Chapter 1: Differentiation of functions of single variable

Do Trong Hoang

Falculty of Mathematics and Informatics

Hanoi University of Science and Technology

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Content

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Functions
1.3 Essential functions
1.4 Number sequences
1.5 Limit of functions
1.6 Infinites and infinitesimals
1.7 Continuity
1.8 Derivatives and differentials
1.9 Mean value theorems and applications
1.10 Curves sketching

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 1.1. Introduction

1.1. Introduction

What is a function?

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 1.1. Introduction

Warm up
A function arises whenever one quantity depends on another.
• The area A of a circle depends on the radius R of the circle.

A = πR 2

• The human population P of the world depends on the time t.

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 1.1. Introduction

Warm up

• The cost C of mailing an envelope depends on its weight w .

• The vertical acceleration a of the ground as measured by a seismograph
during an earthquake is a function of the elapsed time t.

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 1.2. Functions

1.2: Functions
Let X and Y be two subsets of R. A function f is a rule that assigns to
each element x in a set X exactly one element, called f (x), in a set Y .

f :X → Y
x 7→ f (x) = y

It’s helpful to think of a function as a machine

X is called the domain of the function f .

f (X ) = {f (x) | x ∈ X } is called range of the function f .
G = {(x, f (x)) | x ∈ X } is called graph.
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 1.2. Functions

Examples

ln x
Example 1. Find the domain of the function f (x) =
sin(πx)
A. R C. [0, +∞)\ Z
B. R \ Z D. (0, +∞)\ Z

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 1.2. Functions

Examples

ln x
Example 1. Find the domain of the function f (x) =
sin(πx)
A. R C. [0, +∞)\ Z
B. R \ Z D. (0, +∞)\ Z

Answer: C, D

Example 2. Find the range of the function f (x) = sin x + cos x

√ √
A. (− 2, 2) C. (−1, 1)
√ √
B. [− 2, 2] D. [−1, 1]

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 1.2. Functions

Examples

ln x
Example 1. Find the domain of the function f (x) =
sin(πx)
A. R C. [0, +∞)\ Z
B. R \ Z D. (0, +∞)\ Z

Answer: C, D

Example 2. Find the range of the function f (x) = sin x + cos x

√ √
A. (− 2, 2) C. (−1, 1)
√ √
B. [− 2, 2] D. [−1, 1]

Answer: B

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 1.2. Functions

Monotonic functions

A function f is called
increasing on the domain D if for all x1 , x2 ∈ D,

x1 < x2 =⇒ f (x1 ) < f (x2 ).

decreasing on the domain D if for all x1 , x2 ∈ D,

x1 < x2 =⇒ f (x1 ) > f (x2 ).

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 1.2. Functions

Symmetry

Let f be a function on the symmetric domain D which means

x ∈ D ⇒ −x ∈ D. Then f is called
even function if f (−x) = f (x), for all x ∈ D.
odd function if f (−x) = −f (x), for all x ∈ D.

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 1.2. Functions

Remark
The graph of an even function is symmetric with respect to the y -axis.
The graph of an odd function is symmetric about the origin.

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 1.2. Functions

Periodic functions

A function f is called periodic if there is a positive constant T such that

f (x + T ) = f (x), ∀x, x + T ∈ X .

The smallest such number T is called the period.

Example:
1 sin x has period 2π.
2 tan x has period π.

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 1.2. Functions

Composition of functions

Given two functions f : X → Y and g : Y → Z , the composite function

g ◦ f (also called the composition of g and f ) is defined by

(g ◦ f )(x) = g (f (x)).

Example: Let f (x) = 2x and g (x) = x 2 . Find the functions

f ◦ g and g ◦ f ?

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 1.2. Functions

One-to-one functions

A function f is called a injective function if it never takes on the same

value twice, that is

f (x1 ) ̸= f (x2 ) whenever x1 ̸= x2 .

Example: Are the functions f (x) = x 2 and g (x) = x 3 injective?

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 1.2. Functions

Inverse functions

Let f : A → B be an injective function with domain A and range B, where

f is called a one-to-one function. Then its inverse function f −1 has
domain B and range A and is defined by

f −1 (y ) = x ⇔ f (x) = y .

Remark
A graph of the inverse function is symmetric with respect to the line y = x.

domain of f −1 = range of f
range of f −1 = domain of f

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 1.2. Functions

How to find the inverse function?

Let f be a one-to-one function.

Step 1: Write y = f (x)

Step 2: Solve this equation for x in terms of y (if possible)
Step 3: To express f −1 as a function of x, interchange x and y . The
resulting equation is y = f −1 (x).

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 1.2. Functions

Examples

√
(1) Find the inverse function y = f (x) = 1 − x 2 on the interval [−1, 0].
(2) Given f (x) = 2x + ln x and g (x) = 71 (15 − x 3 ). Evaluate

(f −1 ◦ g −1 ◦ g −1 ◦ f )(1)

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 1.3: Elementary functions

1.3: Elementary functions

• Exponential function and Logarithmic function:

f (x) = ax and f (x) = loga x (0 < a ̸= 1)

Domain Range
ax R R>0
loga x R>0 R

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 1.3: Elementary functions

• Power function:
f (x) = x α (α ∈ R)

For α > 0, we can see that

Domain Range
α is even positive integer R [0, +∞)
α is odd positive integer R R
1
α = n with n is even possive integer [0, +∞) [0, +∞)
α = n1 with n is odd possive integer R R

If α is not rational number, then the domain of the power function

f (x) = x α is (0, +∞).

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 1.3: Elementary functions

Examples

Example Find all values of a such that the domain of f (x) = x a is [0, +∞).

A. a ∈
/Q
B. a = p1 , where p is even positive integer.
C. a = pq , where p is even positive integer and q is odd positive integer.
D. a ∈ Z

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 1.3: Elementary functions

Examples

Example Find all values of a such that the domain of f (x) = x a is [0, +∞).

A. a ∈
/Q
B. a = p1 , where p is even positive integer.
C. a = pq , where p is even positive integer and q is odd positive integer.
D. a ∈ Z
Answer: B

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 1.3: Elementary functions

Trigonometric functions

• Sine function and Arcsine function:

f (x) = sin x and f (x) = arcsin x

Domain Range
sin x R [−1, 1]

If the domain of the function f (x) = sin x is [− π2 , π2 ], then f (x) is a

one-to-one function. The inverse function of this restricted sine function f
exists and is denoted by arcsin.

Domain Range
arcsin x [−1, 1] [− π2 , π2 ]

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 1.3: Elementary functions

• Cosine function and Arccosine function:

f (x) = cos x and f (x) = arccos x

Domain Range
cos x R [−1, 1]

The inverse cosine function is handled simililar. The inverse function of the
restricted cosine function f (x) = cos x, 0 ≤ x ≤ π is denoted by arccos.

Domain Range
arccos x [−1, 1] [0, π]

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 1.3: Elementary functions

• Tangent function and Arctangent function:

f (x) = tan x and f (x) = arctan x

Domain Range
tan x R \{ π2 + kπ : k ∈ Z} R

The inverse function of the restricted tangent function f (x) = tan x,

(− π2 , π2 ) is denoted by arctan.

Domain Range
arctan x R (− π2 , π2 )

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 1.3: Elementary functions

• Cotangent function and Arccotangent function:

f (x) = cotan x and f (x) = arccotan x

Domain Range
cotan x R \{kπ : k ∈ Z} R

The inverse function of the restricted cotangent function f (x) = cotan x,

(0, π) is denoted by arccotan.

Domain Range
cotan x R (0, π)

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 1.3: Elementary functions

Hyperbolic functions

e x − e −x e x + e −x
sinh x = cosh x =
2 2
e x − e −x e x + e −x
tanh x = coth x =
e x + e −x e x − e −x
Proposition
1 cosh2 (a) − sinh2 (a) = 1
2 sinh(a + b) = sinh a cosh b + cosh a sinh b
3 cosh(a + b) = cosh a cosh b + sinh a sinh b
tanh a tanh b
4 tanh(a + b) = 1+tanh a tanh b

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 1.3: Elementary functions

Elementary functions

A function f is called an elementary function if it can be constructed using

five operations (addition, subtration, multiplication, division and
composition) with polynomials, rational functions, trigonometric and
inverse trigonometric functions, hyperbolic and inverse hyperbolic
functions.

Example. The function

r
tan x − 1
f (x) = 3
+ cosh(ln x) − xe sin x
x3 + x 2 + 2x − 1
is an elementary function.

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 1.4: Sequences

1.4: Sequences

A sequence can be thought of as a list of numbers written in a definite

order:
a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . , an , . . .
Notation: {an } or {an }∞
n=1 .

Example:
n
(a) { n+1 }
(b) The Fibonacci sequence {fn } is defined recursively by the conditions

f1 = 1, f2 = 1, fn = fn−1 + fn−2 (n ≥ 3)

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 1.4: Sequences

A sequence {an } is called

bounded above if there is a number M such that an ≤ M for all n ≥ 1.
bounded below if there is a number m such that an ≥ m for all n ≥ 1.
If it is bounded above and below then {an } is bounded sequence.

A sequence {an } is called

increasing if an < an+1 for all n ≥ 1.
decreasing if an > an+1 for all n ≥ 1.
If it is either increasing or decreasing, then {an } is monotonic.

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 1.4: Sequences

Limit of sequences

A sequence {an } has the limit L and we write

lim an = L or an → L as n → ∞
n→∞

if ∀ϵ > 0, ∃N ∈ N : n > N ⇒ |an − L| < ϵ. Roughly speaking, an

approaches L as n becomes sufficiently large.
If lim an exists, then we say the sequence is convergent. Otherwise, we
n→∞
say the sequence is divergent.
1
Example Show that lim = 0.
n→∞ n

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 1.4: Sequences

Proposition
Limit of a sequence is unique if it exists.

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 1.4: Sequences

Squeeze Theorem

Theorem (Squeeze Theorem)

If an ≤ bn ≤ cn for n ≥ n0 and lim an = lim cn = L, then
n→∞ n→∞

lim bn = L.
n→∞

Corollary
If lim |an | = 0, then lim an = 0.
n→∞ n→∞

Example:
√
n
1 Show that lim n = 1.
n→∞
n!
2 Discuss the convergence of the sequence an = nn .

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 1.4: Sequences

Monotonic sequence theorem

Theorem
1 Every bounded above creasing sequence is convergent.

2 Every bounded below decreasing sequence is convergent.

Example an = (1 + n1 )n is convergent.

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 1.4: Sequences

Cauchy’s criterion

Theorem (Cauchy’s criterion)

The sequence {an } converges to something if and only if this holds: for
every ϵ > 0 there exists N ∈ N such that |an − am | < ϵ whenever n, m > N.

Example Prove that the sequence

1 1 1
an = 1 + + + ···
2 3 n
is divergent.

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 1.4: Sequences

Homeworks

Question 1 Find inverse functions of

1 sinh(x)
2 cosh(x)
3 tanh(x)
4 coth(x)

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 1.4: Sequences

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