IGCSE CHEMISTRY [F.A.

E]
ACIDS AND BASES

ACIDS

 An acid is a substance which produces hydrogen ions (H+) as the only positive ions
when it is dissolved in water. (Not all acids contain hydrogen and not all substances
that contain hydrogen are acids, e.g. NH3, CH4).
 Acidus (Latin word) – sour
 Common acids found at home: vinegar (ethanoic acid), orange, grapes (citric acid),
fizzy drinks (carbonic acid).

Strong and weak acids

 The strength of an acid refers to the extent to which the acid molecules dissociate
when dissolved in water.
 Complete dissociation of acid in aqueous solution – strong acid.
 Partial dissociation of acid in aqueous solution – weak acid.

Strong Acid (physical state) Chemical Formula Ions produced

Hydrochloric acid (aq) HCl H+ , Cl-

Sulphuric acid (aq) H2SO4 2H+ ; SO42-

Nitric acid (aq) HNO3 H+ ; NO3-

Weak Acid Chemical Formula Ions produced

Carbonic acid H2CO3 2H+ ; CO32-

Ethanoic acid CH3COOH H+ ; CH3COO-

 Strong acids are manmade and are very corrosive.

In the solution of strong acid, nearly all the acid molecules dissociate to form ions in
water.
Therefore, strong acids produce a lot of hydrogen ions in aqueous solutions.
+
HCl(aq) → H(aq) + Cl−(aq)
  Weak acids exist naturally. They are non-corrosive, not harmful and commonly found
in food.
In the solution of a weak acid, only some of the acid molecules dissociate to become
ions. (Acid molecules only partially dissociate to become ions.).
+ −
𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) ⇌ 𝐻(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂(𝑎𝑞)
Therefore, weak acids produce very few hydrogen ions in aqueous solutions.

 Basicity: The number of hydrogen atoms that can dissociate from an acid molecule
to form hydrogen ions.
HCl – Monobasic
H2SO4 – Dibasic
H3PO4 – Tribasic

Properties of Acids

 Sour taste
 Strong acids are corrosive.
 All acids dissolve in water to give solutions which conduct electricity.
 Strong and weak acids conduct electricity to different extents.
 Has a pH value below 7 and turns moist blue litmus paper red.
 Acids dissolve in water to give H+ ions.
 Most acids contain Hydrogen but not all substances that contain hydrogen
are acids. (e.g. NH3 and CH4 are not acids)

Reactions of Acids

1. Acid with reactive metals

E.g. 𝐇𝟐 𝐒𝐎𝟒(𝐚𝐪) + 𝐌𝐠 (𝐬) → 𝐌𝐠𝐒𝐎𝟒(𝐚𝐪) + 𝐇𝟐(𝐠)

Observation: When a lighted splint is placed at the mouth of the test tube, a ‘pop’
sound is heard and the flame is extinguished.

𝐃𝐈𝐋𝐔𝐓𝐄 𝐀𝐂𝐈𝐃 + 𝐌𝐄𝐓𝐀𝐋 ⟶ 𝐒𝐀𝐋𝐓 + 𝐇𝐘𝐃𝐑𝐎𝐆𝐄𝐍

Some exceptions
 Dilute nitric acid reacts with metal to give nitrogen dioxide instead of
hydrogen.
𝟒𝐇𝐍𝐎𝟑(𝐚𝐪) + 𝐙𝐧(𝐬) ⟶ 𝐙𝐧(𝐍𝐎𝟑 )𝟐(𝐚𝐪) + 𝟐𝐍𝐎𝟐(𝐠) + 𝟐𝐇𝟐 𝐎(𝐥)
  Copper and silver: unreactive metals do not react with dilute acids. Therefore
no reaction takes place.

 Lead
 Lead does not dissolve in dilute HCl and dilute H2SO4.
 Reaction occurs but layer of lead (II) chloride or lead (II) sulphate is formed.
 It is insoluble in water, forming a coating around the metal, which protects it
from further attack by the acid.

2. Reactions with carbonates

𝟐𝐇𝐂𝐥(𝐚𝐪) + 𝐍𝐚𝟐 𝐂𝐎𝟑(𝐬) ⟶ 𝟐𝐍𝐚𝐂𝐥(𝐚𝐪) + 𝐇𝟐 𝐎(𝐥) + 𝐂𝐎𝟐(𝐠)

Observation: When the gas evolved is bubbled into limewater, it reacts with
limewater to form a white precipitate. The gas is carbon dioxide.

𝐀𝐂𝐈𝐃 + 𝐂𝐀𝐑𝐁𝐎𝐍𝐀𝐓𝐄 ⟶ 𝐒𝐀𝐋𝐓 + 𝐖𝐀𝐓𝐄𝐑 + 𝐂𝐀𝐑𝐁𝐎𝐍 𝐃𝐈𝐎𝐗𝐈𝐃𝐄

3. Reactions with Metal oxides and hydroxides

𝐇𝟐 𝐒𝐎𝟒(𝐚𝐪) + 𝐍𝐚𝟐 𝐎(𝐬) ⟶ 𝐍𝐚𝟐 𝐒𝐎𝟒(𝐚𝐪) + 𝐇𝟐 𝐎(𝐥)

𝐇𝐂𝐥(𝐚𝐪) + 𝐍𝐚𝐎𝐇(𝐚𝐪) ⟶ 𝐍𝐚𝐂𝐥(𝐚𝐪) + 𝐇𝟐 𝐎(𝐥)

𝐃𝐈𝐋𝐔𝐓𝐄 𝐀𝐂𝐈𝐃 + 𝐁𝐀𝐒𝐄 ⟶ 𝐒𝐀𝐋𝐓 + 𝐖𝐀𝐓𝐄𝐑

Role of water in Acidity

 Acid in the solid and gaseous states is neutral. E.g. Hydrogen chloride gas, HCl (g) and
solid citric acid are neutral.
 Acids are covalent compounds.
 Exist as molecules by itself or in organic solvents
 Hydrochloric acid, HCl(aq) and citric acid (aq) are acidic.
 Acids show the properties of acids only when they are dissolved in water.
 The water reacts with acids to produce hydrogen ions which are responsible for
acidity.
+
𝐇𝐂𝐥(𝐥) ⟶ 𝐇(𝐚𝐪) + 𝐂𝐥− (𝐚𝐪)

Uses of Acids
 i. Sulphuric acid and hydrochloric acid are used for car batteries and also to remove
rust from iron.
ii. Nitric acid is used to make fertilizer.
iii. Ethanoic acid is used to preserve food.
iv. Citric acid is used to make pure fruit juice.
v. Methanoic acid is used to make rubber from latex.

BASES

 A base is any metal oxide or metal hydroxide.

e.g. CuO, NaOH, Ca(OH)2, NH4OH
 A base is a substance that reacts with an acid to form salt and water only.
(Neutralization).

Types of Bases

i. Insoluble
ii. Soluble (form alkalis when dissolved in water.)

 Insoluble bases include:

i. Magnesium oxide, MgO
ii. Copper (II) oxide, CuO
iii. Aluminium hydroxide, Al(OH)3
iv. Zinc hydroxide, Zn(OH)2
v. Copper( II) hydroxide; iron (II) hydroxide; iron (III)

 Most bases are insoluble in water.

 Soluble bases include:

i. All Group I metal oxides plus CaO, BaO.
ii. All Group I metal hydroxides.
iii. Aqueous ammonia, [NH3(aq)]

Properties of Bases

 Bitter taste
  Soapy feel (due to OH- ions)
 Bases that dissolve in water (Alkalis) give solutions which conduct electricity.
 Strong and weak alkalis conduct electricity to different extents.
 Has a pH value above 7 and turns moist red litmus blue.
 All soluble bases dissolve in water to form alkalis which give OH- ions.
NaOH(aq) → Na+(aq) + OH(aq) −

Reactions of Bases

i. Reaction with acids

 All bases undergo neutralization reactions with acids.
 The hydrogen ions from the alkalis combine to form water.
+ −
H(aq) + OH(aq) → H2 O(l)

Examples
ZnO(s) + H2 SO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + H2 O(l)
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2 O(l)

𝐃𝐈𝐋𝐔𝐓𝐄 𝐀𝐂𝐈𝐃 + 𝐁𝐀𝐒𝐄 → 𝐒𝐀𝐋𝐓 + 𝐖𝐀𝐓𝐄𝐑

ii. Reactions with ammonium salts.

𝐍𝐚𝐎𝐇(𝐚𝐪) + 𝐍𝐇𝟒 𝐂𝐥(𝐬) → 𝐍𝐚𝐂𝐥(𝐚𝐪) + 𝐇𝟐 𝐎(𝐥) + 𝐍𝐇𝟑(𝐠)

Observation: a pungent gas, ammonia is evolved. It turns moist red litmus paper
blue.

𝐀𝐤𝐚𝐥𝐢 + 𝐀𝐦𝐦𝐨𝐧𝐢𝐮𝐦 𝐬𝐚𝐥𝐭𝐬 → 𝐒𝐚𝐥𝐭 + 𝐖𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫 + 𝐀𝐦𝐦𝐨𝐧𝐢𝐚 𝐠𝐚𝐬

△

iii. Reactions with solutions of metal salts

𝟐𝐍𝐚𝐎𝐇(𝐚𝐪) + 𝐂𝐮𝐒𝐎𝟒(𝐚𝐪) ⟶ 𝐍𝐚𝟐 𝐒𝐎𝟒(𝐚𝐪) + 𝐂𝐮(𝐎𝐇)𝟐(𝐬)

Observation: An insoluble ppt of the metal hydroxide is formed if it is insoluble in

water.

𝐀𝐤𝐚𝐥𝐢 + 𝐌𝐞𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐬𝐚𝐥𝐭 ⟶ 𝐒𝐚𝐥𝐭 + 𝐌𝐞𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐡𝐲𝐝𝐫𝐨𝐱𝐢𝐝𝐞

Uses of Alkalis

i. To neutralize acids
 The alkalis in toothpaste help to neutralize acids.
 An alkali can be used to reduce excess acid in a stomach.
 ii. To dissolve dirt and grease
 Soaps and detergents
 Floor and window cleaners.

The pH Scale and Indicator

The pH scale

 A measure of how acidic or alkaline a solution is in water.

 A set of numbers ranging from 0 to 14.

Hydrogen ion concentration and relative acidity

 The hydrogen ion concentration and relative acidity (strength of acid) can be
measured using the universal indicator and pH scale.
 The pH of 7 is neutral. It has the same number of hydrogen and hydroxide ions.
 A solution with a pH less than 7 is acidic. The smaller the pH, the stronger the acid,
the higher the concentration of hydrogen ions in the solution.
 A solution with a pH more than 7 is alkaline. The bigger the pH, the stronger the
base, the higher the concentration of hydroxide ions in the solutions.
Example: A solution of pH 3 is more acidic and contains higher hydrogen ion concentration
than a solution of pH 6 for the same concentration of both solutions.

Indicators

 Substances that have different colours in acidic and in alkaline solutions.

 Need not change colour at pH 7 only.

Universal Indicator
  Mixture of different indicators. Gives different colours in solutions of different pH.
 Used to measure the exact pH of a solution.

Colour of universal indicator at different pH values

pH Colour

1,2 Red

3,4 Orange

5,6 Yellow

7 Green

8,9,10 Blue-green

11, 12 Blue

13,14 Violet

The pH meter

 An electrical meter which is more accurate in measuring pH than universal indicator.

 Measure even to one or two decimal places.
 Expensive.

Litmus paper

Colour of litmus paper Acidic solution Alkaline solution

Red Red Blue

Blue Red Blue

Titration indicator

 Have an acid colour and an alkaline colour.

 Change colour at a certain pH value.
Colour in strongly pH at which Colour in strongly
acidic solution indicator changes alkaline solution
Indicator solution colour

Methyl orange Red 4 Yellow

 Bromothymol blue Yellow 7 Blue

Phenolphthalein Colourless 9 Pink

Screened methyl Violet / Red 4 green

orange

Controlling pH in soil

 It is important to control pH of soil because it affects the growth and development of

plants.
 Most plants grow best when the soil is neutral or slightly acidic.
 Soil can become too acidic from the extensive use of chemical fertilizers and from
acidic rain.
 Excess acid in the soil can be treated with bases such as quicklime (calcium oxide) or
slaked lime (calcium hydroxide). This is called “liming the soil”.

Types of oxides

 An oxide is a compound of oxygen and one other element.

Acidic oxides

 Oxides of non-metals
 Usually gases at room temperature.
 Soluble in water, dissolves in water to produce acidic solutions.
 React with bases to form salt and water only.
Acidic oxide Physical state Acid produced
Sulphur trioxide (SO3) Gas Sulphuric acid
𝑆𝑂3 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4
Carbon dioxide (CO2) Gas Carbonic acid
𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐻2 𝐶𝑂3

Neutral oxides

 Usually oxides of non-metal

 Show neither basic nor acidic properties.
  Insoluble in water.
 Four (4) neutral oxides:
 Water (H2O)
 Carbon monoxide (CO)
 Nitric oxide (NO)
 Dinitrogen oxide (N2O)

Basic oxides

 Oxides of metal
 Solids at room temperature.
 Most basic oxides are insoluble in water e.g. CuO, MgO
 Those that dissolve in water form alkalis e.g.
𝐾2 𝑂(𝑠) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) → 2𝐾𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞)

𝑁𝑎2 𝑂(𝑠) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) → 2𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞)

𝐶𝑎𝑂(𝑠) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) → 𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)2(𝑎𝑞)

 Basic oxides react with acids to form salt and water only.

Amphoteric oxides

 Metallic oxides that react with either an acid or a base to form salt and water only.
(Behave as an acidic or a basic oxide).
 E.g. Reaction between hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide with zinc oxide.
𝑍𝑛𝑂(𝑠) + 2𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) → 𝑍𝑛𝐶𝑙2(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)

𝑍𝑛𝑂(𝑠) + 2𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) → 𝑁𝑎2 𝑍𝑛𝑂2(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)

(Sodium zincate)

 Three (3) amphoteric oxides:

 Aluminium oxide (Al2O3)
 Lead (II) oxide (PbO)
 Zinc oxide (ZnO)
 Summary for oxides

Oxide
s

Non-metal oxides Metal oxides

Acidic oxides Neutral oxides Basic oxides Amphoteric oxides

E.g. CO2, SO2 E.g. CO, NO, H2O, E.g. CuO, Na2O E.g. Al2O3, PbO,
(all other non-metal N 2O (all other metal ZnO
oxides) oxides)