7 Acids, bases and salts

7.1 The characteristic properties of acids and bases

Acids
Most people think of acids as being corrosive and dangerous. This is true for some acids we use in the
laboratory, such as sulphuric acid. But some acids are not harmful and are commonly found in our
food. For example, vinegar is a solution of ethanoic acid in water. Citrus fruits, such as oranges and
lemons, contain citric acid. The acids are responsible for the sour taste in these fruits. The word acid
means having a sour taste. All acids have a sour taste.

Acids are classified as weak or strong. Strong acids are man-made and very corrosive. Large amounts
of strong acids are used in industry for making useful products. Weak acids are usually found in plants
and animals. They are used in food and are not as corrosive. The formulae of some common acids are
given in Table below.
Strong acids Weak acids
sulfuric acid 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 ethanoic acid 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻
hydrochloric acid HCl citric acid 𝐶6 𝐻8 𝑂7
nitric acid 𝐻𝑁𝑂3

An acid is a substance that produces hydrogen ions, 𝑯+

(𝒂𝒒) in water. Acids only have acid properties

when dissolved in water. Aqueous solutions of acids contain 𝐻 + . Acids only behave as acids when they
are dissolved in water.
Solutions of acids in water have the following properties:
— they contain hydrogen ions and conduct electricity.
— they have a sour taste.
— they turn moist blue litmus paper red (test for acids).
— they react with some metals to produce hydrogen gas, H2.
— they react with carbonates to produce carbon dioxide gas, CO2.
— they react with metal oxides and hydroxides to produce a salt and water.

Hydrogen lon and Acids

+
A hydrogen ion has the formula 𝐻(𝑎𝑞) . Hydrogen ions are produced when acids dissolve in water.

Hydroxide ion and Alkalis

A hydroxide ion has the formula 𝑂𝐻 − . A solution containing hydroxide ions is produced when an
alkalis dissolves in water. Aqueous solutions of alkalis contain 𝑂𝐻 − ions. The properties of alkalis are
due to these hydroxide ions.

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The hydroxide ions make alkalis feel soapy to the skin. Alkalis also change the colours of indicators.
For example, alkalis turn red litmus paper blue. This is a simple test for alkalis.
Some carbonates such as potassium carbonate and sodium carbonate dissolve in water to form
alkaline solutions.

The Bronsted-Lowry Theory

According to the Bronsted-Lowry Theory of acids and bases:
(a) An acid is a substance that gives protons (hydrogen ions, 𝐻 + ) to another substance. An acid is
described as a proton donor.
(b) A base is a substance that takes a proton from another substance. A base is described as a
proton acceptor.
An acid always reacts with a base. The substance that loses the proton is the acid. The substance that
gains the proton is the base.

Bases are oxides or hydroxides of metals. Most bases are insoluble in water. Bases that dissolve in
water are called alkalis. Therefore, alkalis are soluble bases. Some examples of bases and alkalis are
given in the table below.
Insoluble bases Soluble bases -alkalis
magnesium oxide MgO sodium hydroxide NaOH
copper (II) oxide CuO calcium hydroxide 𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2
lead (II) oxide PbO ammonia (ammonium hydroxide) 𝑁𝐻3
Names and formulas of some bases

(a) Reaction of Metals with Water

Some metals react with water to form metal hydroxides and hydrogen gas.
metal + water → metal hydroxide + hydrogen
𝑁𝑎(𝑠) + 2𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) → 2𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2(𝑔)

Chemical Properties of Acids

(b) Acids react with metals
Many dilute acids react with many metals to produce hydrogen gas. An example is the reaction of
magnesium with dilute hydrochloric acid.

metal + acid → salt + hydrogen

Word equation
𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑢𝑚 + ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 → 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑒 + ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛

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Chemical equation
𝑀𝑔(𝑠) + 2𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) → 𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑙2(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2(𝑔)

Reaction of magnesium with hydrochloric acid (Test for hydrogen gas)

(c) Acids react with metal oxide and hydroxide

ACID + BASE → SALT + WATER
ACID + METAL OXIDE → SALT + WATER
ACID + METAL HYDROXIDE → SALT + WATER
The products are a salt and water. An example is the reaction of copper (II) oxide with sulfuric acid.
Word equation
𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 (𝐼𝐼) 𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒 + 𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 → 𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 (𝐼𝐼) 𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑎𝑡𝑒 + 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
Chemical equation
𝐶𝑢𝑂(𝑠) + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4(𝑎𝑞) → 𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂4(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)

Word equation
𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒉𝒚𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒙𝒊𝒅𝒆 + 𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒇𝒖𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒅 → 𝒄𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 (𝑰𝑰) 𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒇𝒂𝒕𝒆 + 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
Chemical equation
2𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4(𝑎𝑞) → 𝑁𝑎2 𝑆𝑂4(𝑎𝑞) + 2𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)

(d) Acids react with carbonates

Acid + Metal Carbonate → Metal Salt + Carbon Dioxide + Water
Carbon dioxide gas is produced. An example is the reaction of hydrochloric acid with calcium
carbonate
Word equation
𝐶𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 + ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 → 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑒 + 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒 + 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

Chemical equation
𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 (𝑠) + 2𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) → 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑙2(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑂2 (𝑔) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)

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 Reaction of calcium carbonate with hydrochloric acid

Word equation

𝐻𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 + 𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 → 𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑒 + 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 + 𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒

Chemical equation

2𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑢𝐶𝑂3(𝑠) → 𝐶𝑢𝐶𝑙2(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) + 𝐶𝑂2(𝑔)

Word equation

𝑆𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 + 𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 → 𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑎𝑡𝑒 + 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 + 𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒

Chemical equation

𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑂3(𝑠) → 𝑀𝑔𝑆𝑂4(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑔) + 𝐶𝑂2(𝑔)

Test for carbon dioxide gas

Carbon dioxide gas is bubbled through lime water. Carbon dioxide gas turns lime water milky.

(a) Bases react with acids

Bases, like acids, are common in our daily lives. For example, they are used in toothpastes, detergents
and liquids for cleaning windows.
Most bases are metal oxides or hydroxides. They react with acids to produce a salt and water. The
word equation for the reaction is
𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒅 + 𝒃𝒂𝒔𝒆 → 𝒔𝒂𝒍𝒕 + 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓
This reaction is called neutralisation. A neutralisation reaction occurs when an acid reacts with a
base or alkali to produce a salt and water. We say the acid has been neutralised in the reaction –
meaning its acid properties have been destroyed.
Two examples of neutralisation reactions are given below:

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Word equation
ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 + 𝑠𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒 → 𝑠𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑒 + 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
Chemical equation
𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) → 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)

Word equation
𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 + 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒 → 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑎𝑡𝑒 + 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
Chemical equation
𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑀𝑔𝑂(𝑠) → 𝑀𝑔𝑆𝑂4 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)

(b) Bases react with ammonium salts

When a base reacts with an ammonium salt, a similar neutralization process occurs. Ammonium
salts are compounds that contain the ammonium ion (𝑁𝐻4+ ). When a base reacts with an ammonium
salt, the hydroxide ion from the base combines with the hydrogen ion from the ammonium ion to form
water. This results in the formation of ammonia gas (NH3) which has a pungent smell. The remaining
ions combine to form a salt, similar to the reaction with acids.

When acids react with alkalis, the hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions combine together to form water:
𝑯+ −
(𝒂𝒒) + 𝑶𝑯(𝒂𝒒) → 𝑯𝟐 𝑶(𝒍)

This reaction is the neutralisation reaction of an acid with an alkali.

The pH Scale
pH is a measure of how acidic or alkaline a solution is in water. The pH scale is numbered between 0
and 14. The pH of some common substances are shown in Figure below.

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The pH scale has the following features.
— A pH of 7 is neutral. This is the pH of pure water.
— A solution with pH less than 7 is acidic. The solution contains hydrogen ions (H +). The smaller the
pH, the more acidic the solution is and the more hydrogen ions it contains. A solution with a pH of 2
has more hydrogen ions than a solution with a pH of 5.
— A solution with pH greater than 7 is alkaline. The solution contains hydroxide ions (OH-). The bigger
the pH, the more alkaline the solution is and the more hydroxide ions it contains. A solution with a pH
of 12 has more hydroxide ions than a solution with a pH of 9.

The pH of most ‘pure’ water is not exactly 7 because it contains tiny amounts of impurities. Even rain
water has a pH less than 7. It has a pH of about 6 because carbon dioxide from the air makes it slightly
acidic.

Indicators
Indicators are substances that have different colours in acidic and in alkaline solutions. Litmus is a
common indicator. It is red in acidic solutions and blue in alkaline solutions.

Acids change the colours of indicators

For example, acids turn moist blue litmus paper red. This is a simple test for acids.

Some important indicators are given in Table below. These are commonly used in titrations.
Indicator Colour in strongly pH at which colour Colour in strongly
acid solution changes (end-point) alkaline solution
methyl orange red 4 yellow
thymolphthalein colourless 9.3 blue
Some important indicators

Each indicator has an acidic colour, an alkaline colour and a pH at which

it changes colour. For example, methyl orange is red in strongly acidic
solution and yellow in strongly alkaline solution. It changes colour at a
pH of about 4. This means methyl orange is red in a solution with pH less
than 4. If the pH is greater than 4 (e.g., 5, 6 or 10), methyl orange is
yellow.

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The Strength of Acids
Acids can be classified into weak acids and strong acids.
I. A strong acid is an acid that is completely dissociated in aqueous solution.
II. A weak acid is an acid that is partially dissociated in aqueous solution.

In a solution of a strong acid, all the acid molecules become ions in the water. For example, a solution
+ −
of hydrochloric acid only contains 𝐻(𝑎𝑞) and 𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) ions, and no HCl molecules. The HCl molecules have
all dissociated in water
+ −
𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) → 𝐻(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞)
Sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid and nitric acid are examples of strong acids.

In a solution of a weak acid, most of the acid molecules remain unchanged in the water. Few acid
molecules dissociate to become hydrogen ions. An example is a solution of ethanoic acid, CH3COOH. In
a 1 mol/dm3 solution of ethanoic acid, only 4 out of 1000 CH3COOH molecules dissociate to produce
hydrogen ions:
− +
𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) → 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻(𝑎𝑞)
←

The remaining 996 CH3COOH molecules remain unchanged.

Acids that are used in food, such as ethanoic acid, citric acid and carbonic acid are examples of weak
acids.

Examples of strong acids: (a) hydrochloric acid, HCl

(b) nitric acid, HNO3 and
(c) sulfuric acid, H2SO4.
Complete dissociation of:
+ −
(a) hydrochloric acid, HCl: 𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) → 𝐻(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞)
+
(b) nitric acid, HNO3: 𝐻𝑁𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞) → 𝐻(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑁𝑂−3 (𝑎𝑞)
+
(c) sulfuric acid, H2SO4: 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 (𝑎𝑞) → 2𝐻(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑆𝑂−4 (𝑎𝑞)

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Examples of weak acids, carboxylic acids: (a) ethanoic acid, CH3COOH(aq)
(b) citric acid,
(c) ascorbic acid.
Ethanoic acid, CH3COOH(aq), partially dissociates as follows,
+ −
𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) → 𝐻(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂(𝑎𝑞)

Universal Indicator
Some indicators are used as mixtures. The mixture gives different colours at different pH numbers.
Hence, it is used to measure the pH of solution. Such a mixed indicator is called Universal Indicator or
simply pH Indicator. The pH of a solution can be measured by dipping a piece of Universal Indicator
paper in the solution: the pH is then found by comparing the colour obtained with a colour chart.

The pH Meter
The pH meter is an electrical meter for measuring the pH of a solution. It is more
accurate than indicators.

pH and Agriculture
most plants grow best when the pH of the soil is about 6.5. This is almost neutral.
Many food crops will not grow well in soils that are too acidic or too alkaline.

Excess acid in the soil can be neutralized by adding calcium hydroxide. This is a
cheap alkali and is commonly called slaked lime. When farmers spread calcium hydroxide powder over
their fields to neutralise acids, they said to be ‘liming the soil’.

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SUMMARY
The pH of a solution measures the acidity or alkalinity of a solution.
— A solution is acidic if the pH is less than 7.
— A solution is neutral if the pH equals 7.
— A solution is alkaline if the pH is greater than 7.

• An indicator is a substance that has different colours in acid and alkaline solutions.
• The pH of a solution can be measured with Universal Indicator or with a pH meter. The pH meter
is the more accurate method.
• Plants grow best in soils with a certain pH. Farmers add calcium hydroxide (slaked lime) to soils
which are too acidic. This neutralizes excess acid.

Oxides
Oxides can be classified into four types. These are acidic, basic, amphoteric and neutral.

Acidic oxides react with water to produce acids. Solutions of these acids in water have a pH less than
7. Acidic oxides are oxides of nonmetals. Some examples are given in Table below.

Acidic oxide Formula Acid produced with water

sulphur trioxide 𝑆𝑂3 sulphuric acid, 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4
sulphur dioxide 𝑆𝑂2 sulphurous acid, 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂3
carbon dioxide 𝐶𝑂2 carbonic acid, 𝐻2 𝐶𝑂3
phosphorus(V) oxide 𝑃4 𝑂10 phosphoric acid, 𝐻3 𝑃𝑂4
Table. Some acidic oxides

Sulphur dioxide is an important acidic oxide. Large amounts of it are released into the atmosphere by
industry and from burning fuels. The sulphur dioxide combines with oxygen and water in the air to
form sulphuric acid. This sulphuric acid is the main component of acid rain. Acid rain is a serious
pollution problem in many countries. Sulphur dioxide is also used to preserve food. It is often added
to bottled drinks and sauces.
Basic oxides react with acids to produce salts and Sone only. They neutralize acids. Basic oxides are
oxides of metals. Some examples are given in Table below.
Basic oxide Formula
magnesium oxide MgO
sodium oxide 𝑁𝑎2 𝑂
calcium oxide CaO
copper (II) oxide CuO
Some basic oxides
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Basic oxides that dissolve in water are alkalis. Solutions of basic oxides can neutralize acidic oxides.
For example, sodium oxide dissolves in water to form a solution of sodium hydroxide. This solution
absorbs carbon dioxide.
word equation
𝑠𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒 + 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒 → 𝑠𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 + 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
chemical equation
2𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑂2 (𝑔) → 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂
Calcium oxide is used to neutralize acid rain. It dissolves in water to form the alkali calcium hydroxide
which can be used to neutralize sulphur dioxide. The gases from industrial reactions and burning fuels
are sprayed with jets of wet calcium oxide to absorb the acidic gases. Calcium oxide is also used to
neutralize the acidity of lakes caused by acid rain.
Some metallic oxides are amphoteric. Amphoteric oxides are metallic oxides that react with both acids
and bases to form salts and water. This means they can behave as an acidic oxide or as a basic oxide.
Amphoteric oxides react with acids to form salts and react with alkalis to form salts.
Amphoteric oxide Formula
Aluminium oxide 𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3
Zinc oxide ZnO

An example is aluminium oxide, 𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 . Aluminium oxide acts as a base by dissolving in hydrochloric
acid, and as an acid by dissolving in sodium hydroxide solution:
word equation
𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒 + ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 → 𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑒 + 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝐵𝐴𝑆𝐸 + 𝐴𝐶𝐼𝐷 → 𝑆𝐴𝐿𝑇 + 𝑊𝐴𝑇𝐸𝑅
word equation
𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒 + 𝑠𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒 → sodium aluminate + 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝐴𝐶𝐼𝐷 + 𝐵𝐴𝑆𝐸 → 𝑆𝐴𝐿𝑇 + 𝑊𝐴𝑇𝐸𝑅

Neutral oxides: Some oxides are neutral. These oxides do not react with water to form acids, nor do
they react with acids to form salts. A few oxides of non-metals are neutral. Some examples are given
in Table below.
Neutral oxide Formula
carbon monoxide CO
nitrogen oxide NO
dinitrogen oxide 𝑁2 𝑂
water 𝐻2 𝑂

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 SUMMARY
• Oxides are classified into acidic, basic, amphoteric and neutral.
• Acidic oxides
— react with water to produce acids.
— are usually oxides of nonmetals.
• Basic oxides
— react with acids to produce salts.
— are oxides of metals.
• Amphoteric oxides
— react with acids to produce salts.
— react with alkalis to produce salts.
— are oxides of metals.
• Neutral oxides
— are not acidic or basic.
— are oxides of non-metals.
• Acid rain is a serious pollution problem in ‘some countries. It is mainly caused by Sulphur dioxide. It
can be prevented by neutralizing the sulphur dioxide with wet calcium oxide.

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