Psychophysics

“The scientific study of the relations between psychological and physical processes.”
“The study of the relationship between stimuli and sensations.”

Imagine a person is asked to determine whether they can hear a frequency. An experimenter plays
increasingly high frequencies until the person can hear it.
Psychophysics is concerned with describing how an organism uses its systems to detect events in its
environment. Psychophysics, as first established by Gustaf Theodore Fechner in 1860, concerns the science
of the relations between the body and mind; or to put it more precisely, between physical and the
phenomenal worlds.

Fechner distinguished between:

I- Inner Psychophysics: the relationship between sensation and the accompanying brain and nerve
excitation
II- Outer Psychophysics: the relationship between stimulus and the subjective intensity of the
sensation.

Fechner proposed two ways to measure sensation:

1. We can determine whether a stimulus is present or absent, sensed or not sensed.
2. We can measure the stimulus intensity at which subjects report that the sensation first occurs.

Importance and Major Concepts

1. Measurement of Sensation:
Psychophysics allows psychologists to measure and quantify sensory experiences such as the
perception of brightness, loudness, or taste. By establishing precise measurements, researchers can
investigate how our senses work and how they are influenced by various factors.

2. Understanding Perception:
Psychophysics is essential for understanding how humans perceive and interpret sensory
information. It helps to understand the mechanisms underlying perception including how sensory
thresholds, discrimination abilities and subjective experiences are influenced by external stimuli.

3. Thresholds:
“The point at which a psychological effect is produced.”
It applies to consciousness to that point at which unconscious ideas in the mind become conscious.
Psychophysics help in determining sensory threshold such as absolute threshold and the differential
threshold. Understanding these thresholds is critical for studying sensory perception and
discrimination.
 Types of Thresholds:

➔ Two-Point Threshold: (Introduced by Ernest Weber)

the point at which two separate points can be distinguished as such. TPT is the minimum
distance at which two stimuli (points of contact) can be perceived as distant. For example, if
you touch someone’s skin with two points close together, the individual may feel one point.
As you increase the distance between points, they become distinguishable
➔ Just-Noticeable Differences: (Introduced by Ernest Weber)
Weber explained it as “the smallest difference that can be detected between two psychical
stimuli.”
Psychophysics has been instrumental in the definition of the concept of JND.
For example, Weber asked his subjects to lift two weights, a standard weight and a
comparison weight and asked them to \report whether one feels heavier than the other.
Weber's research provided a method for investigating the relationship between body and
mind, between the stimuli and resulting sensation. He also suggested that discrimination
among sensation between two weights based on their relative weight or ratio.
➔ Absolute threshold: (introduced by Gustaf T. Fechner)
The point of sensitivity below which no sensations can be detected and above which
sensations can be experienced.
➔ Differential Threshold: (Introduced by Gustaf T. Fechner)
The point of sensitivity at which the least amount of change in a stimulus gives rise to a
change in sensations.

4. Scaling perceptual Qualities:

Psychophysics provide methods for scaling and comparing subjective qualities like pain, pleasure
and colour perception. It is important for understanding how people perceive and respond to
different stimuli.

5. Just-Noticeable Differences:
Weber explained it as “the smallest difference that can be detected between two physical stimuli.”
JND research helps explain how we notice changes in stimuli and has applications in fields such as
marketing and product design.

6. Psychophysical Laws:
Psychophysics has led to the development of several fundamental laws including Weber’s Law and
Stevens’ Power law. These laws describe the mathematical relationships between physical
properties of stimuli and the perceived psychological experiences.
 7. Cross Modal Integration:
Psychophysics has contributed to our understanding of how different information from different
sensory Modalities (i.e vision, taste, etc) is integrated and influences our overall perception. It is
important for studying topics like multisensory perception and synesthesia.
8. Clinical Applications:
Psychophysics is used in Clinical Psychology to assess sensory deficits such as in the diagnosis of
vision and hearing disorders. Psychophysics also helps in developing rehabilitation strategies for
individuals with sensory impairment.

9. Cognitive Psychology:
Psychophysics has informed Cognitive psychology by providing insights into how perceptual and
cognitive processes interact.

10. Industrial and Applied Psychology:

Psychophysics principles have practical applications like human factor engineering, product
description and marketing. By understanding how people receive and respond to stimuli, businesses
can design products and interfaces that are more under-friendly and appealing.

Laws of Psychophysics

1. Weber’s Law:
Weber's Law states that the “just-noticeable difference (JND) between two stimuli is proportional
to the magnitude of the stimuli.” In other words, the change in stimulus needed to produce a
noticeable difference is a constant fraction of the original stimulus.
Formula:
ΔI/I = k
ΔI = Change in initial intensity
I = Initial intensity
k = Constant (Weber’s Fraction)

Experiment: (Weights)
If you have a weight of 10 grams, adding another gram may not be noticeable. However, if the
weight is 100 grams, adding one gram becomes more noticeable, but the percentage change is the
same.If you have a small weight, you might not feel the difference when adding a small amount, but
with a heavier weight, a similar increase becomes noticeable.

Example: (candy bag)

Imagine you have a bag of candy, and you add one more piece. If the bag is small, you won't notice
the extra candy, but if the bag is big, you'll notice it. Weber's Law says the noticeable difference is a
constant percentage, not a fixed amount.
 2. Fechner’s Law:
Fechner’s Law proposes a logarithmic relationship between the intensity of a stimulus and the
perceived sensation. It suggests that the sensation (S) is proportional to the logarithm of the
stimulus intensity (I).
Formula:
S = k * log(I)
S = The Sensation
k = Constant
I = Stimulus Intensity

Experiment:
Brightness perception in vision often follows Fechner's Law. If you double the intensity of light, the
perceived increase in brightness may not be perceived as doubling; it might follow a logarithmic
increase. If you double the brightness of a light, Fechner's Law suggests that it won't look twice as
bright to your eyes.

Example:
Think of turning up the volume on your music. Fechner's Law says that the perceived increase in
loudness is not directly proportional to the actual increase in volume. It's more like a logarithmic
relationship.

These laws and experiments have led the foundation for understanding the qualitative aspects of sensory
perception and the relationship between physical stimuli and psychological experience. These laws help us
to understand how we perceive changes in stimuli whether it's the weight of an object or the brightness of
a light, and the experiment with candy and music volume illustrate these concepts.

Classical Experiments of Psychophysics

1. Visual Illusion Experiment:

Visual illusion reveals the complex interplay between our visual perception & the physical
properties of the world. It occurs when our brain processes sensory information in a way that is
inconsistent with the actual physical characteristics of the stimuli. One classical experiment in visual
illusions is the Müller-Lyer illusion.The Müller-Lyer illusion is a classic example of how our visual
system can be deceived by contextual information, leading to misperceptions of size and length.

Description:
The Müller-Lyer illusion consists of two lines with arrow-like tails pointing inwards or outwards. Even
though the lines are the same length, the one with outward-pointing arrows is typically perceived as
longer than the one with inward-pointing arrows.
 Experiment Setup:
Participants are shown two lines side by side, one with inward-pointing arrowheads and the other
with outward-pointing arrowheads. They are asked to judge the length of the lines.

Results:
Despite the lines being identical in length, most people perceive the line with outward-pointing
arrowheads as longer. This illusion demonstrates how our visual perception can be influenced by
contextual cues and suggests that the surrounding arrows create a context that distorts our
judgement of length.

2. Multisensory Integration Experiment:

Multisensory Integration is the process by which information from different sensory modalities such
as vision,hearing & touch is combined in the brain to form a unified perception of the world.
One classical experiment in Multisensory Integration is the McGurk effect.This multisensory
integration experiment involves presenting participants with both auditory and visual stimuli and
examining how their perception combines these inputs.

Description:
This experiment investigates the McGurk effect, a phenomenon demonstrating the impact of visual
input on auditory perception, highlighting multisensory integration in speech processing.

Setup:
1. Participants view video clips featuring a speaker articulating a specific syllable (e.g., "ba")
while the audio track corresponds to a different syllable (e.g., "ga").
2. The visual and auditory components are manipulated to create incongruent conditions,
where what is seen and heard conflict.

Results:
1. Participants often report perceiving a hybrid or fused syllable (e.g., "da") that results from
the combination of conflicting auditory and visual information.
2. The McGurk effect showcases the powerful influence of visual cues on auditory perception,
revealing the brain's inclination to integrate information from multiple senses during speech
processing.
3. Understanding this phenomenon provides valuable insights into how our brains seamlessly
integrate visual and auditory information, impacting our perception of spoken language.
3. Perception of Pain Experiment:

The psychophysical classical experiment on pain threshold measurement aimed to determine the
minimum intensity of a noxious stimulus required to elicit a perceptible sensation of pain in
participants. This investigation contributes to understanding individual differences in pain sensitivity
and establishing a baseline for future pain research.

Setup:

1. Participants: Twenty-five healthy individuals, evenly distributed across age and gender, were
recruited to participate in the experiment.
2. Stimulus: Thermal stimuli were delivered using a calibrated heat probe to the participants'
forearms, with temperature increments in a predetermined range.
3. Procedure: Participants were instructed to signal the onset of pain by pressing a button
when they first felt discomfort, helping establish their pain threshold.
4. Randomization: To control for order effects, the sequence of stimulus intensities was
randomised.

Results:

1. Threshold Distribution: Pain threshold values exhibited a normal distribution within the
sample, ranging from mild discomfort to pronounced pain.
2. Gender Differences: Initial analysis suggested potential gender-related variations in pain
threshold, with further investigation needed for conclusive results.
3. Age Impact: Exploratory analysis indicated a potential correlation between age and pain
threshold, warranting additional research for validation.
4. Reproducibility: The experiment demonstrated high reproducibility, with consistent pain
threshold measurements upon repeated trials.

These results enhance our understanding of pain perception and provide valuable insights into the
psychophysical aspects of pain threshold determination. Further studies could delve into the
underlying mechanisms and refine our ability to measure and interpret pain sensitivity.
Psychophysics Classical Methods of Experimentation

1. Method of Average Error/ Method of Adjustment:

This is used to estimate the average error in judgement. It involves presenting a series of stimuli and
asking participants to judge each one and then calculating the average of the absolute difference
between the judged values and actual values. This is often used in experiments related to
perception and sensory experiences in psychological research. Whenever we calculate a mean, we
use this method.
This method provides quantitative measures of accuracy or error in participants' judgement, helping
researchers to assess the reliability of perceptual judgement in psychophysical experiments.
This is a psychophysics technique, used by Fechner, to determine the absolute threshold of the
stimulus by averaging the errors made by participants in detecting or discriminating stimuli. This
method asks the subject to control the level of stimuli, instructs them to alter it until it is just barely
detectable against the background noise or is the same as the level of another stimulus.

Example:

➔ Setup: suppose you are conducting an experiment of brightness perception. You have a set
of reference stimuli with known brightness levels, and you want participants to judge the
brightness of each stimulus.
➔ Stimuli Presentation: Present a series of stimuli to participants and ask them to rate the
brightness of each stimulus on a scale. Let’s say you have three stimuli with actual brightness
levels of 50, 75, and 100.
➔ Participant judgements: Participants provide their judgements. For instance, they might
judge the brightness of the stimuli as 45, 80, and 105.
➔ Calculate Absolute difference: find the absolute difference between each judgement and the
corresponding actual value. In this case:
◆ Absolute difference for stimulus 1: I45-50I = 5
◆ Absolute difference for stimulus 2: I80 -75I = 5
◆ Absolute difference for stimulus 3: I105-100I =5
➔ Average the differences: calculate the average of these absolute differences: (5+5+5)/3 = 5
➔ Conclusion: the average error is 5. This indicates, on average, how much participants’
judgement levels deviated from actual brightness levels.

We use a sound generator or headphones for the experiment. Participants adjust the stimulus
intensity themselves until it reaches a perceptual threshold. Method of average error helps in
understanding the sensitivity of human perception of various stimuli.
For example, in the context of vision, imagine a participant in a study where the brightness of a light
is being measured using the method of adjustment. The person would be presented with a dum
light and asked to adjust its intensity using a dial until it is just bright enough to be perceived. The
 process is repeated multiple times and an average is taken to determine the threshold at which the
light becomes detectable to that individual.

2. Method of Constant Stimuli:

This method is used to study perception. A set of stimuli of varying intensities is presented multiple
times in each presentation. The goal is to determine the point at which participants can reliably
detect or differentiate between stimuli.
In this method, we study the relationship between physical stimuli and perceptual responses. This
method is particularly useful for determining psychometric functions, which describes how the
problem of detecting or perceiving a stimulus changes as the stimulus intensity varies. Fechner’s
method is a psychophysical procedure used to study the relationship between the intensity of
stimuli and the corresponding sensation or perception.
In this method, stimuli presented at different intensity levels in random order are asked to respond
based on their perception which is essential for studying how our sensory systems interpret and
respond to varying levels of stimuli.

Example:

➔ Setup: consider an experiment on auditory perception where you want to determine the
auditory threshold for determining a faint sound. You have a set of pure tones with varying
intensities.
➔ Stimuli Presentation: present each tone at different intensity levels multiple times in
random order. For example, you might present tones at 20, 30, 40, 50, and 60 decibels (dB)
➔ Participant Responses: Participants indicate whether they can detect the tone for each
presentation. Record their responses as either “detected” or “not detected”
➔ Data Analysis: tabulate the number of times participants detected the tone at each intensity
level. Let’s say, for the 20 dB tone, participants detected 2 out of 10 times, for the 30 dB
tone, they detected it 5 out of 10 times, and so on.
➔ Calculate the Detection Probability: determine the probability of detection of each intensity
level by dividing the number of times the tone was detected by the total number of
presentations. For example, for the 20dB tone, the detection probability might be 2/20 =
0.2.
➔ Plot the Psychometric Function: Create a graph showing the detection probability at each
intensity level. This curve is known as a psychometric function and helps identify the
threshold intensity where participants reliably detect the stimulus.

In a study measuring the perception of brightness, participants might be presented with a series of
lights ranging from very dim to very bright. Each light is presented multiple times at various
intensity levels and participants report whether they perceive the lights as “bright” or “dim”. The
data collected from their responses allow researchers to create a psychometric function illustrating
 the probability of a specific response at different stimulus intensities. This method helps to establish
the threshold at which participants can reliably distinguish between different stimulus levels.

Significance:
This method is valuable for understanding how sensory experiences relate to physical stimuli and is
widely used in fields like psychology and neuroscience to explore perceptual processes.
By systematically explaining the relationship between physical stimuli and perceptual experiences,
researchers gain insights into how our senses interpret the world around us.

3. Method of Limit:

This psychophysical measurement technique is used to measure subjective sensations such as

perception of brightness and loudness. The intensity of stimulus is systematically increased or
decreased (ascending or descending) until the participant detects or no longer detects it.
In the ascending method of limit, some property of the stimulus starts out at a level so low that the
stimulus could not be detected and then this level is gradually increased until the participant
reports that they are aware of it. An example of this experiment is testing the minimum amplitude
of sound that can be detected, the sound begins too quietly to be perceived and is made gradually
louder. In the descending method of limits, this is reversed.
In each case, the threshold is considered to be the level of the stimulus property at which the
stimulus is just detected. In experimental ascending and descending methods are used alternatively
and the thresholds are averaged. Fechner used this method to establish thresholds such as the
threshold of brightness or hearing by determining the point at which a stimulus becomes noticeable
or stops being perceptible. This method allows researchers to quantify sensory thresholds which are
crucial to understand how our senses work and how we perceive our world around us. The method
of limit can be adapted for various sensory modalities including vision, taste, and touch along with
being foundational in psychophysics research.

Example:

➔ Let's say you want to determine the absolute threshold for detecting a faint sound. You use a
sound generator and headphones for the experiment.
➔ You start with the sound intensity set very low, below the threshold of hearing. The
participants signal when they hear the sound.
➔ You gradually increase the sound intensity in small, controlled increments in the ascending
series.
➔ The participant continues to signal when they hear the sound. You record their responses.
➔ You reverse the process with a descending series, starting with a high intensity sound and
gradually decreasing it.
➔ The threshold is determined by finding the point at which the participant’s responses
consistently change from hearing the sound to not hearing it (or vice versa) as you change
 the stimulus intensity. The point represents the absolute threshold for hearing that specific
sound.

A possible disadvantage of these methods is that the subject may become accustomed to reporting
that they perceive a stimulus and may continue reporting the same way, even beyond the threshold
(Error of Habituation).
Conversely, the subject may also anticipate that the stimulus is about to become detectable or
undetectable and may make a premature judgement (Error of Expectation).

Signal Detection Theory (SDT)

It is a means to quantify the ability to discern between a signal and noise. SDT is a framework used in
psychology and other fields to analyse and describe decision-making processes when an individual is asked
to distinguish between signal and noise in the presence of uncertainty. Much of the early work in detection
theory was done by radar researchers.

This theory, in particular, is useful in situations where there is ambiguity or uncertainty in detecting
meaningful signals or events among background noise or irrelevant stimuli. SDT provides a way to
mathematically model and quantify an individual’s sensitivity and response bias in making decisions.

It was used in 1966 by John A. Swets and David M. Green for psychophysics. Green and Swets criticised the
traditional methods of psychophysics for their inability to discriminate between the real sensitivity of
subjects and their response biases. SDT is used when psychologists want to measure the way we make
decisions under conditions of uncertainty such as how we would perceive distances in foggy conditions.
SDT assumes that the decision-maker is not a passive receiver of information but an active decision maker
who makes different perceptual judgements under conditions of uncertainty. In foggy circumstances, we
are forced to decide how far an object is away from us based solely on visual stimulus which is impaired by
the foggy weather.

Since the brightness of the object such as traffic light is used by the brain to discriminate the distance of an
object and the fog reduces the brightness of the object, we perceive the object to be much farther away
than it actually is.

SDT is commonly employed in psychology and neuroscience but has applications in various fields.

Components of Signal Detection Theory:

Signal Detection Theory (SDT) involves several key components to analyse decision-making in the presence
of uncertainty. Here are the fundamental elements:
1. Signal (S) and Noise (N):

Signal (S): Represents the presence of a meaningful stimulus or event that the observer is trying to
detect. This could be in the presence of a target in a visual search, the detection of a faint sound in
a noisy environment or the recognition of a specific odour among other smells.
Noise (N): Refers to irrelevant or random information that can interfere with the detection of the
signal.

2. Decision Criteria:

Observers set decision criteria to determine whether they will respond by saying a signal is present
or absent. This criterion influences the balance between sensitivity and specificity. A more
conservative criterion leads to fewer false alarms but may result in missing some signals. A more
liberal criterion increases the likelihood of detecting signals but also leads to false alarms.

3. Hit (H) and Miss (M):

Hit (H): Occurs when the observer correctly detects the presence of a signal.
Miss (M): Occurs when the observer fails to detect a signal that is actually present.

4. Correct Rejection (CR) and False Alarm (FA):

Correct Rejection (CR): occurs when no signal is presented and the individual correctly identifies its
absence.
False Alarm (FA): occurs when no signal is presented but the individual incorrectly reports the
presence of a signal

5. Sensitivity (d') and Response Bias (c):

Sensitivity (d'): Reflects the ability to discriminate between signal and noise. It is determined by the
distance between the signal and noise distributions.
Response Bias (c): Represents the observer's tendency to respond conservatively (more likely to
say "no" to a signal) or liberally (more likely to say "yes" to a signal).

6.Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) Curve:

A graphical representation of the trade-off between sensitivity and specificity. It plots the hit rate
against the false alarm rate at different decision criteria. Its plots the “hit rate” against the “false
alarm rate” at different decision criteria.

Understanding these components allows researchers to quantify and analyse the observer's ability to
distinguish between signal and noise, providing insights into decision-making processes in various fields
such as psychology, medicine, and security.
Example:
Consider a radiologist screening medical images for the presence of tumours.

● Signal (S):Presence of a tumour.

● Noise (N): Normal tissue variations.
● Hit (H): Correctly identifying a tumour.
● Miss (M): Failing to detect a tumour.
● Correct Rejection (CR): Accurately stating no tumour is present.
● False Alarm (FA): Incorrectly indicating a tumour when there isn't one.

Applications:
SDT finds applications in diverse fields such as psychology, neuroscience, medicine, and security. It is
particularly useful in situations where decision-making involves uncertainty and where the consequences of
false positives and false negatives are significant.

1. Medical Diagnosis: SDT is used in fields like radiology and pathology to improve diagnostic
accuracy.
2. Air Traffic Control: Identifying aircraft on radar amidst background clutter and noise.
3. Psychology and Neuroscience: Understanding decision-making processes and perceptual
sensitivity in various tasks.
4. Quality Control: Detecting defects in manufacturing processes.
5. Security Screening: Identifying threats in baggage or passenger screening.

In summary, Signal Detection Theory offers a systematic and quantitative framework for studying
decision-making in the presence of uncertainty, accounting for both hits and false alarms, providing a more
comprehensive evaluation of performance in uncertain situations & providing insights into the factors
influencing an observer's ability to detect and respond to meaningful signals in the midst of noise.