Instructions before starting the record work

1 You must write the record work in the record book provided by the school
2 Record work must be clean and clear
3 The handwriting must be legible and good
4 You should not use colours for the pictures , under lines or side headings, only
blue or black ink pen should be used in whole record work.
5 The diagrams and tables (if any) must be done in left, white side page only with
led pencils (no colour pencils).
6 Please fill the index page with experiment name with date and also at every
experiment page.
7 Every experiment must be started in the fresh page
 SUMMER WORK

Experiment-1

1. Preparing a temporary mount of a leaf peel to show stomata.

Aim
To prepare a temporary mount of a leaf peel to show stomata.

Theory

 Plants need oxygen for respiration and carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. The exchange
of gases in plants occurs through the surface of stems, roots and leaves.
 On leaves there are plenty of small tiny pores called stomata.
 On the dorsal side of leaf more stomatal pores are present than the ventral surface of leaf.
 Through these pores, plants can also lose water by the process called transpiration.
 To avoid excess loss of water, the stomata pores closes and when gases are required, these
pores open.
 This opening and closing of pores is monitored by guard cells.
 The guard cells swell when water flows into them, causing the stomata pore to open.
When the guard cells shrink the stomata pores close.
 The guard cells contain chloroplast and nucleus in it. They are bean-shaped in dicots and
dumb-bell shaped in monocots.

Materials Required
Freshly plucked leaf of Rheo or Tradescantia, petri dish, slide, coverslip, needle, forceps,
brash, dropper, watch glass, filter paper, glycerine, safranin solution and microscope.
Procedure

1. Take a freshly plucked leaf (Rheo or Tradescantia).

2. Stretch the leaf with its dorsal (lower) part facing upwards.
3. Break the leaf by applying suitable pressure so that the epidermis projects from the leaf.
4. Cut the epidermis and put it in a petri dish.
5. Take a watch glass, add few drops of water and a drop of stain in it.
6. Transfer the small piece of epidermis from petri dish into the watch glass with the help of
brash.
7. Allow the peel to remain in the stain for 2-3 minutes, so that it can take up the stain.
8. With the help of brush transfer the stained peel into a petri dish with water to remove the
extra stain.
9. Now take a clean slide and place it on a filter paper. In the centre of the slide put a drop of
glycerine and transfer the stained peel from petri dish on the slide.
10. Gently hold the coverslip with the needle and place it on the peel. Avoid air bubbles
formation.
11. Use the filter paper to clean the excess stain, water or glycerine that comes out from the
coverslip sides.
12. Ensure that the slide is clean and place it under the microscope. First view it under low
power (10X) and then under high power(45X).
13. Record your observations.
Observations

1. In an epidermal peel we see single layer of cells.

2. In between the epidermal layer small spots are seen.
3. When focused under powerful microscope the stomata pores are clearly seen.
4. Each stomata pore has two kidney-shaped cells called guard cells.
5. Each guard cell has one nucleus and many chloroplasts.

Conclusion
Epidermal layer of leaf peel has many stomata pores. Each stomatal pore has two kidney
shaped guard cells, in dicots plants. Each guard cell has one nucleus and many chloroplasts.
Precautions

1. While removing the epidermal peel, ensure that you pluck the thinner scrap of leaf.
2. Do not overstain the peel.
3. Avoid air-bubbles formation while placing the coverslip.
4. The peel should not be folded.
5. The slide should be clean and dry before placing it under microscope.
Experiment-2

Aim
To show experimentally that light is necessary for photosynthesis.

Theory

 Plants prepare their food by the process called photosynthesis. To make food, plants need
CO2 water, chlorophyll and light/sunlight. In absence of any of these plants cannot
prepare their food.
 Plants can prepare their food in blue light.
 The rate of photosynthesis depends on all three factors i.e.—light, temperature,
availability of components, i.e.,— CO2 and H20.
 If the intensity of light increases the rate of photosynthesis also increases.
 When light falls on plants they show light reaction. In this light reaction the water in
leaves undergo photolysis
i.e.,—the water splits to form oxygen and hydrogen due to photons of light. The oxygen
gas is released out in the atmosphere but hydrogen is kept by the plant. It is this hydrogen
that combines with CO2 to form carbohydrate (reduction reaction). Hence; photosynthesis
is an oxidation-reduction reaction.
 Photosynthesis reaction:

Materials Required

A healthy potted plant, beaker, a pair of forceps, tripod stand, wire gauze, bunsen burner,
black paper, paper clips, iodine solution, alcohol, water bath etc.

Procedure I

1. Take a healthy potted plant and keep it in a dark room for 48 hours so that all the starch
gets used up.
2. Now cover one leaf of a plant with a black paper using paper clip.
3. Keep this plant in sunlight for about six hours.
4. Pluck two leaves from the plant, one that is covered and the other one that is uncovered.
5. Dip the leaves in boiling water for a few minutes.
6. Now immerse the leaves in a beaker containing alcohol.
7. Carefully place this beaker in water bath and heat it till the alcohol begins to boil.
8. Observe the colour of the leaves and solution.
9. Wash the leaves with lot of fresh water.
10. Now dip the leaves in iodine solution for a few minutes.
11. Now observe the colour of leaves and compare them.
Observations

1. When leaves are boiled in alcohol, the alcohol solution becomes green and the leaves
become colourless.
2. When iodine solution is added on the leaves

(a) a leaf covered with black paper showed no colour changes with iodine solution.
(b) another leaf which was not covered with black paper when dipped in dilute iodine
solution, the colour of leaf changed to blue-black.

Inference

 During photosynthesis plants prepare starch.

 When the leaf is covered, it is not allowed to take sunlight and hence, no starch was
prepared in the leaf.
 Iodine solution becomes blue-black in presence of starch. On adding iodine solution to
covered leaf no colour change was observed. It indicates that no starch was made by this
leaf.
 Whereas the uncovered leaf got sunlight for 6 hours and when iodine solution was added
to it, the colour changed to blue-black.
 This proves that sunlight is required for photosynthesis.

Procedure II

1. Select a potted plant, keep it in dark room for 48 hours.

2. Select a healthy leaf and clip a portion of it with dark colour paper using clips.
3. Keep this plant in sunlight for 6 hours.
4. Then do the same steps (4-11) as in procedure 1 on previous page.
 Important Note

1. When you cover a portion of leaf with dark paper the results are not clearly visible. There
is a possibility of translocation of food from uncovered leaf to a covered part of leaf.
2. The above experiment can be done by covering a portion of leaf with black paper.

Precautions

1. Select a small healthy, herbaceous potted plant.

2. Do not destarch the plant for more than 48 hours.
3. Choose a leaf and clip it carefully so that it does not break or crack from the stem.
4. Alcohol is highly inflammable, be careful while boiling leaf in alcohol using water bath.
5. Wash the alcohol from the leaves and then do the iodine test.
6. Satisfactory results will not be obtained if the plant is not completely de-starched.
Experiment-3

Aim
To show experimentally that carbon dioxide is given out during respiration.
Theory

 All living things show respiration.

 It is a chemical process that occurs inside the cell, hence called cellular respiration.
 It involves the breaking down of food to release energy and carbon dioxide.
 Its reaction is the reverse of photosynthesis.

 There are two types of respiration in animals: Aerobic and anaerobic respiration.
 Aerobic respiration needs oxygen and anaerobic respiration occurs in the absence of
oxygen.
 There are three pathways of respiration as shown below:


 The energy released in cellular respiration is immediately used to synthesise a molecule
called ATP.
 Plants also release CO2 during respiration.
 The exchange of gases during respiration takes place through small pores on the leaf
called stomata.
 Carbon dioxide can be tested by lime water test.
 A freshly prepared lime water is Ca(OH) 2 When CO2 is allowed to pass through it an
insoluble compound called CaCO3 is formed which makes the lime water milky.

(A) Test for release of CO2 during respiration in animals.

Materials Required

Two test tubes, a cork with two holes, two glass tubes, syringe, lime water.
Procedure

1. Take some freshly prepared lime water in two test tubes.

2. Fit cork with two holes in test tubes A and B.
3. Fix two glass tubes in this cork of test tube A as shown in the figure.
4. Exhale air into the tube and record your observations.
5. In another test tube B, which has lime water, pass air through syringe and record your
observations.

Observation

 In test tube A, the lime water turns milky sooner than in test tube B.

Conclusion

1. The exhaled air contains lot of CO2 which turns lime water milky.
2. This proves that during respiration we exhale CO 2 gas.

Precautions

1. The glass tube should be dipped in the lime water.

2. The lime water should be freshly prepared.

(B) To test release of C02 by plants during respiration.

Materials Required

A conical flask, small test tube, cork, thread, germinating seeds, a bent tube, a beaker, water
and freshly prepared lime water.

Procedure

1. Take two conical flasks, add germinating seeds with little water sprinkled over it.
2. Fix the mouth of conical flasks with cork in which a bent tube is fixed.
3. Suspend a small test tube containing KOH solution in it with the help of a thread in
conical flask A.
4. Allow the mouth of the bent tube to be immersed in water in set-up A and in lime water in
set-up B as shown below.
5. Record your observations after few hours.

Observations

1. In set-up A, the water level in the bent tube dipped in beaker increases after few hours.
This is because the oxygen present in the conical flask is taken up by germinating seeds
and CO2 released due to respiration is absorbed by KOH present in small tube. Hence, the
air pressure in the flask reduces and water level rises.
2. In set-up B, the freshly prepared lime water turns milky. This is due to excess
CO2 released into the test tube during respiration of germinating seeds.

Conclusion
This shows that CO2 is given out during respiration.

Precautions

1. Lime water should be freshly prepared.

2. KOH solution should be freshly prepared.
3. Germinating seeds should have lot of moisture in them.
Experiment-4

Aim

To study binary fission in amoeba and budding in yeast with the help of prepared slides
(a) binary fission in Amoeba Experiment

(b) budding in yeast with the help of prepared slides.

Theory

 Reproduction: Plants and animals reproduces (i.e., create new individuals) either by
asexual method or by sexual method.
 Asexual reproduction: When an organism reproduces by single organism, it is called
asexual reproduction. The different ways of asexual reproduction are fission, budding and
regeneration in animals.

1. Binary Fission

 This is commonly seen in single celled animals. There are no gametes or fertilisation. The
cells divide many times through mitosis. Animals like Amoeba reproduce in this manner.
 Amoeba is a tiny unicellular organism that has a porous cell membrane, changes its shape
constantly and encloses the cell organelles. The genetic material replicate through
amitotic division, the cell divides into two equal sized daughter cells. The division of
nucleus is called amitosis because the stages of a typical mitotic division are not observed
in Amoeba.
 Karyokinesis: The division begins with the nucleus dividing to form two daughter nuclei
by the process of karyokinesis.
 Cytokinesis: Karyokinesis is followed by cytokinesis which is the division of cytoplasm
in the mother cell. Two daughter Amoebae cell having a nucleus and its own cell
organelles are formed.

2. Budding

 In this type of reproduction an outgrowth develops due to repeated cell division on the
parent cell that grows to form a bud. The fully grown bud detaches from the mother’s
body by forming a constriction at the base and become new individual.
 Yeast are unicellular eukaryotic micro-organisms belonging to the kingdom fungi (some
are multicellular). They reproduce by budding. Sometimes chain of cells remain attached
to the parent cell. When these cells get detached they form a new individual organism.

Materials Required
 1. Prepared slides of Amoeba showing binary fission with different stages.
2. Prepared slides of yeast showing budding with different stages.
3. Compound microscopes 2-4.

(A) Binary Fission in Amoeba Procedure

1. Place the prepared slides of Amoeba showing different stages of reproduction on the stage
of the microscope.
2. Adjust the mirror of the microscope to focus maximum light on the slide. Adjust the eye-
piece of the microscope so that the slide is clearly focussed and seen.
3. Draw diagrams of the stages of binary fission in Amoeba.

Observations

1. Amoeba is a protozoa that lives in water and has irregular shape.

2. In the centre of Amoeba dense nucleus is seen.
3. In second stage, Amoeba shows the nucleus division, i.e., karyokinesis.
4. In third stage, we can see the cell body division, i.e., cytokinesis.
5. In the fourth stage, two daughter cells of Amoeba are formed.

Conclusion
The given slides showed the division of a single cell body into two equal halves. The division
of nucleus and cell body are seen which led to the formation of two daughter cells. Hence, the
kind of reproduction seen in Amoeba is binary fission.
(B) Budding in Yeast

Procedure

1. Place the permanent/prepared slides of yeast showing different stages of reproduction on

the stage of microscope.
2. Make the adjustments in mirror of the microscope for focussing maximum light on the
slide.
3. Adjust the eye-piece so that the slide is clearly seen.
4. Draw diagrams of the stages of budding yeast cells.
Observations

1. Yeast is oval or spherical in shape.

2. It is a unicellular organism.
3. In the second stage, yeast shows a small growth on it called ‘bud’.
4. In the third stage, yeast shows that in some situations many such chain of buds is seen on
the parent cell. This process is called ‘budding’.
5. On maturity the buds get separated from parent cell to form and grow’ as a new organism.
This process is called budding.

Conclusion
The given slides showed the small growth (bud) on yeast. These buds on maturity separates
from parent cell and grow as a new organism, hence, yeast shows budding.
Precautions

1. Use microscope very carefully. Do not disturb its adjustments.

2. The slides shown under the microscope should not be disturbed.
3. Set the mirror of the microscope for better focus of light on the slide.
4. The slide can be seen under low power or high power of the microscope. These
adjustments should be done very carefully.
Experiment-5

Aim
To identify the different parts of an embryo of a dicot seed (pea, gram or red kidney bean).
Theory

 Seed: Seed is a small embryonic plant present in a safe coating of seed coat, it stores
food.
 Seed formation: The male gamete of plant, i.e., pollen grains and female gamete of a
plant, i.e., ovules fuse together to form seed. The seed formation takes place due to
fertilization, and it is the product of reproduction in plants. The embryo of seed is formed
from the zygote.
 Food in seed: The food is stored in the cotyledons of embryo in some plants and in the
endosperm, a special tissue outside the embryo in other plants.
 Three basic parts of a seed:
 1. An embryo
 2. Nutrient for embryo
 3. Seed coat.
 Embryo: The embryo of seed is an immature plant from which a new plant can grow.
 The radicle that comes out of the embryo is the embryonic root. The plumule is the
embryonic shoot.
 Cotyledons: It is the seed leaf present in seed. If the embryo has one seed leaf it is
monocotyledon and if it has two seed leaves it is dicotyledon.
 Epicotyl: The part of the embryonic stem above the point of attachment of the cotyledon
is the epicotyl.
 Hypocotyl: The area between the radicle and the place of origin of cotyledons is termed
as hypocotyl.
 Nutrients for the Embryo: Seed stores nutrients for the growth of an embryo during
germination. The nutrients/ stored food is in the form of oil, fat and protein.
 Seed Coat: The seed coat protects the embryo from mechanical injury and from drying
out. It can be a paper thin as in case of peanut or may be very thick e.g. coconut.

Materials Required
Water soaked seeds of pea, gram or red kidney beans, petridish, forcep, needle, brush and
simple microscope and slide.

Procedure

1. Take 8-10 soaked seeds of pea/gram/red kidney beans, place them on wet cotton in
petridish overnight. The seed coat becomes soft which helps in the opening of the seeds.
2. With the help of forcep, slowly remove the seed coat and study different parts of seed
embryo.
3. Now, slowly remove the embryo axis with needle and place it on the slide.
4. Observe these three parts of the seed obtained, record your observations and draw
diagrams.

Observations

1. The seed has a small pore called micropyle.

2. It is a dicot seed, i.e., the seed has two cotyledons.
3. The embryo axis shows radicle and plumule, (as shown in the figure), the radicle is future
root and the plumule is future shoot.
4. The food is stored in cotyledons.

Conclusion
The different parts of an embryo of a dicot seed were identified as plumule (future shoot),
radicle (future root), seed coat (outer covering) and cotyledons (food store)
Precautions

1. The best quality seeds should be used for study.

2. Soak the seeds overnight to make the seed coat soft.
3. Observe the parts under simple microscope/lens and record your observations.
4. Remove the seed coat very gently.
Experiment-6

Aim
To study homology and analogy with the help of models/charts/specimens of either animals or
plants.
Theory

 Homologous organs: The organs which perform different functions in different species but
have similar basic structure and similar embryonic origin are called homologous organs.
E.g., limbs of human being, frog, bird and lizard.
 Homology: Similar in characteristics resulting from shared ancestry.
 Homologous features arise from adaptive behaviour, to adapt to different environmental
conditions and modes of life.
 Homology in Plants: (Leaves)


 Analogous Organs: The organs which are quiet different in fundamental structure and
embryonic origin but perform same function and may superficially look alike are called
analogous organs. For e.g., wings of bird, bat, insects are used for flying but the internal
structure is different.
 Analogy: The organisms showing analogy do not share common ancestors.
 Analogous feature arise when two unrelated species adapt themselves to similar climate
and environmental condition.
 Analogy in Plants: Thoms and spines are modified organs seen in plants are analogous
structures. Thom is modification of stem and spine is modification of leaf.
 Tendrils in plant show similar function but they are different in origin.

Materials Required

 Preserved specimens
  Animals: Limbs of frog, lizard and bat. Wings of insect, bat and bird. .
 Plants: Pitcher plant, venus fly trap and cactus Plants with tendrils:

Pea plant – Leaf tendril

Grape plant – Stem tendril


Smilax – Stipular tendril

A. TO STUDY HOMOLOGY

I. IN ANIMALS

Procedure

1. Observe carefully the preserved specimens of limbs of frog, limbs of lizard and limbs of
bat.
2. Draw diagrams and record your observations.

Observations

1. The limbs of frog, lizard and birds are similar in structure.

2. Each limb has humerus, ulna, radius, carpal and five sets of digits.

Conclusion
The similarity in structure but difference in function proves that all these homologous organs
are evolved from common ancestor.

II. IN PLANTS

Procedure
 1. Observe carefully the given specimens of pitcher plant, venus fly trap and cactus plant.
2. Record your observations to study the homologous organs and draw diagrams.

Observations

1. The leaves are modified for different functions, but the structure is similar.
2. In pitcher plant, the leaves are modified into pitchers to trap insects.
3. In venus fly trap plant the leaves are modified into jaws to trap insects.
4. In cactus plant, the leaves are modified into spines to reduce water loss through
transpiration.

Conclusion
The modification of leaves in different plants showing similar origin but different functions
shows the homology in plants.

B. TO STUDY ANALOGY

I. IN ANIMALS

Procedure

1. Observe carefully the preserved specimens of wings of insect, bat and bird.
2. Draw diagrams and record your observations.

Observations

1. The function of wings in all the three specimens is same but the structure is different.
2. The wings of insect has no limbs.
3. The wings of bat has limbs with five digits whereas the wings of bird has only three
digits.
Conclusion
The wings of birds, insects and bats has common use, i.e., flying but the structure is different.
These organs are called analogous organs.

II. IN PLANTS

Procedure

1. Observe the specimens/samples of plants showing leaf tendril, stem tendril and stipular
tendril.
2. Record your observations with the help of diagram.

Observations

1. The function of all the three types of tendrils is same.

2. The structure of each tendril and its origin is different.

Conclusion
The types of tendril in plants show the analogy in plants and all these tendrils are analogous
organs seen in plants.