS SRS

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Conti……….
 Merits:
1. Cluster sampling is most economical and cheaper
2. Less time for listing & implementation.
3. Reduced cost of personal interviews.
4. It may be a good representative of the population.
5. It is an easy method.
 Demerits:
1. Cluster sampling is not free from errors.
2. It is not comprehensive.
3. It has higher sampling error.
4. It gives biased samples 24
Multistage Sampling:
 In cluster sampling after the selection of cluster, each
and every unit of the selected clusters are enumerated.
Instead of enumerating all the units in the selected
clusters one can obtain better and more efficient
results by sub sampling within the clusters. Hence the
method of sampling in which first the clusters are
selected and then specified numbers of elements are
selected from each cluster is called sub sampling or
two stage sampling.
 In such sampling design, clusters which forms the
units of sampling at first stage are called the first stage
unit(FSU) or primary sampling unit(PSU) and the
elements within clusters are called second stage unit
(SSU). 25
26
Conti………
 Merits:
1. This is flexible method than other sampling
methods.
2. Since sample size is reducing in each time, this
sampling technique saves time and cost.
 Demerits:
1. Samples in different stages should be taken
carefully, otherwise this method leads the
faulty result.
2. This method is less accurate than that of single
stage sampling.
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Non-Probability Sampling:
 The selection of samples without any
probability rule is called non-probability
sampling. In this method investigator selects
sample from the population by using hos own
experience and judgment. Some of the non-
probability samplings are:
a. Convenience Sampling
b. Purposive Sampling
c. Quota Sampling
d. Snowball Sampling.
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Convenience Sampling:
 The sampling method in which the sample units are
selected, which are convenient to obtain is the convenience
sampling. The representative units are selected because of
availability and easy access. The result obtained by this
method can not be generalized because of the lack of
representativeness of the entire population.
 Merits:
i. Quick method of data selection.
ii. It can be used when population is not clearly defined.
 Demerits:
i. Sample may not represents the population as a whole.
ii. It may be biased.
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Purposive Sampling:
 The method of sampling in which certain units are
selected from population according to specific purpose
of researcher is called purposive sampling.
 Merits:
i. Quick method of data selection.
ii. It can be used when population is not clearly
defined.
 Demerits:
i. Sample may not represent the population as a whole.
ii. It may be biased.

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Quota Sampling:
 It is a special case of stratified sampling without use of
probability. It is judgment sampling with stratification. In
such sampling quotas are set up according to the personal
judgment of the investigator or high level of authorities. The
size of the quota for each stratum is generally proportional to
the size of the stratum in the population. In this method
sampling is continue until pre determined sample sizes are
obtained from each subclass or stratum.
 Merits:
i. It is cheap method.
ii. It is effective method.
 Demerits:
i. It may be biased.
ii. It may not be representative of population.
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Snowball Sampling:
 In snowball sampling technique, first we identify the people who
meet the objective of our study or research. We them ask them
to recommended other people who they may know and who also
meet the objective of our study. Thus, the sample group appears
to grow larger and larger like a rolling snow ball. The process is
repeated until the required sample size is found. This sampling
technique is often used in hidden population, such as drug
users, sex workers or patients of rare disease which are difficult
for researcher to access. Snow ball sampling is also known as
cold-calling, chain sampling, chain referral sampling and referral
sampling.
 Merits:
i. It is cheap method.
ii. It is efficient method.
iii. It can be used in hidden population.
 Demerits:
i. It is time consuming.
ii. Lack of representativeness. 33
34
Inferential Statistics:
 Inferential statistics is a branch of statistics that involves
drawing conclusions or making decision about a population
based on sample data. It helps us make generalization and
predictions about a larger group or population using the
information collected from a smaller subset or sample.
Inferential statistics utilizes probability theory and statistical
models to estimate parameters, test of hypothesis, and assess
the level of uncertainty in the results.
 Division of inferential Statistics:
 The inferential statistics divide in to three important part for
the drawing of result of population parameter help of sample
statistics are as following way
 Sampling Distribution.
 Estimation Theory
 Hypothesis Testing 35
Parameter and Statistic:
 Parameter: Parameters are the function of population
values. In other words, the values that describe the
characteristics of a population are called parameters. The
statistical constants of the population like population mean,
population variance, skewness etc. are parameters. Hence, a
parameter is a characteristics of a population.
 Statistic: Statistic are the function of the sample
observation. In other words, the statistical measures or
constant which are calculated from the sample data are
called statistic. The statistical constants of the samples like
sample mean, sample variance, sample skewness etc. are
statistic. Hence, a statistic is a characteristics of a sample
and it is used to estimate the value of population.
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Conti……………………
Parameter Statistic
Population Size ሺ𝑵ሻ Sample sizeሺ𝒏ሻ
Population Meanሺ𝝁ሻ Sample mean(𝑿ሻ
Population Standard Deviationሺ𝝈ሻ Sample Standard Deviation(𝒔ሻ
Population Proportionሺ𝑷ሻ Sample Proportion ሺ𝒑ሻ
Population correlation Sample correlation
coefficientሺ𝝆ሻ coefficient(𝒓ሻ

Population coefficient of Sample coefficient of

skewness ሺ𝜷𝟏 ) skewness(𝒃𝟏 ሻ

Population coefficient of kurtossi Sample coefficient of kurtosis

(𝜷𝟐 ሻ (𝒃𝟐 ሻ

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Sampling Distribution:
 A sampling distribution refers to the probability
distribution of a statistic obtained from the same
population. In other words, it represents the
distribution of sample statistics, such as means,
proportions, or differences, that would be observed if
we repeatedly sampled from the same population and
calculated the statistic each time. The concept of a
sampling distribution is important in inferential
statistics because it allows us to make inferences about
the population parameter based on sample statistics.
By examining the distribution of sample statistics.

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Sampling Distribution of a sample mean (𝝈𝟐 known):
 CASE-I: Sampling distribution of a sample mean with
replacement (Infinite population i.e. N→ ∞)
 Let 𝑿𝟏 , 𝑿𝟐 … … … 𝑿𝒏 be a random sample of size n taken with
replacement from a infinite population with mean 𝝁 and
variance 𝝈𝟐 . Then sample mean is 𝑋ത and its expected value
and variance are given by
ന=𝑬 𝑿
𝝁𝑿ഥ = 𝑿 ഥ = 𝝁 and
𝝈𝟐
𝟐 ഥ ሻ𝑾𝑹 =
𝝈𝑿ഥ = 𝑽𝒂𝒓ሺ𝑿
𝒏

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Sampling Distribution of a sample mean(𝝈𝟐 known)
 CASE-II: Sampling distribution of a sample mean
without replacement (Finite population i.e. N)
 Let 𝑿𝟏 , 𝑿𝟐 … … … 𝑿𝒏 be a random sample of size n taken
without replacement from a finite population of size N with
mean 𝝁 and variance 𝝈𝟐 . Then sample mean is 𝑿 ഥ and its
expected value and variance are given by
ന = 𝑬ሺ𝑿
𝝁𝑿ഥ = 𝑿 ഥ )= 𝝁 and
𝝈𝟐 𝑵−𝒏
𝟐 ഥ ሻ𝑾𝑶𝑹 =
𝝈𝑿ഥ = 𝑽𝒂𝒓ሺ𝑿 ሺ ሻ ,
𝒏 𝑵−𝟏
𝑵−𝒏
 where is finite population correlation factor.
𝑵−𝒏
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Sampling distribution of the sample mean
𝝈𝟐 𝒖𝒏𝒌𝒏𝒐𝒘𝒏 :
 Let 𝑋1 , 𝑋2 … … … 𝑋𝑛 be a random sample of size n taken from
normal population with mean 𝜇 and variance 𝜎 2 . Let sample
mean and sample variance be
𝟏
ഥ
 𝑿 = σ 𝑿𝒊 and
𝒏
𝟏
𝑺 =𝟐 σሺ𝑿𝒊 ഥ ሻ𝟐
−𝑿
𝒏−𝟏
𝟏 𝟐 ሺσ 𝑿𝒊 ሻ𝟐
 𝑺𝟐 = σ
[ 𝑿𝒊 − ]
𝒏−𝟏 𝒏
ഥ −𝝁
𝑿
 Then 𝒕 = is a random variable having t- distribution
𝑺/ 𝒏
with the parameter 𝒏 − 𝟏 degree of freedom.
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 Properties of Sampling Distribution of the
Mean:
 Sample mean(ഥ
𝒙) is an unbiased estimate of the population
ഥ =𝝁
mean(μ), i.e. 𝑬 𝒙
 Variance of sampling distribution of sample mean is less
than population mean.
 The graph of sampling distribution of sample mean is
nearly normal and if sample size is increasing then
normality is possible.

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Sampling Distribution of Proportion:
 Sampling distribution: Sampling distribution of the
sample proportion is defined as the probability
distribution of a given sample proportion based on a
random sample.
𝑷𝑸
 𝑽𝒂𝒓ሺ𝒑ሻ𝑾𝑹 = (Simple random sampling with
𝑵
replacement)
𝑷𝑸 ሺ𝑵−𝒏ሻ
 𝑽𝒂𝒓ሺ𝒑ሻ𝑾𝑶𝑹 = (Simple random sampling
𝒏 ሺ𝑵−𝟏ሻ
with out replacement)
𝑿
 Where, 𝑷 = ,𝑸 = 𝟏 −𝑷
𝑵
 X = number of elements in the population that possesses
a specific characteristic.
 N = Population Size
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Application of Sampling Distribution of the Proportion:
 Analysis of qualitative data against quanntitative data of
average:
 In this case, the given population is divided into two
attributes and other does not possess attributes. For
example, attributes by classifying an item is good or bad ;
defective or non-defective, employed or unemployed,
smoker or non- smoker etc.
 In acceptance sampling we are concerned with the
proportion of defectives in a lot, and in life testing we are
concerned with percentage of certain components which
will perform satisfactory during a statedperiod of time, or
the probability that a given component will last at least a
given number of hours. The problems concerning
proportion, percentages, or probabilities are really
equivalent.

44
Standard Error(S.E.):
 Standard Error (S.E.): The standard deviation of the
sampling distribution of sample statistic is known as its
standard error(S.E.) of the statistic. Thus, the standard
error of statistic ‘t’ is given by

𝟏
 S.E(t) = 𝑽𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒕 = σሺ𝒕 − ҧ .
𝒕ሻ²
𝒏

 The standard deviation of the distribution of sample mean

is called the standard error of the sample mean. It is
denoted by S.E( 𝑥ҧ ). Standard error of the mean is a
measure of dispersion of the distribution of sample mean.
The standard error indicates not only the size of the
chance error that has been made , but also the accuracy we
are likely to get, if we use a sample statistic to estimate a
population parameter. 45
Application of Standard Error:
 To determine the precision and reliability of
sample estimate.
 To test if the sample statistic difference
significantly from the population parameter.
 To obtain the point estimate of the population
parameter.
 To determine the interval estimation of the
population parameter within certain level of
significant.
46
Standard errors of some well-known statistics are:
Sampling Standard Error
Distribution
Mean( when 𝝈 known and 𝝈𝟐 𝝈
population size is 𝒙ሻ =
S.E(ഥ ഥ ሻ𝑾𝑹 =
𝑽𝒂𝒓ሺ𝑿 =
𝒏 𝒏
infinite)

Mean(when 𝝈 known and 𝝈𝟐 𝑵−𝒏

population size is finite 𝒙ሻ =
S.E(ഥ ഥ ሻ𝑾𝑶𝑹 =
𝑽𝒂𝒓ሺ𝑿 ሺ
𝒏 𝑵−𝟏
i.e. N)
𝝈 𝑵−𝒏
=
𝒏 𝑵−𝟏
Mean(when 𝝈 unknown 𝑺
and population size is 𝒙ሻ =
S.E(ഥ
𝒏
infinite)

47
Standard errors of some well-known statistics are:
Sampling Distribution Standard Error
Mean(when 𝝈 unknown and
population size is finite N) 𝑺 𝑵−𝒏
𝒙ሻ =
S.E(ഥ
𝒏 𝑵

Difference of means( when 𝝈′ 𝒔 are

𝝈𝟏 𝟐 𝝈𝟐 𝟐
known) S.E(𝒙𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐 ሻ = +
𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐

Difference of means( when 𝝈′ 𝒔 are 𝟏 𝟏

S.E(𝒙𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐 ሻ = 𝟐
𝑺 ሺ + ሻ
unknown) 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐

48
Standard errors of some well-known statistics are:
Sampling Distribution Standard Error
Proportion( when population
𝑷𝑸
size is infinite) S.Eሺ𝒑ሻ = 𝑽𝒂𝒓ሺ𝒑ሻ𝑾𝑹 =
𝒏

Proportion (when population 𝑷𝑸 𝑵−𝒏

size is finite i.e. N) S.Eሺ𝒑ሻ = 𝑽𝒂𝒓ሺ𝒑ሻ𝑾𝑶𝑹 = ሺ
𝒏 𝑵−𝟏
𝑷𝑸 𝑵−𝒏
=
𝒏 𝑵−𝟏

Difference of proportions 𝟏 𝟏
S.E(𝒑𝟏 − 𝒑𝟐 ሻ = 𝑷𝑸ሺ − ሻ
𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟏

49
50
Problems:
1. From a population 520, a sample of 25 units is
taken. If the population standard deviation is
1.5, find the standard error of the sample mean
when the sample is taken (i) without
replacement (ii) with replacement.
2. A simple random sample of 25 apples drawn
from a lot of 300. If the number of bad apples
in the lot is 15, find the standard error of the
sample proportion of bad apples (i) without
replacement (ii) with replacement.
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Problems:
3. A population consists of five numbers: 1, 3, 5, 7 and
9.
i. Enumerate all possible sample of the size two which
can be drawn from the population without
replacement.
ii. Calculate the mean and variance of the population.
iii. Show that the mean of the sampling distribution of
the sample means is equal to the population mean.
iv. Calculate the variance of the sampling distribution
of sample mean.
v. Calculate the standard error of means.
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Problems:
4. A population consists of 5 numbers 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10.
i. Enumerate all possible samples of size 2 which can
be drawn from the population without replacement.
ii. Find the population mean and population variance.
iii. Find the mean of sampling distribution of means
and show that it is equal to the population mean.
iv. Find the variance of sampling distribution of means
and verify 𝜎𝑥 2 = Varሺ𝑥ሻҧ
v. Find the standard error of means.

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Problems:

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Central Limit Theorem:
 The Central Limit Theorem (CLT) is a fundamental
concept in probability theory and statistics. It states that
under certain conditions, the sum or average of a large
number of independent and identically distributed
random variables will have an approximately normal
distribution, regardless of the shape of the original
distribution.
 more formally, let X₁, X₂, …..Xₙ be a sequence of
independent and identically distributed random variables
with a finite mean(μ) and variance(σ²), then the sample
mean(ഥ 𝒙) is also normally distributed with mean ‘μ’ and
𝝈² 𝝈²
ഥ~𝑵ሺ𝝁, ) concentration in central part.
variance ‘ ’ i.e. 𝒙
𝒏 𝒏
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Application of CLT:
 Construction of confidence intervals for population parameter
 Performing hypothesis tests using test statistics such as Z-test or
t-tests.
 Estimation of population parameters.
 Determining Sample size for surveys or experiments.
 Analyzing and controlling product quality in manufacturing
processes.
 Regression Analysis.
 Survey sampling.
 Conducting analysis of variance(ANOVA) and comparing
means.
 Studying the behavior of sample means in random sampling
 Modeling and predicting future values based on time series data.
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