Dayananda Sagar University

Department of Physics,
School of Engineering,
Harohalli, Bengaluru-562112

Physics Laboratory Manual/Record

(Course Code: 23EN1110)
Common to all branches

Department of Physics,
School of Engineering,
Dayananda Sagar University
Bengaluru-562112
VISION
To empower students to recognize and optimize their full potential, to achieve personal standards
of excellence in academic work as well as in societal development and human ethic values.

MISSION
❖ To awaken the young minds and discover their talents both in theory and in practical
Physics by quality teaching and research.
❖ To address the educational, social, cultural, ethical and emotional needs by a holistic
approach.
❖ To create intellectual property through innovations, quality research and patents to afford
world-class education.
Dayananda Sagar University

Laboratory Certificate

This is to certify that Mr./Ms. Bearing

University Seat number (USN)) has satisfactorily completed the

experiments in above practical subject prescribed by the University for the

First semester B.Tech. programme in the Physics Laboratory of this university during

the year 2024-2025.

Date:

Signature of the Faculty in charge

Marks

Maximum Obtained

Signature of the Chairman

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4
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 Index

S. Name of Page Marks

N. Experiment No. Write-up Conduction Calculation Total
(2) (4) & Result (4) (10)
I-V Characteristicsof a
1 9
Zener Diode
Measurement of
Planck’s constant
2 14
using LED method
Determination of
energy gap of an 17
3 intrinsic
semiconductor
Resistivity
4 measurement of a 20
semiconductor by
four probe technique
I-V Characteristics
5 of a NPN Transistor 23
Determination of
6 Dielectric constant 29
of a material
Determination of
wavelength of a
7 34
laser using
Diffraction grating
Measurement of
8 radius of curvatureof 38
a lens by Newton’s
Rings method
Determination of
moment of inertiaof
9 43
a circular disc using
torsional pendulum
Frequency response
10 of Seriesand Parallel 46
LCR Circuits
11 Hall Effect 53
Average (Marks)

Note: Delay in the submission of lab manual in time shall attract marks deduction.

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6
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 ENGINEERING PHYSICS Laboratory

Course code: 23EN1110

Weeks: 08

Course objectives:

• Understand the importance of Physics in the practical applications.

• Able to calculate all the relevant physical parameters and represent any characteristic
variation graphically.
• Gaining hands-on expertise in working with various semiconductor devices.
• Understanding the relation between dielectric constant of a dielectric and the charging-
discharging of a capacitor.
• Understanding the optical principles of diffraction and interference.
• Understand the concepts of quanta of energy and correlate it with the working principle of
a light emitting diode.
• Understanding the concept of frequency response, bandwidth and quality factor in
electrical circuits.
• Understand the concept of moment of inertia and estimate it for a rigid body.

Course outcomes:
After undergoing this course students will be able to:

• Illustrate the various characteristics of semiconductor materials and different

semiconductor devices.
• Demonstrate the optical principles of diffraction and interference.
• Estimation of moment of inertia for a rigid body.
• Demonstrate the frequency response curve for a LCR circuit.
• Illustrate the characteristics of a dielectric material.
• Interpret the variation of physical parameters graphically and derive conclusions.

IMPORTANT INSTRUCTIONS FOR STUDENTS

1. Students should maintain smart and clean dress code in the lab.
2. Collarless and Sleeveless T-shirts are not permitted.
3. Compulsorily wear ID cards in the lab.
4. Students are not permitted to bring their mobile in the lab, either in the student’s pocket
or in the bag.
5. Use only BLACK pens for writing. Pencil can be used for drawing graphs.
6. Students should get the manual corrected and can transfer it to the Physics records.
7. Students should prepare for viva questions.
8. Students once entering the lab for exams, listen to the instructions given by the
examiners.
9. Usually Procedure, Principle and Theory are not requested to write for the internal and
external exams.

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Physical Constants

Electron rest mass (me) = 9.109×10-31 kg

Proton rest mass (mp) = 1.6726×10-27 kg
Electronic charge (e) = 1.6022×10-19 C
Speed of light in free space (c) = 2.9979×108 m s-1
Permeability of free space (µ0) = 4π×10-7 H m-1
Permittivity of free space (0) = 8.854×10-12 F m-1
Planck’s constant (h) = 6.626×10-34 J s
Avogadro’s number (NA) = 6.022×1023 mol-1
Boltzmann’s constant (kB) = 1.3807×10-23 J K-1

Conversion factor

1 eV = 1.6022×10-19 J
1 Å = 10-10 m
1 inch = 0.0254 m
1 fermi = 10-15 m

Prefixes

T = tera = 1012 c = centi = 10-2

G = giga = 109 m = milli = 10-3
M = mega = 106 µ = micro = 10-6
k = kilo = 103 n = nano = 10-9
p = pico = 10-12

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1. I-V CHARACTERISTICS OF A ZENER DIODE

Objective:
To study the current-voltage (I-V) characteristics of a given Zener diode.

Apparatus and components needed:

Zener diode apparatus. [Consists of D.C power supply, Voltmeter, Ammeter and Zener diode]

Theory:
A Zener diode is a heavily doped PN junction diode which allows current to flow in the forward
direction in the same manner as a PN junction diode, but also permits it to flow in the reverse
direction when the voltage is above a certain value known as the breakdown voltage, or Zener
voltage”. The depletion region formed in this diode is very thin and the electric field is
consequently very high even for a small reverse bias voltages, allowing electrons to tunnel from
the valence band of the p-type material to the conduction band of the n-type material. In the
reverse bias condition, the diode exhibits a sharp break down at a particular voltage after
showinghigh resistance at lower voltages.

Procedure:
1. Connect the forward bias circuit as shown in the Fig. 1.
2. Vary the source voltage gradually and note down the voltage across the diode and note down
the corresponding current values.
3. Remove the circuit connections and reconnect as shown in Fig. 2, which is the reverse bias
circuit.
4. Change the values of voltage in the range 0-15 V for 14 V rated diode, in steps of 1 V.
(reverse applied voltage depends upon the Zener breakdown voltage rating) and note down
the corresponding current values.
5. Plot I vs.V graph as shown in Fig. 3.

Zener Diode

p n

Electronic Symbol for Zener Diode

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Circuit Diagram: R + -
mA
+

V
Vs
-

Fig. 1: Forward Bias

+ -
R
μA
+
V
Vs
-

Fig. 2: Reverse Bias

Model graph

Current

I (mA)

Breakdown
voltage
Voltage, V (V)
Knee voltage

I (μA)

Fig. 3: I-V plot of Zener diode

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Observations:

Forward bias Reverse bias

Voltage, Current, Voltage, Current,

V (V) I (mA) V (V) I (μA)

Results:
i) The current-voltage characteristics of the given Zener diode are obtained.
ii) The observed cut-off voltage or knee voltage of the Zener diode = ………V
iii) The observed break down voltage of the Zener diode = ................... V

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 Viva-voce

Q1. When is the diode said to be under forward bias?

Ans: The diode is said to be under forward bias when the P-side of the diode is connected to
positive terminal of the battery & the N-side is connected to the negative terminal of the
battery.

Q2. When is the diode said to be under reverse bias?

Ans: The diode is said to be under reverse bias when the P-side of the diode is connected to
negative terminal of the battery & the N-side to the positive terminal of the battery.

Q3. What is a Zener diode?

Ans: A Zener diode is a heavily doped PN junction diode which allows current to flow in the
forward direction in the same manner as a PN junction diode, but also permits it to flow in
the reverse direction when the voltage is above a certain value known as the breakdown
voltage, or Zener voltage”.

Q4. What is Zener breakdown voltage?

Ans: The critical value of reverse voltage at which the reverse current increases rapidly is called
the Zener breakdown voltage.

Q5. What are the differences between Zener diode and the ordinary PN junction diode?
Ans:
• In Zener diode both P and N sections are heavily doped but in case of an ordinary diode
they are lightly doped.
• Zener diodes are generally used under reverse bias condition.
• Zener diode is used as a voltage regulator in reverse bias whereas ordinary diode is used
as rectifier.
• The breakdown mechanism in Zener diode is called Zener breakdown which is due to
tunneling of electrons but in case of ordinary diode the breakdown mechanism is
avalanche breakdown which is due to impact ionization.

Q6. Why Zener diode is used as a voltage regulator?

Ans: Beyond the breakdown voltage, the voltage across the Zener diode remains constant even
if there is sharp increase in reverse current.

Q7. How does Zener diode act in forward bias conditions?

Ans: Both Zener diode and ordinary diode operate in similar way under forward bias condition.
For low voltages, the current is very low. Once the applied voltage crosses the knee
voltage, the current increases sharply with a small change in voltage.

Q8. What is this reverse current due to?

Ans: This reverse current is due to movement of minority charge carriers across the junction
which takes place due to the electric field present in the depletion region. Thus the reverse
current is known as the drift current.

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Q9. Which are the minority charge carriers in N & P type materials?
Ans: Electrons are the minority carriers in P-type material and holes are the minority carriers in
N-type material.

Q10. What is depletion region?

Ans: The region around the junction in which there are no free charge carriers is called
depletion region. The region gets depleted due to the recombination of electrons and holes
near the junction.

Q12. What happens if the reverse bias voltage is made very high?
Ans: When the reverse bias voltage is made very high, the covalent bonds near the junction
break down and hence a large number of electron-hole pairs will be liberated, then reverse
current increases abruptly to larger value.

Q14. What happens when the forward voltage is increased to a high value?
Ans: The sudden increase of the forward voltage to a high value damages the P-N junction due
to the flow of large current.

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2. DETERMINATION OF PLANCK’S CONSTANT USING LED

Objective:
To determine the Planck’s constant using LED.

Apparatus and components needed:

Planck’s constant apparatus: [includes wave generator, digital peak reading voltmeter, six
different known wavelength LED’s, resistance etc.]

Theory:
LED is a semiconductor device that emits radiation (photons) of visible wavelengths when they
are “forward biased” (i.e. when the voltage between the p side and the n-side is above the “turn-
on” voltage). The light energy radiated by forward biasing is given by equation
ℎ𝑐
𝐸= ……………………….(1)
𝜆

where c is the velocity of light, λ the wavelength of light emitted, and h is Planck’s constant.

If V is the forward voltage applied across the LED terminals that makes it emit light (it is also
called forward knee voltage) then the energy given to the LED is given by

E = eV ……………… (2) where e is electronic charge.

LEDs are very high efficiency diodes and hence this entire electrical energy is converted
into light energy, then equating equations 1 and 2,
ℎ𝑐
𝑒𝑉 = …………………(3)
𝜆

From this equation Planck’s constant is given by

𝑒𝑉𝜆
ℎ= …………………………………(4)
𝑐
For different wavelengths of light, the forward knee voltage is determined, and the value of h is
e
calculated. Moreover, = 5.33x10 coulomb-sec/meter is a universal constant and hence the
-28

c
product λV must be a constant. This enables the determination of Planck’s constant. The
wavelength of IR LED can be determined by noting the knee voltage V IR and the value
substituted in the equation,
𝜆𝑉(𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒)
𝜆𝐼𝑅 = ………………………….(5)
𝑉𝐼𝑅

Formula:
Planck’s constant:

𝑒𝜆𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒
ℎ= , where h is the Planck’s constant = 6.625 ×10-34 Js,
𝑐
e is the charge of the electron = 1.6 ×10-19 C, and c is the velocity of light = 3 ×108 m/s

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Procedure:
1. The circuit is connected as shown in Fig. 1.
2. The input to the LED is an ac signal.
3. Using a digital peak reading voltmeter the voltage across the LED is measured and recorded.
For given colour LED light.
4. Trial is repeated by changing the LED and the corresponding knee voltage is noted.
5. The product of wavelength and knee voltage is determined, and its average value is
calculated.
6. Planck’s constant is calculated using Eq. 4.
7. The IR LED is now connected, and the knee voltage VIR is observed.
8. The wavelength is calculated using Eq. 5.

Circuit diagram:

Observations:
Colour Wavelength λ (nm) Knee voltage (V) λV (nmV)
Blue 350
Green 500
Yellow 535
Red 600
IR 910
Average value, 𝜆V (average) = nmV
Calculations:
Planck’s constant:
𝑒𝜆𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒
ℎ= = ………………………..Js
𝑐

𝜆𝑉(𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒)
𝜆𝐼𝑅 = = ………………………nm
𝑉𝐼𝑅
Result:
Parameters Theoretical Experimental

Planck’s constant (Js) 6.626 × 10-34

λ V (nmV) 1240

𝜆 for IR-LED (nm) 910

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 Viva-voce

Q1. What is a LED?

Ans: A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits visible light when an
electric current passes through it. The light is not particularly bright, but in most LEDs it is
monochromatic, occurring at a single wavelength. The output from an LED can range from
red (at a wavelength of approximately 700 nanometers) to blue-violet (about 400
nanometers).

Q2. How LED is made in terms of semiconductors?

Ans: An LED consists of two elements of processed material called P-type semiconductors
and N-type semiconductors. These two elements are placed in direct contact, forming a
region called the P-N junction. In this respect, the LED resembles most other diode types,
but there are important differences. The LED has a transparent package, allowing visible
energy to pass through. Also, the LED has a large PN-junction area whose shape is tailored
to the application.

Q3. List some benefits of LED.

Ans: Indicator lights: These can be two-state (i.e., on/off), bar-graph, or alphabetic-numeric
readouts. LCD panel backlighting: Specialized white LEDs are used in flat-panel
computer displays. Fiber optic data transmission: Ease of modulation wide
communications bandwidth minimal noise, resulting in high speed and accuracy.

Q4. How Planck’s constant is determined in this experiment?

Ans: In order to determine Planck's constant, the energy of a photon with a known frequency
must be measured. In the context of light emitting diodes (LEDs), the band gap of
the LED serves to give an approximate energy measurement for the photons emitted.

Q5. What is Planck’s constant?

Ans: Planck's constant, symbolized h, relates the energy in one Quantum (Photon) of
electromagnetic radiation to the frequency of that radiation. In the International System of
units, the constant is equal to approximately 6.626176 × 10-34 joule-seconds. The energy
E contained in a photon, which represents the smallest possible 'packet' of energy in an
electromagnetic wave, is directly proportional to the frequency f according to the following
equation: E = hf. If E is given in joules and f is given in hertz (the unit measure of
frequency), then: E = (6.626176 ×10-34) f

Q6. What is the significance of Planck’s constant?

Ans: The significance of Planck's constant in this context is that radiation, such as light, is
emitted, transmitted, and absorbed in discrete energy packets, or quanta, determined by the
frequency of the radiation and the value of Planck's constant.

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3. DETERMINATION OF ENERGY GAP OF AN INTRINSIC
SEMICONDUCTOR

Objective:
To determine the energy gap of a semiconductor using junction diode.
Apparatus and components needed:
Photodiode experimental setup consisting of 0-3 V regulated power supply, 0-2 mA digital dc
current meter, 0-20 V digital dc voltmeter, white light LED module and photo diode LED
type. A transistor drive for LED is used. The LED power (PLED=VLED ILED) is directly read from
the dial marked on the LED power supply.

Theory:
At absolute zero-degree temperature, semiconductors are pure insulators. As the temperature is
increased thermal energy create vibrations in crystal lattice and few electrons, which acquire
sufficient vibrational energy break their covalent bond, become free, and move to the conduction
band. The energy required to rapture the covalent bond is designated as energy gap EG and
termed as energy gap or band gap energy. Energy less than EG is not acceptable or one cannot
have partially ruptured bond, hence this energy is also called forbidden gap energy. The
electrons that are freed take part in conduction and the material becomes semiconductor. Such a
semiconductor is known as intrinsic semiconductor. Adding impurity atom from the third or
fifth group elements can increase the conduction. This process of adding impure atom is known
as doping and the doped semiconductor becomes extrinsic semiconductor. Determination of
semiconductor energy gap is an important experiment in physics lab. Varieties of extrinsic
semiconductors are available in p-n junction form that can be used for the measurement of
energy gap.

Formula:
Energy gap of the semiconductor is given by
𝐸𝑔 = 𝑒𝑌𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 in Coulomb × Volt i.e. Joule
𝑒𝑌𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡
= = 𝑌𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 in eV
𝑒

Where e = charge of the electron = 1.6 × 10−19 Coulomb

Circuit diagram

Fig. 1: Circuit diagram to determine energy gap of a semiconductor.

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Procedure:

1) Connect the circuit as shown in Fig. 1.

2) Keep the current as constant using constant current source.
3) Heat the semiconductor set up until it reaches 80 ºC.
4) Allow the setup to cool naturally and note down the change in junction voltage for every 5
ºC fall in temperature
5) Plot the graph of junction voltage versus temperature, extend the line to meet on y-intercept
6) Calculate the energy gap using the formula.

Observation:

Table 1: Variation of voltage with respect to temperature

Current =......... mA
Temperature Junction voltage (V)
(º C) (K)
80 353
75 348
70 343
65 338
60 333
55 328
50 323
45 318
40 313

Model graph

Result:
The energy gap of semiconductor is found to be ........... eV

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 Viva-voce
Q1. What are semiconductors?
Ans. Semiconductors are class of materials in which their conductor lies between conductor
and insulator.

Q2. What is meant by band gap? Mention its significance.

Ans. The forbidden region between the valence and conduction band, in which when sufficient
energy is provided an electron can cross over from valence band to conduction band.

Q3. What are two types of semiconductors

Ans. The two types of semiconductors are intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.

Q4. What are two types of extrinsic semiconductor

Ans. The two types of extrinsic semiconductors are n-type and p-type.

Q5. What is meant by doping?

Ans. The addition of impurities to vary the conductivity of a semiconductor is called doping.

Q6. How to obtain n-type and p-type semiconductors

Ans. The addition of pentavalent impurities to the intrinsic semiconductor like silicon or
Germanium produces n-type semiconductor. The addition of trivalent impurities to the
intrinsic semiconductor like silicon or Germanium produces p-type semiconductor.

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4. RESISTIVITY MEASUREMENT OF A SEMICONDUCTOR BY FOUR
PROBE TECHNIQUE

Objective:
To determine the resistivity of a semiconductor by using four probe technique.
Apparatus and components needed:
Four probe set-up (measuring unit), probes arrangement, Ge crystal sample, and heating
arrangement.
Formula:
Resistivity (ρ) of the semiconductor crystal, given by
𝜌𝑜
𝜌=
𝑓(𝑊/𝑆)

𝑉
𝜌0 = × 2𝜋𝑆 (Ω-m)
𝐼
Where,
ρ is the resistivity of the germanium crystal,
W is the thickness of the crystal, (W = 0.5 mm)
S is the distance between the probes, (S = 2 mm),
W/S= 0.25, f(W/S) = 5.54
V is the voltage across the inner probes,
I is the current through the crystal

Fig. 1: Four-Probe set-up for resistivity measurement

Measurement of resistivity by the Four-Probe method

This method is employed when the sample is in the form of a thin wafer, such as a thin
semiconductor material deposited on a substrate. The semiconductor sample is about 10 mm × 5
mm in size and is approximately 0.5 mm thick.
Procedure:
1. Place the sample on the base plate of the Four-Probe arrangement. Unscrew the holder for
the four probes and let the four probes rest in the middle of the sample. Apply a gentle
pressure on the probes and tighten the pipe in this position. Check the continuity between the
probes for proper electrical contacts.
2. Connect the outer pair of probes (red / black) leads to the constant power supply and the
inner pair (yellow / green) leads to the probe voltage terminals.
3. Place the Four-Probe setup in close proximity to some heating element and fix the
thermometer in the heater arrangement through the hole provided.

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4. Switch on the AC mains of four probe setup and put the digital panel meter in current mode.
Adjust the current to say 1 mA.
5. Now put the digital panel meter into voltage mode. Read the voltage between the probes.
6. Heat the crystal through the heating element and note down the voltage for various decreasing
temperatures.
Observations:
Current (I) = 1 mA (Set current to a constant value)
Table-1:
S. Temp. Temp. Voltage R = V/I ρ0=V/I × 2πS ρ= ρ0/f(W/S)   log10 (ρ)
−
°
N. ( C ) (K) (mV) (Ω) (Ω-m) = ρ0/5.54 (Ω-cm)
(Ω-m)

Model graph

Fig. 2: Variation of ρ with inverse of temperature

Result: The temperature dependence of the resistivity of given semiconductor sample as
shown in Table 1. The dependence of the resistivity is …………………… with temperature.
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 Viva-voce

Q1. What is band gap?

Ans: This is the energy gap between the conduction and valence bands of a material.

Q2. How do you differentiate between a conductor, an insulator and a semiconductor in terms
of energy gap?
Ans: In conductors, the valence and conduction bands overlap each other. In insulators, there is
large energy gap between valence and conduction bands, while in semiconductors this
energy gap is not too large so that at room temperature the thermal energy gained by some
of the electrons in the valence band is sufficient to make them jump to conductions band,
crossing this energy gap.

Q3. What are intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors?

Ans: A pure or natural semiconductor is called an intrinsic semiconductor e.g., silicon and
germanium. But it has small electrical conductivity. In order to increase the conductivity
when some pentavalent (like arsenic) or trivalent (like boron) impurity is added to it then it
is called an extrinsic semiconductor.

Q4. Why do we keep current constant for measuring the resistivity of a semiconductor using
four probe at different temperatures?
Ans: In four probe technique, the voltage across the inner two probes at different temperatures is
recorded. This voltage is an indication of resistance or resistivity only if V is proportional
to R or I is constant. This is why a constant current source is necessary.

Q5. How do the conductivities of metals and semiconductor depend on temperature?

Ans: The conductivity of a semiconductor increases with increasing temperature while that of a
metal decreases with increasing temperature.

Q6. What is the equation giving the variation of conductivity/resistivity of a semiconductor

with temperature?
Ans: Conductivity: 𝜎 = 𝜎0 𝑒 −𝐸𝑔 /2𝑘𝑇 and Resistivity: 𝜌 = 𝜌0 𝑒 𝐸𝑔 /2𝑘𝑇

Q7. What are the values of band gaps for Silicon and Germanium?
Ans: Band gaps of Silicon = 1.14 eV
Band gaps of Germanium = 0.67 eV

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5. DETERMINATION OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF A TRANSISTOR

Objective:
To draw the input and output characteristics of a transistor, and hence to determine its current
gain and the knee voltage.

Apparatus and components needed:

Transistor Characteristics Apparatus: [includes Variable DC sources, ammeters, voltmeters,
transistor and resistors]

Theory:
A transistor is a semiconductor device, which consists of three terminals the emitter, base and
the collector. It is regarded as two diodes joined back-to-back. The base region is lightly doped
and made very thin. The doping level in the emitter is more than in the collector. The emitter-
base junction is forward biased and hence junction resistance is low. The collector base junction
is reverse biased and hence the junction resistance is large. At the base of an NPN transistor, the
electrons coming from the emitter are attracted by the reverse biased collector. The collector
current IC is slightly less than the emitter current IE. Due to the recombination of the electrons at
the base, a small base current IB flows through the base terminals. Always IE = IC + IB.

Fig. 1. shows the NPN transistor in common emitter configuration. The two current gains
Ic I
are defined as  = and  = c where α is the emitter current amplification factor and β is
IE IB
base current amplification factor. Input characteristics is a plot of input voltage and input current
with output voltage kept constant as shown in the table for input characteristics.
From the input characteristics, the input resistance can be calculated using the formula
(ie: from the slope)
∆𝑉𝐵𝐸
𝑅𝑖 =
∆𝐼𝐵
From the output characteristic the current gain and amplification factor can be calculated
using the formula

∆𝐼𝐶 𝐼𝐶2 −𝐼𝐶1 𝛽

Current gain, 𝛽 = = Amplification factor, 𝛼 =
∆𝐼𝐵 𝐼𝐵2 −𝐼𝐵1 1+𝛽

Transistor terminals:
(Hold the transistor towards your face, Terminals looks like a triangle, Left is emitter, Next top
is base and right one is collector, Remember EBC clockwise to identify terminals or legs). Here
we use an NPN transistor named CL 100S from BEL, INDIA)

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 Base

Collector
Emitter

Circuit diagram:

Fig. 1: Common emitter (CE) configuration

(as emitter is common to both input side and output side)

Fig. 2: Input characteristics Fig. 3: Output characteristics

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Procedure:

1. The circuit connections are made as shown in the Fig. 1.

2. To draw the input characteristic set the value of voltage VCE for some convenient value, say
2 V.
3. Then by varying the source voltage VBE for different values (0 – 0.8 V in steps of 1 V and
0.2 V), base current IB is note down.
4. The graph of VBE versus IB is drawn from which the input resistance Ri is calculated.
5. The knee voltage can be determined by the graph as shown in the Fig. 2.
6. To draw the output characteristics set the value of IB for some convenient value, say 25 µA.
7. Then for different values of VCE (0-5 V, steps of 1 V) note down the current IC. A graph
of VCE vs. IC is drawn.
8. Repeat the experiment for two more values of IB. Then current gains α and β can be
calculated.

Observations:

a) Input characteristics: Dependence of IB on VBE for constant VCE

VBE (V) Set VCE = 2 V

(Output side set to 2 V)
IB (A)

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Calculations:

From the graph 1: Knee voltage = ………………………V

∆𝐼𝐵
Slope = = …………………………….
∆𝑉𝐵𝐸

1
𝑅𝑖 = = ………………………………. kΩ
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒

b) Output characteristics: Dependence of IC on VCE for constant IB

Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3
IB1= 25 μA IB2= 50 μA IB3= 75 μA
VCE (volt) IC (mA) VCE (volt) IC ( mA) VCE (volt) IC ( mA)

Calculations:
∆𝑰𝑪 𝑰𝑪𝟐 −𝑰𝑪𝟏
Evaluation of Current gain, 𝜷 = = =
∆𝑰𝑩 𝑰𝑩𝟐 −𝑰𝑩𝟏

𝜷
Current Amplification factor 𝜶 = =
𝟏+𝜷

Results:

Knee voltage (V)

Input resistance (< 2 kΩ)
Current Gain (β) (< 200)
Current Amplification Factor ( ) (~0.9)

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 Viva-voce

Q1. What is a transistor? Why is it so called?

Ans: Transistor is a three-terminal device with two PN junctions. It is used to amplify signals
applied at its input terminals. It transforms the input signal from low resistance region to a
high resistance region. Due to this transfer of signal across a resistance, it is called as
transistor (transfer resistor).

Q2. What are the functions that can be performed by transistors?

Ans: Junction transistor can work as an amplifier or oscillator like a triode tube.

Q5. How can a transistor be made?

Ans: A transistor can be made by sandwiching one type of semiconductor between two other
type.

Q6. What are the two types of transistors?

Ans: There are two types namely NPN & PNP transistors.

Q7. What does a transistor consist of?

Ans: A transistor consists of three regions namely emitter, base & collector. The emitter is
heavily doped, collector is lightly doped. Base is a thin layer compared to emitter &
collector.

Q8. What are the configurations by which a transistor can be connected?

Ans: There are three ways or modes:
1. Common emitter mode (CE), 2. Common base mode (CB) & 3. Common collector
mode (CC)

Q9. Which configuration is widely used?

Ans: The most widely used configuration is CE mode, because of its high current gain, voltage
gain & power gain. In CE mode input resistance is high and output resistance is less.
Hence current gain is more.

Q10. Define current gain of a transistor?

Ans: It is defined as the ratio of output current to the input current. It is also called as current
amplification factor. The symbols which are used to represent current gains in CB mode,
CE mode & CC mode are α, β & γ.

Q11. Can transistor be replaced by two back-to-back connected diodes?

Ans: No, because the doping levels of emitter (heavily doped), base (lightly doped) and collector
(doping level greater than base and less than emitter) terminals are different from p and n
terminals in diode.

Q12. For amplification CE is preferred, why?

Ans: Because amplification factor beta is usually ranges from 20-500 hence this configuration
gives appreciable current gain as well as voltage gain at its output on the other hand in the
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 Common Collector configuration has very high input resistance (~750 kΩ) & very low
output resistance (~25 Ω) so the voltage gain is always less than one & its most important
application is for impedance matching for driving from low impedance load to high
impedance source.

Q13. To operate a transistor as amplifier, emitter junction is forward biased, and collector
junction is reverse biased. Why?
Ans: Voltage is directly proportional to Resistance. Forward bias resistance is very less
compared to reverse bias. In amplifier input forward biased and output reverse biased so
voltage at output increases with reverse bias resistance.

Q14. Which transistor configuration provides a phase reversal between the input and output
signals?
Ans: Common emitter configuration.

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6. DETERMINATION OF DIELECTRIC CONSTANT

Objective:
To determine the dielectric constant of the dielectric material of the given capacitor using RC
charging and discharging circuit.

Apparatus and components needed:

Dielectric constant apparatus [consists of power supply, digital voltmeter, timer resistor,
capacitor etc]

Circuit Diagram:

Model graph

Vm
Charging curve
Voltage
(V)

0.5Vm
Discharging curve

T1/2 Time (sec)

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Formula:

The dielectric constant (k) of the material is determined using the relation,

𝟏. 𝟒𝟒𝑻𝟏/𝟐 × 𝒅 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔
𝒌=
𝜺𝟎 𝑨𝑹

where,
d is the distance between the plates,
A is the area of the plates,
0 = 8.854 × 10-12 F/m is the permittivity of free space,
R is the resistance of the resistor used in the circuit in 
and T is time in seconds.

Table 1: Physical dimensions of capacitor

Capacitor C1 C2 C3
Length (mm) 47 114 183
Breadth (mm) 5 5 6
Separation (mm) 0.075 0.075 0.075

Procedure:

1. The circuit connections are made as shown in Fig. 1. R is selected as 100 kΩ and capacitor
C1 is selected and connected to the circuit using patch cords.

2. The digital stop clock is reset by pressing reset button. The display indicates 00.0.

3. The digital DC voltmeter and 5 V-power supplies are connected to the circuit as shown
in Fig. 1.

4. Switch S1 (Charge-discharge) is shifted to the charge position.

5. Switch S2 (Halt-Start) is selected to the start position watching the digital stop clock and the
voltmeter.

6. The capacitor is charged for 10 seconds and voltage across the capacitor after every 10
second is noted from the voltmeter in Table-2.

7. After 10, 20, 30 seconds the voltage across the capacitor is noted down without halting the
timer. The readings obtained are noted in Table-2.

8. Trial is repeated until the capacitor is charged to ~4.5 Volts. In each case the capacitor
voltage is noted at an interval of 10 seconds and noted in Table-2.

9. When the capacitor is charged to maximum voltage (~4.5 V), the charge-discharge switch is
moved to discharge position and the clock is reset.
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10. The voltage across the discharging capacitor is noted after 10 seconds interval without
stopping clock. This is done until the capacitor is discharged fully.

11. Experiment is repeated for different capacitance values and the corresponding readings are
noted in Table-2.

12. A graph is drawn taking time on X-axis and voltage along the Y-axis as shown in Fig. 2. The
charging and discharging curve intersect at a point P, where the voltage across the capacitor
during charging and discharging remains the same. The time at which voltage across the
capacitor during charging and discharging is same noted.

Observations:

Table-2. Charging and discharging of a capacitor

Voltage ( volts)
Time R= 100 k
(sec) C1 C2 C3
Charging Discharging Charging Discharging Charging Discharging
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100

Results:

Parameters C1 (108 µF) C2 (208 µF) C3 (468 µF)

T1/2 (sec)
(for C1 = 7.5, C2 = 12.5, C3 = 17.5)
K
(k1 = 3.2, k2 = 2.9, k3 =2.7)

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 Viva-voce
Q1. What is a capacitor?
Ans: A capacitor is a passive device that stores energy in its Electric Field and returns energy to
the circuit whenever required. A capacitor consists of two Conducting Plates separated by
an Insulating Material or Dielectric.

Q2. What is charging and discharging of a capacitor?

Ans: When the Capacitor is connected to the DC power supply, current flows through the
circuit. Both plates get the equal and opposite charges and an increasing potential
difference is created while the Capacitor is charging. Once this potential difference is equal
to the power supply voltage the Capacitor is fully charged and the current stops flowing
through the circuit. When the capacitor is disconnected from the Power Supply, it
discharges through the resistor and the voltage between the plates (i.e. the potential
difference) drops down gradually to zero.

Q3. How does the current flow through the capacitor?

Ans: Electrons do not leap from one capacitor plate to the other but whilst the capacitor is
charging or discharging as many electrons leave one terminal and arrive at the other, they
are not the same electrons but for all practical purposes you can say that changing currents
flow through a capacitor.

Q4. What is time constant of RC circuit?

Ans: The charging and discharging of a capacitor energy is never instant but takes a certain
amount of time to occur with the time taken for the capacitor to charge or discharge to
within a certain percentage of its maximum supply value being known as its Time
Constant ( τ ). If a resistor is connected in series with the capacitor forming an RC circuit,
the capacitor will charge up gradually through the resistor until the voltage across the
capacitor reaches that of the supply voltage. This time (also called the transient response),
required for the capacitor to fully charge is equivalent to about 5 time constants or 5T. This
transient response time T, is measured in terms of τ = R x C, in seconds, where R is the
value of the resistor in ohms and C is the value of the capacitor in Farads.

Q5. What is the significance of Time constant on the charging and discharging process?
Ans: The smaller the Resistance or the Capacitance, the smaller will be the Time Constant and
hence the faster is the charging and the discharging rate of the capacitor.

Q6. How much time does it take to charge a capacitor?

Ans: Suppose we have a circuit of a 9-volt battery charging a 1000 µF capacitor through a 3 kΩ
resistor: One time constant, τ=RC=(3 kΩ)(1000 µF)=3 seconds. So the transient response
time is 5x3=15 seconds. So it takes the capacitor about 15 seconds to charge up to near 9
volts.

Q7. How does the current vary while discharging in a RC circuit?

Ans: The current decays exponentially with time.

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Q8: What type of resistor (low or high) is used in this experiment and why?
Ans: A resistor of high resistance is used as it causes enhancement of time constant.

Q9. What is the significance of 10-6 in the formula for estimating dielectric constant in this
experiment?
Ans: The capacitors used have their capacitance in units of micro-Farad. To take care of this, a
factor of 10-6 is included in the formula.

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7. DETERMINATION OF THE WAVELENGTH OF A GIVEN LASER
SOURCE USING A DIFFRACTION GRATING

Objective:

To determine the wavelength of the given laser light using diffraction grating of known grating
constant.

Apparatus and components needed:

Laser source (a laser pointer), Mount and stand for the laser, grating, scale and a screen.

𝑋 𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑛
Formula used: 𝜃𝑛 = tan−1 ( 𝑛 ), 𝜆=
𝑓 𝑛

Grating constant d (Reciprocal of no. of lines/unit length, d = 1/No. of lines per millimeter)

1. For 100 lines, 3. For 500 lines,

= 10-3 / 500 = 2.00 ×10-6 m
= 10-3 / 100 = 1.00 × 10-5 m

2. For 300 lines, 4. For 600 lines,

= 10-3 / 300 = 3.33 ×10-6 m = 10-3 / 600 = 1.66 ×10-6 m

Theory:
A plane diffraction grating is an optical glass plate containing a large number of parallel
equidistant slits of the same width. If the width of each transparent portion be ‘a’ and each
opaque portion be ‘b’, then d = a + b is called grating constant. It is the reciprocal of the number
of lines per unit length (N) of grating.

When a beam of monochromatic light falls normally, on the grating surface, its wavelength λ is
calculated using the formula,
d sinθ = nλ .............................................. (1)
where d=[1/N] is the grating constant, θ is the angle of diffraction and n is the order of spectrum.

In this equation all the terms except θ are constant. The angle θ can be measured by measuring
the distance between source and image and distance between the consecutive maximums.
Different orders of diffraction are the results of different incident angles θ. Hence to specify
order θ has been rewritten as θn, which indicate the diffraction angle for n-th order. Fig. 1
indicates process of diffraction, using laser light and grating. The nth order diffraction angle is
given by
θn= tan-1 (Xn/f) ...................................... (2)

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where Xn is the distance of nth order diffraction pattern from the centre of the diffraction pattern
and f is the distance between the screen and the grating. Substituting θn in Eq (1), the
wavelength λ can be calculated using the formula

𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑛
𝜆= ……………………. (3)
𝑛

Fig. 1: Phenomenon of diffraction using grating

Procedure:

1. The laser source is placed on a table and switched on. At about 1 to 2 meters away on the
path of the laser a white screen is placed. The laser beam is made to fall exactly at the centre
of the screen.

2. The grating is placed on the grating stand close to the laser source and the diffraction pattern
is observed.

3. The distance between the grating and the screen is measured. Equally spaced diffracted laser
light spots will be observed.

4. The total numbers of spots are counted. The distance between consecutive orders of
diffraction is measured using a scale and tabulated.

5. Using Eq. (2) diffraction angles are calculated for each order of diffraction.

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6. The wavelength is calculated in each case using Eq. (3). The average value of wavelength is
calculated.

7. The experiment is repeated for another distance between the screen and the grating.

Observations:

Trial 1: The distance between the screen and the grating, f = ...............cm

Diffraction Distance, Distance, Diffraction angle, Wavelength,

order, n 2Xn (cm) Xn (cm) 𝑋 𝑛 𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑛
𝜃𝑛 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) 𝜆 = 𝑛 (nm)
𝑓

Mean value of λ = .................... nm

Trial 2: The distance between the screen and the grating f = ..............cm

Diffraction Distance, Distance, Diffraction angle, Wavelength,

order, n 2Xn (cm) Xn (cm) −1
𝑋𝑛 𝜆=
𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑛
(nm)
𝜃𝑛 = tan ( ) 𝑛
𝑓

Mean value of λ = ................. nm

Mean value of λ of trial 1 and trial 2 = ............... nm

Result: The wavelength of the given laser source = .........................nm.

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 Viva-voce

Q1. What is meant by diffraction of light? What are the different types of diffraction?
Ans: Bending of light around the edge of an obstacle is called diffraction. It is classified into
Fresnel and Fraunhoffer diffraction.

Q2: What is the difference between Fresnal and Fraunhofer diffraction?

Ans: In Fresnel diffraction, source of light and screen are at finite distance from the obstacle. In
this case no lenses are used for making rays parallel
In Fraunhofer diffraction the source of light and screen are placed infinite distance from
obstacle. In this case parallel rays and plane wavefronts are produced by using lens.

Q3. What is the condition for diffraction?

Ans: Size of the object should be comparable with that of the wavelength of the light source.
Since grating constant and wavelength are of the same order (10-6 m), diffraction takes
place.

Q4. What is a grating?

Ans: A grating is a plane glass plate on which ruling ruled using diamond point. The distance
between two rulings is called a grating constant. Width of opaque and transmitted line is
called grating element.

Q5. What are the functions of collimator and telescope?

Ans: Collimator renders parallel rays whereas telescope converge different rays at the focal
point of high piece.

Q6. What kind of diffraction we are studying?

Ans: We are studying Fraunhoffer diffraction.

Q7. What do you understand by angle of minimum deviation?

Ans: It is that angle of incidence at which deviation is minimum and intensity is maximum.

Q8. What is the effect of no. of rulings on the diffraction spectrum?

Ans: Higher the number of rulings, gap between the maxima in the diffraction pattern increase.

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8. NEWTONS RINGS

Objective:
To determine the radius of curvature of a plano convex lens by Newton's ring method.

Apparatus and components needed:

Newton’s ring apparatus, traveling microscope, and monochromatic light source.

Formula:

2 −𝐷 2
𝐷𝑚 𝑛
𝑅=
4(𝑚−𝑛)𝜆

where, Dm = diameter of the mth dark ring

Dn = diameter of the nth dark ring
(m-n) = difference between the mth and nth dark ring
λ = Wavelength of sodium light =5893x 10-10 m

Figure:

Microscope

Reflecting Light source

slide, A

Plano convex Lens, L

Glass
slide, B
Centre line, C

Fig. 1: Ray diagram

Procedure:

1. The apparatus is set up as shown in the Figure.

2. The travelling microscope is placed such that its objective is directly above the plano–
convex lens.
3. The inclined glass plate is tilted so that the light rays from the monochromatic source are
reflected on the plane glass plate and the field of view is brightly illuminated.
4. The focus of the microscope is adjusted such that the Newton’s rings are clearly seen.
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 5. The traveling microscope is adjusted such that the point of intersection of the cross wires
coincides with the center of the ring system.
6. The microscope is moved towards the left so that the vertical cross wire is tangential to the
8th dark ring and the reading of microscope is taken.
7. The microscope is now moved towards right and the reading of every ring is noted down till
the 8th dark ring on the other side is reached.
8. The readings are entered in the tabular column and the mean value of (𝐷𝑚2 − 𝐷𝑛2) is
calculated. Knowing the wavelength of source light, the radius of curvature of the plano
convex lens is calculated using the formula,

2 −𝐷2
𝐷𝑚 𝑛
𝑅=
4(𝑚−𝑛)𝜆

Observations:

Least count of the traveling microscope

Distance moved on the pitch scale

𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ = No. = …………………………mm
of rotations given to the head scale

Pitch
𝐿. 𝐶. = No. = …………………………mm
of division on the head scale

TR = PSR + (HSR × LC)

1. Table for calculating Dm2:

Ring T.M. Reading T.M. Reading Ring diameter Dm2 in
No. “m”
LEFT RIGHT (mm)
PSR HSR TR PSR HSR TR Dm = R2 ~ R1 (mm2)
(mm) (mm)
R1 (mm) R2 (mm)

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2. Table for calculating Dn2:

Ring T.M. Reading T.M. Reading Ring diameter Dn2 Dm2 - Dn2
No. LEFT RIGHT (mm) 2
“n” PSR HSR TR PSR HSR TR Dn = R4 ~ R3 (mm2) (mm )
(mm) (mm) (For m-n = 4)
R3 (mm) R4 (mm)

2
Here (m-n) = 4 Mean (𝐷𝑚 − 𝐷𝑛2 ) = mm2

= × 10-6 m2

Result: The radius curvature of the given Plano convex lens = ..................... m

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 Viva-voce

Q1. How Newton’s rings are formed?

Ans: They are formed by the interference between two wave fronts reflected between the two
surfaces. Interference is caused by the path difference between two rays arriving at the
microscope.

Q2. What are Newton’s rings?

Ans: The phenomenon of Newton's rings, named after Isaac Newton, is an interference pattern
caused by the reflection of light between two surfaces - a spherical surface and an adjacent
flat surface.

Q3. How does alternate dark and bright rings originate?

Ans: The bright rings are originated by constructive interference between the light waves
reflected from both surfaces, while the dark rings are caused by destructive interference.

Q4. What is interference?

Ans: It is the superposition of two or more waves resulting in a new wave pattern.

Q5. What is constructive and destructive interference?

Ans: When two or more waves come together, they will interfere with each other. This
interference may be constructive or destructive. If you take two waves and bring them
together, they will add wherever a peak from one matches a peak from the other. That's
constructive interference. Wherever a peak from one wave matches a trough in another
wave, however, they will cancel each other that is destructive interference.

Q6. What is the peculiarity of a monochromatic light source?

Ans: A monochromatic light has a constant wavelength or frequency.

Q7. Define wave coherence.

Ans: Coherence is a measure of the correlation that exists between the phases of the wave
measured at different points. Two beams of light from a monochromatic source are said to
be coherent if the phase difference between their waves is constant; they are non-coherent
if there is a random or changing phase relationship.

Q8. What are fringes?

Ans: Interference fringes are the alternate bright or dark bands caused by interference of light
waves.

Q9. Define optical path length.

Ans: It is the product of geometrical path length of a ray and the refractive index of the medium.

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Q10. What is the condition for interference to occur?
Ans: If the optical path difference between two light waves is either zero or integral multiple of
wavelength, then constructive interference will occur.
If the optical path difference between two waves is (2n+1)/2 multiple of wavelength,
then destructive interference takes place.

Q11. What are optical thin films?

Ans: They have thickness of the order of one wavelength of light.

Q12. Explain thin film interference.

Ans: A very thin air film is formed between the surfaces of the plano-convex lens and the glass
plate. When monochromatic light passes through this film, a portion of the light gets
reflected from the glass-to-air boundary, while the remainder is transmitted through the air
film which again gets reflected at the air-to-glass boundary. The two reflected rays will
now interfere with each other.

Q13. For the different rings/fringes observed, what is the relation between the thickness of thin
air film and wavelength of light?
Ans: If t is the thickness of the film and λ is the wavelength of light, then
a) for a bright fringe, 2t = n λ
b) for a dark fringe, 2t = (2n+1)λ/2
where, n corresponds to the order of fringe.

Q14. What is the purpose of glass plate incline at 450 in this experiment?
Ans: For normal incidence of light wave.

Q15. Why are the fringes formed in a circular shape?

Ans: The thickness of air film at the point of contact is zero, which increases gradually as we
move outward. The locus of points where the air film has same thickness, will then fall on
a circle whose center is the point of contact. Thus, thickness of air film will be constant at
points on any circle having the point of lens-glass plate contact as the center. Hence, the
fringes formed are circular.

Q16. Why the center of the rings is dark?

Ans: Because the plano-convex lens and the bottom glass plate both are in contact and at that
particular place the center dark ring will appear.

Q17. What will happen if we replace Sodium light with a green colored light source?
Ans: There will not be any difference in the formation of rings since both are monochromatic
light sources.

Q18. Is white light a monochromatic source?

Ans: No, since it has a range of wavelengths.

Q19. What will happen if we use White light in this experiment?

Ans: Colored fringes will form.

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9. DETERMINATION OF RIGIDITY MODULUS-TORSIONAL
PENDULUM

Objective: To determine the moment of inertia of a given disc using torsional pendulum

Apparatus: Torsional pendulum, stop clock, meter scale, two symmetrical mass, screw gauge.

Principle: The suspension wire is twisted by the circular disc fixed at the bottom of the wire and
the wire undergoes shearing strain which leads to torsional oscillations. The angular acceleration
of the disc is proportional to its angular displacement and is always directed towards its mean
position and the motion of the disc is simple harmonic.

Formula:
Moment of inertia (I) of a circular disc,
2𝑚(𝑑22 −𝑑12 )𝑇02
𝐼= in kg-m2
𝑇22 −𝑇12

Where,
m = Mass of the identical cylinder,
d1 = Smallest distance between centre of the suspension wire and centre of the symmetrical
mass,
d2 = Largest distance between centre of the suspension wire and centre of the symmetrical mass,
T0 = Period of oscillations without mass (t/10),
T1 = Period of oscillations with masses at d1 (t/10,
T2 = Period of oscillations with masses at d2 (t/10).

Figure:

Fig. 1: Torsional oscillations given to the circular disc.

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Observations:

Position of Time for 10 Time period

equal masses oscillations (s) T = (t/10)
(s)
Trial Trial mean
1 2
Without T0 =
masses
Masses at d1 T1 =
Masses at d2 T2 =

Procedure:
1. Make a chalk mark on the circular disc suspended by a thin wire (Fig. 1).
2. By making a small twist to the circular disc, set up Torsional oscillations.
3. After the first few oscillations, the time taken for 10 complete oscillations is noted. The
experiments are repeated for second trial and mean value of time (t) is calculated. Time
period is calculated as T0= (t/10).
4. Repeat the same procedure by keeping two identical masses close to centre of suspension
and note down the distance between the centre of the any one of the mass to centre of
suspension (d1). Calculate the mean time period as (T1=tꞌ/10).
5. Follow the same procedure by keeping masses at farthest distance from the centre of
suspension. The distance between the centre of any one of the mass to centre of suspension
is now taken as d2. Calculate the mean time period (T2=tꞌꞌ/10).
6. Calculate the moment of inertia (I) by using the formula.

Result: Moment of inertia of the circular disc I = kg-m²

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 Viva-Voce

Q1. Define Time Period?

Ans: Time taken for one complete oscillation.

Q2. Define Moment of Inertia?

Ans: It is the measure of the inertia of a body in rotatory motion. It depends upon the axis of
rotation, mass of the body and also on the distribution of the mass about the axis.
Q3. What is the meaning in calling this a pendulum?

Ans: The disc is making oscillations around a vertical axis passing through its centre of mass
and hence the arrangement is called a torsional pendulum.
Q4. Difference between simple pendulum and torsional pendulum?

Ans: In a simple pendulum the Simple harmonic motion is due to the restoring force which is the
component of the weight of the bob. In a torsional pendulum the Simple harmonic motion
is due to the restoring couple arising out of torsion and shearing strain.
Q5. What is S. H. M ?

Ans: A body is said to have a S.H.M, if its acceleration is always directed towards a fixed point
on its path and is proportional to its displacement from the fixed point.
Q6. What is Young‟s modulus?

Ans: It is the ratio of longitudinal stress to the longitudinal strain.

Q7. Define Rigidity of modulus?

Ans: When tangential surface forces are applied on a body, the successive layers of the material
are moved or sheared. This type of strain is called shearing strain. “The ratio of tangential
stress to shearing strain is called Rigidity of modulus”
Rigidity of modulus = Tangential stress / shearing strain.
Tangential stress = Force/Area.
Shearing strain= θ

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10. SERIES AND PARALLEL LCR CIRCUIT

Objective:

a) To study the frequency response of the series and parallel resonance circuits.
b) To determine the inductance value of the given inductor.
c) To determine the band width and quality factor of the circuit in series resonance.

Apparatus and components needed:

Audio frequency oscillator and LCR apparatus [consists of a.c. milli ammeter, inductors of
unknown value, resistors and capacitors of known values]

Theory:

In series LCR circuit the current in the circuit is given by

V
I= where XL is the inductive reactance, XC is the capacitive reactance.
R + (X L − X C )
2 2

When XL = XC, the resonance occurs, and the current reaches its maximum value. i.e.,
1 1
L = . Thus, resonance frequency, f = ;
r
C 2 LC
1
Therefore, L = ------------- (1)
4 2 f r2C

V
In parallel resonance the current in the circuit is minimum and is given by I min =
L
CR
The quality factor Q is defined as the ratio of the energy stored in the coil to the energy dissipated
in it. It gives the Figure of merit and is used to compare different coils.
1 𝐿
𝑄= √
𝑅 𝐶

In series circuit, inductor, capacitor and resistance are connected in series to the Voltage source,
Vs and in parallel circuit, inductor and capacitor are connected in parallel to the Voltage source,
Vs as shown in the circuit diagram. In parallel circuit, no need to include resistance as in the
Figure 3.

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Circuit diagram:

I I (mA)
B.W
Imax
L

Imax/2
C
~
R f (Hz)

Fig. 1: series resonance circuit Fig. 2.: Series resonance curve

I (mA) B.W

Imin x 2

Imin
f (Hz)
fa fo fb

Fig. 3: Parallel resonance circuit Fig. 4: Parallel resonance curve

Procedure:

For series resonance,

1. The circuit is connected as shown in the Fig. 1.

2. The output voltage of the oscillator is set to some suitable value and kept it constant
throughout the experiment.

3. The frequency f is increased in suitable steps (100 Hz- 2 kHz, in steps of 100 Hz and 2 kHz -
8 kHz in steps of 1 kHz) and the corresponding current is noted.

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4. The resonance frequency for a maximum current must be determined with maximum
accuracy.

5. A graph of I v/s f is plotted as shown in Fig. 2.

6. The resonance frequency is noted from the graph.

7. The inductance value of the coil is determined using Eq. (1).

8. The quality factor Q of the circuit is evaluated using Eq. (2)

For parallel resonance,

1. The circuit is done as in Fig. 3.

2. The experiment is repeated as in series resonance.

3. The readings are plotted as shown in Fig. 4.

4. From the graph the resonance frequency for minimum current is noted.

5. The unknown inductance value is determined using Eq. (1).

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Observations:
R = 750 Ω C = 0.1 µF

Frequency Series resonanceI Parallel resonance

(in Hz) (in mA) I (in mA)

In the frequency response curve, the frequency points where the power dissipation is half the
I max
maximum are marked fa and fb. These points are at on either side of the I max. Then
2
f = ( fb − fa ) is called the bandwidth.

The Q from the graph is, Q graph = fo/Δf ............................ (2)

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Calculations: Cs =…………. F; Cp= ..................... F;

1
In series resonance, Ls = = .............................. H
42f 2 Co s
1
In parallel resonance, Lp = = .............................. H
4 f o 2C P
2

Results:

Results Series Circuit Parallel Circuit

1. Inductance (H)
(~0.176 H for series
and parallel)
2. Band Width (Hz)
(~1250 Hz)

3. Quality Factor
fo/Δf

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 Viva-voce

Q1. Define resistance(R), Capacitance(C) & Inductance (L)?

Ans: Resistance is the opposition offered by the material for the flow of current. Its SI unit is
ohm (Ω). Capacitance of a capacitor is defined as the ability of the capacitor to store
electric charges, it is expressed in Farad (F). Self-inductance of the coil is defined as the
emf induced in the coil when the current through the circuit varies at one ampere per
second. Its SI unit is Henry (H). Capacitor is short for ac but open for dc. Inductor is short
for dc but open for ac.

Q2. Distinguish between acceptor and rejector circuits?

Ans: In series LCR circuit current becomes maximum at resonance frequency due to minimum
impedance of the circuit and so easily accepts the current whose frequency is equal to its
resonant frequency. Hence the circuit is called an acceptor circuit.
In parallel LCR circuit current becomes minimum at resonance frequency due to
maximum impedance of the circuit which causes rejection of the current whose frequency
is equal to its resonant frequency. Hence it is called a rejecter circuit.

Q3. Define quality factor and impedance?

Ans: Quality factor Q determines how well the LCR circuit stores energy, and it is defined by
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑
𝑄 = 2𝜋 ( ) per cycle
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑

Higher the quality factor higher will be the selectivity and longer will be the distortion. It
depends on the values of R, L and C. Lower R makes Q value high. In series resonance
circuits the Q-factor gives the voltage magnification of the circuit, whereas in a parallel
circuit it gives the current magnification.
Resistance offered by the circuit for the flow of ac is called impedance.
Q4. Define a choke?
Ans: It is an inductor which offers very high resistance for the flow of ac (so that no current
flows).
Q5. Define mutual inductance?
Ans: It is the phenomenon of inducing emf in one coil by varying the current in the other.

Q6. Define wave amplitude, period, frequency and rms?

Ans: Amplitude of a wave is the maximum value of current or voltage.
Period is the time taken by the current or voltage to complete one cycle.
One complete cycle of positive and negative values of an ac is called a cycle.
Number of cycles per second is called frequency.
The term rms stands for root-mean-squared. It is the square root of the mean (average)
value of the squared function of the instantaneous values.
The rms value of an AC current represents the equal amount of power in DC current.

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 Vrms = Vpeak/√2 = Vpeak × 70.7%
Irms = Ipeak/√2 = Ipeak × 70.7%

Q7. What is the condition for resonance?

Ans: In LCR circuit resonance occurs when the capacity reactance (XC) becomes equal to
inductive reactance (XL) i.e. XL = XC

Q8. What is meant by time constant?

Ans: It is the time taken by the capacitor to get charged to 63% of its maximum value t =1/RC.

Q9. When does resonance occur?

Ans: If the capacitive reactance is greater than the inductive reactance, XC > XL then the overall
circuit reactance is capacitive giving a leading phase angle.
If the inductive reactance is greater than the capacitive reactance, XL > XC then the overall
circuit reactance is inductive giving the series circuit a lagging phase angle.
If the XL = XC then the angular frequency at which this occurs is called the resonant
frequency and produces the effect of resonance.

Q10. At resonance, what happens to the current flowing through the circuit?
Ans: The magnitude of the current depends upon the frequency applied to the LCR circuit.
When impedance, Z is at its maximum, the current is a minimum and likewise, when Z is
at its minimum, the current is at maximum.

Q11. What are Conductance, Susceptance and Admittance?

Ans: Conductance G = 1/R i.e. reciprocal of resistance
Susceptance B = 1/X i.e. reciprocal of reactance
Admittance Y = 1/Z i.e. reciprocal of impedance

Q12. Write the expression for total impedance in series and parallel LCR circuits.
Ans: In a series circuit, Z = √(R2 + (XL-XC)2)
1 1 1 2
1n a parallel circuit, 𝑍 = +( − )
1
√( )2 𝑋𝑐 𝑋𝐿
𝑅

Q13. Explain what is meant by bandwidth of a LCR circuit.

Ans: If we reduce or increase the frequency until the average power absorbed by the resistor in
the series resonance circuit is half that of its maximum value at resonance, two frequency
points are resulted with the current value equal to 70.7% of its maximum resonant value.
The point corresponding to the lower frequency at half the power is called the “lower cut-
off frequency”, and that corresponding to the upper frequency at half power is called the
“upper cut-off frequency. The distance between these two points is called the Bandwidth
(BW). The range of frequencies in the BW is also called as pass-band.

Q14. When are the voltage and current in a series LCR circuit in phase?
Ans: When inductive and capacitive reactances are equal i.e. at resonance
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11. HALL EFFECT

Objective:
To determine the charge density and velocity of charge carriers in the doped semiconductors using a
Gauss electromagnet.

Apparatus
An electromagnet of 2 k Gauss field strength, a constant current power supply, digital gauss meter,
and n and p type germanium semiconductor samples.

The Hall Effect

The Hall effect involves production of an electric field (voltage) in an electrical conductor (generally
in the form of a thin rectangular metal or semiconductor slab), in the direction transverse to the flow
of electric current in the conductor by applying a magnetic field perpendicular to the direction of flow
of current.

Application of a magnetic field

If we apply a magnetic field along the X- axis (along the thickness of the slab) there will be a force
(viz. the Lorentz force) acting on the charged particles. The electrons moving along the upward Y-
direction are swept sideways, in the direction perpendicular to both B and v. Hence electrons in the
n-type semiconductor will drift to the left side of the slab as shown in Fig 1. These electrons will
result in depletion of charge carriers from the middle and right side of the slab. Accumulation of
charges along the side of slab results in a negative potential which can be measured using a milli-
voltmeter. The depletion of charges from the central part of the slab increases the resistance of the
slab. The voltage developed across the breadth of slab is called Hall voltage. However, the Hall
voltage cannot be measured independently but can be measured along with the Ohmic voltage drop
across the slab. Hence noting the Ohmic voltage without the applied magnetic field and the voltage
with the magnetic field and subtracting the Ohmic voltage from the voltage measured with the
magnetic field gives the value of the Hall voltage.

In this manner the Hall voltage can be determined experimentally.

V(negative potential) = VOhmic + VHall

The Hall voltage is given by

VHall =V (negative potential) - VOhmic

Similarly in a p-type semiconductor, the positive voltage developed can be measured using a milli-
voltmeter. The measured voltage is

V(positive potential) = VOhmic + VHall

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 Fig. 1: Lorentz force acting on an electron moving along the upward direction

Experimental procedure

The experiment consists of four parts, namely

Part-A: Calibration of the electromagnet

Part-B: Response of the p-type semiconductor and determination of its Hall voltage.
Part-C: Response of the n-type semiconductor and determination its Hall voltage
Part-D: Determination of concentration and velocity of charge carriers

Part-A: Calibration of the electromagnet

1. The constant current power supply is connected to the electromagnet and power is switched
on. The pole gap of the electromagnet is set to 10 mm by adjusting the distance between the
two pole pieces as measured with the 10 mm gauge provided.
2. The gauss meter probe is connected to the digital gauss meter, and it is switched on. The meter
will show a small reading. The zero-adjustment knob on the front panel of the gauss meter
is adjusted to make the gauss meter reading 0.000 in the 2 k Gauss range.
3. Now the gauss meter probe is positioned at the center of the two pole pieces of the electromagnet
as shown in Fig. 2 and the electromagnet power supply is switched on.

Fig. 2: Gauss meter probe positioned at the center of the electromagnet

4. The current in the constant current power increasing in steps of 100 mA up to the maximum
value of 1 A. In each case the current and gauss meter readings are noted and recorded in
Table 1.

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 Table 1: Magnetic flux for different values of current
Magnetic Flux B (k Gauss)
Magnet current Increasing Decreasing Average Flux B
(A) current (A) current (A) (k Gauss)

5. The magnet current is now decreased in successive steps of 100 mA and the corresponding
magnetic flux values are noted and the readings are tabulated in Table 1. The average value
of magnetic flux is calculated, and a graph of magnetic flux verses magnet current is drawn.
This is the magnet calibration graph, as shown in Fig. 3, from which magnetic flux for
different values of current can be noted.

Fig. 3: Magnet calibration graph

6. It may be noted that the slope of graph gives the sensitivity of the magnet to the current
producing it in k Gauss/A.

Magnet sensitivity (Slope) = ……… kG/A

Part-B: Response of the p-type semiconductor and determination of its Hall voltage

7. The thickness of the p-type semiconductor sample is noted from the sample as
t = 0.67 mm
8. The constant current power supply is now switched off

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 Fig. 4: Circuit connections

9. The p-type semiconductor sample is connected, and the circuit connections are done as
shown in Fig. 4. The current to the sample is set to 4 mA and the voltage developed across
the slab without the magnetic field (B=0) is noted.

I =4 mA; VOhmic = …….mV

10. Now the p-type semiconductor sample is placed in between the two pole pieces of the
electromagnet with the soldered side of PCB facing left to the user and current to the
electromagnet is switched on.

11. Observing the calibration graph of the magnet current is set to get 0.1 k gauss magnetic flux
across the pole pieces of the electromagnet gives

Magnetic flux B = 0.1 k Gauss, Magnet current = 0.14 A

12. With 4 mA current passing through the sample, the voltage developed is noted which gives
the positive potential due the Hall effect and the Ohmic drop

V (positive potential) = VOhmic + VHall

The readings obtained are tabulated in Table 2.

13. The experiment is repeated by increasing the magnetic flux in steps 0.1 k Gauss. The
required magnet current is obtained from the calibration graph.

V (positive potential) = VOhmic + VHall

14. For each value of magnetic flux, the current through the sample is maintained at 4 mA and
the voltage developed across the slab is noted, from which the Hall voltage is calculated
and presented in Table 2.

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 Table 2: Hall voltage for different values of magnetic flux in n-type and p-type semiconductors
Magnet Magnetic Flux Voltage across the Hall Voltage
current (A) BX (k Gauss) slab (mV) VH (mV)
p-type n-Type p-type n-Type

16. The maximum current through the magnet is set at …….. A, which produces …… k Gauss
magnetic flux. For this value of the magnetic field

Magnetic flux B =……..k Gauss

Magnet current = …….A

V(positive potential) = VOhmic + VHall = ……. mV

V(positive potential) - VOhmic = VHall = ……..mV

Part-C: Response of the n-type semiconductor and determination its Hall voltage

17. The experiment is repeated for the n-type semiconductor. The p-type semiconductor is removed
from the circuit and the magnet. The n-type semiconductor is now connected to the circuit and
without applying the magnetic field, the current through the sample is set to 4 mA and the voltage
developed across the slab is noted.

V(negative potential) = VOhmic + VHall = ……….mV

In this case negative voltage developed across the slab.

18. The n-type semiconductor is now placed in between the pole pieces of the magnet with the
PCB carrying the sample facing left of the observer as before.

19. The current through the magnet is set to 140 mA producing 0.1 k Gauss field and voltage
developed across the slab with 4 mA current passing through it is recorded.

V(negative potential) = VOhmic + VHall = ………mV

Hence Hall voltage in the n-type semiconductor is given by

VHall = V(negative potential) - VOhmic

VHall = ………..mV
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20. The experiment is repeated by increasing the magnetic field in steps of 0.1 k Gauss up to the
maximum value of 1 k Gauss. In each case the negative voltage developed across the slab is
noted and the Hall voltage is calculated and tabulated in Table 2.
21. A graph is drawn taking magnetic flux along X-axis and the Hall voltage along the Y-axis, as
shown in Fig. 5. A straight-line graph is obtained as expected and the slopes of both the lines are
calculated that provide sensitivity of both n-type and p-type semiconductors to magnetic field.

Fig. 5: Variation of the Hall voltage with magnetic flux

Slopes of the two straight lines provide the sensitivities of the semiconductor probe to magnetic
field, hence

Sensitivity of the p-type semiconductor (= Slope p-type) = … … . mV/k Gauss

Sensitivity of the n-type semiconductor (=Slope n-type) = … … … . m V/k Gauss

Part- D: Determination of concentration and velocity of charge carriers

To calculate the concentration and velocity of the charge carriers, one needs the physical
dimensions of the sample.

Table-3: Physical dimensions of the semiconductor sample

Semiconductor Thickness t (mm) Breadth b (mm)
n-type 0.61 4.68
p-type 0.67 5.02

The slope of the straight line obtained from the Hall voltage verses magnetic flux plot is
given by
𝑅𝐻 × 𝐼𝑦
Slope p-type = 𝑡
…. mV/k Gauss = …….. mV/Tesla

Thus, RH is given by

𝒔𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆 × 𝒕
RH = 𝑰𝒚
=______________

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Hence carrier concentration (p) of the p-Type semiconductor is given by
𝟏
p= ⅇ𝐑 =_______________holes/m2
𝐇

The velocity of the holes inside the slab is given by

𝐈𝐲
v= = ________________m/s
𝐭 𝐛 𝐑𝐇

Which is about 100 times the values of the velocity sound in air.

For the electrons in the n-type semiconductor carrier concentration (n)

𝐬𝐥𝐨𝐩ⅇ × 𝐭
RH = =______________
𝐈𝐲

𝟏
n = ⅇ𝐑 =_______________ electrons/m2
𝐇

𝐈𝐲
v= =______________m/s
𝐭 𝐛 𝐑𝐇

Which is about 152 times the velocity of sound in air. Hence electrons in the semiconductor lattice move
faster than the holes.

Results

Semiconductor Sensitivity to magnetic Carrier Carrier Hall coefficient

field concentration velocity RH
(mV/Tesla) (Charges/m2) x1020 (m/s) (m2/Coulomb)
p-type
n-type

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 Viva-Voce
Q1. What is Hall Effect?

Ans: When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field mutually perpendicular to the
direction of current a potential difference is developed at right angle to both the magnetic and electric
field. This phenomenon is called Hall effect.

Q2. Define hall co-efficient.

Ans: It is numerically equal to Hall electric field induced in the specimen crystal by unit current when it
is placed perpendicular in a magnetic field of 1 weber/(meter*meter).

Q3. Define mobility.

Ans: It is the ratio of average drift velocity of charge carriers to applied electric field.

Q4. Why is Hall potential developed?

Ans: When a current carrying conductor is placed in a transverse magnetic field the magnetic field exerts
a deflecting force (Lorentz Force) in the direction perpendicular to both magnetic field and drift velocity
this causes charges to shift from one surface to another thus creating a potential difference.

Q5. What is Fleming’s Left Hand Rule?

Ans: Stretch thumb, first finger, middle finger at right angles to each other such that fore finger points in
the direction of magnetic field, middle finger in the direction of current then thumb will point in the
direction of the force acting on it.

Q6. How does mobility depend on electrical conductivity?

Ans: It is directly proportional to conductivity.

Q7. Define Hall angle.

Ans: It is the angle made with the x direction by the drift velocity of charge carrier is known as hall
angle.

Q8. Which type of charge has greater mobility?

Ans: In semiconductors, electron has greater mobility than holes.

Q9. What happens to the hall coefficient when number of charge carriers is decreased?

Ans: Hall coefficient increases with decrease in number of charge carriers per unit volume.

Q10. Name one practical use.

Ans: It is used to verify if a substance is a semiconductor, conductor or insulator. Nature of charge
carriers can be measured.

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Work sheet

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Work sheet

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