Department of Computer Engineering

Lab Manual
Third Year Semester-V
Subject: Database and Information System Lab

Odd Semester

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Institutional Vision, Mission and Quality Policy

Our Vision
To foster and permeate higher and quality education with value added engineering, technology
programs, providing all facilities in terms of technology and platforms for all round development with
societal awareness and nurture the youth with international competencies and exemplary level of
employability even under highly competitive environment so that they are innovative adaptable and
capable of handling problems faced by our country and world at large.

RAIT’s firm belief in new form of engineering education that lays equal stress on academics and
leadership building extracurricular skills has been a major contribution to the success of RAIT as one
of the most reputed institution of higher learning. The challenges faced by our country and world in
the 21 Century needs a whole new range of thought and action leaders, which a conventional
educational system in engineering disciplines are ill equipped to produce. Our reputation in providing
good engineering education with additional life skills ensure that high grade and highly motivated
students join us. Our laboratories and practical sessions reflect the latest that is being followed in the
Industry. The project works and summer projects make our students adept at handling the real life
problems and be Industry ready. Our students are well placed in the Industry and their performance
makes reputed companies visit us with renewed demands and vigour.

Our Mission
The Institution is committed to mobilize the resources and equip itself with men and materials of
excellence thereby ensuring that the Institution becomes pivotal center of service to Industry,
academia, and society with the latest technology. RAIT engages different platforms such as
technology enhancing Student Technical Societies, Cultural platforms, Sports excellence centers,
Entrepreneurial Development Center and Societal Interaction Cell. To develop the college to become
an autonomous Institution & deemed university at the earliest with facilities for advanced research
and development programs on par with international standards. To invite international and reputed
national Institutions and Universities to collaborate with our institution on the issues of common
interest of teaching and learning sophistication.

RAIT’s Mission is to produce engineering and technology professionals who are innovative and
inspiring thought leaders, adept at solving problems faced by our nation and world by providing
quality education.

The Institute is working closely with all stake holders like industry, academia to foster knowledge
generation, acquisition, dissemination using best available resources to address the great challenges
being faced by our country and World. RAIT is fully dedicated to provide its students skills that make
them leaders and solution providers and are Industry ready when they graduate from the Institution.

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We at RAIT assure our main stakeholders of students 100% quality for the programmes we deliver.
This quality assurance stems from the teaching and learning processes we have at work at our campus
and the teachers who are handpicked from reputed institutions IIT/NIT/MU, etc. and they inspire the
students to be innovative in thinking and practical in approach. We have installed internal procedures
to better skills set of instructors by sending them to training courses, workshops, seminars and
conferences. We have also a full fledged course curriculum and deliveries planned in advance for a
structured semester long programme. We have well developed feedback system employers, alumni,
students and parents from to fine tune Learning and Teaching processes. These tools help us to ensure
same quality of teaching independent of any individual instructor. Each classroom is equipped with
Internet and other digital learning resources.

The effective learning process in the campus comprises a clean and stimulating classroom
environment and availability of lecture notes and digital resources prepared by instructor from the
comfort of home. In addition student is provided with good number of assignments that would trigger
his thinking process. The testing process involves an objective test paper that would gauge the
understanding of concepts by the students. The quality assurance process also ensures that the
learning process is effective. The summer internships and project work based training ensure learning
process to include practical and industry relevant aspects. Various technical events, seminars and
conferences make the student learning complete.

Our Quality Policy

Our Quality Policy

It is our earnest endeavour to produce high quality engineering professionals who are
innovative and inspiring, thought and action leaders, competent to solve problems faced
by society, nation and world at large by striving towards very high standards in learning,
teaching and training methodology.

Our Motto: If it is not of quality, it is NOTRAIT!

Dr. Vijay
D.PatilPresident,
RAES

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Departmental Vision, Mission

Vision
To impart higher and quality education in computer science with value added engineering and
technology programs to prepare technically sound, ethically strong engineers with social awareness.
To extend the facilities, to meet the fast changing requirements and nurture the youths with
international competencies and exemplary level of employability and research under highly
competitive environments.

Mission
To mobilize the resources and equip the institution with men and materials of excellence to provide
knowledge and develop technologies in the thrust areas of computer science and Engineering. To
provide the diverse platforms of sports, technical, cocurricular and extracurricular activities for the
overall development of student with ethical attitude. To prepare the students to sustain the impact of
computer education for social needs encompassing industry, educational institutions and public
service. To collaborate with IITs, reputed universities and industries for the technical and overall
upliftment of students for continuing learning and entrepreneurship.

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Departmental Program Outcomes (POs)

PO1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science,

engineering fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex
engineering problems.
PO2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze
complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles
of mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
PO3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering
problems and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with
appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and
environmental considerations.
PO4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and
research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data,
and synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
PO5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex
engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.
PO6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge
to assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent
responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice.
PO7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional
engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the
knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
PO8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and
responsibilities and norms of the engineering practice.
PO9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member
or leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
PO10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with
the engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend
and write effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and

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 give and receive clear instructions.
PO11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of
the engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a
member and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
PO12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to
engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological
change.

Program Specific Outcomes (PSOs)

PSO1. To build competencies towards problem solving with an ability to understand, identify,
analyze and design the problem, implement and validate the solution including both hardware and
software.

PSO2. To build appreciation and knowledge acquiring of current computer techniques with an ability
to use skills and tools necessary for computing practice.

PSO3.To be able to match the industry requirements in the area of computer science and engineering.
To equip skills to adopt and imbibe new technologies.

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 Index
Sr. No. Contents Page No.
1. List of Experiments 8

2. Course Objective, Course Outcome& 9

Experiment Plan
Mapping of Course Outcomes – Program
3. 11
Outcomes and Program Specific outcome
4. Study and Evaluation Scheme 13
5. Experiment No. 1 14
6. Experiment No. 2 17
7. Experiment No. 3 23
8. Experiment No. 4 28
9. Experiment No. 5 33
10. Experiment No. 6 36
11. Experiment No. 7 41
12. Experiment No. 8 46
13. Experiment No. 9 51
14. Experiment No. 10 57
15. Experiment No. 11 63
16. Mini Project 68

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 List of Experiments
Sr. No. Experiments Name

1. Identify the case study and detail statement of problem.

2. Design an Entity-Relationship (ER) / Extended Entity-Relationship (EER) Model.

3. Perform experiment on mapping of ER/EER to Relational schema model.

Create and populate database using Data Definition Language (DDL) and DML
4.
Commands for you‘re the specified System.
5. Apply Integrity Constraints for the specified system.

6. Perform Simple queries, string manipulation operations.

7. Implement and execute Nested queries and Complex queries

8. Perform and Implement Join operations.

9. Implement Views and Triggers.

10. Perform Functions, cursor and procedure.

11 Study and understand Transaction and Concurrency control.

Mini project- Creating a Two-tier client-server database applications using
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JDBC/ODBC.

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 Course Objective, Course Outcome&
Experiment Plan
Course Objective:

1 Learn and practice data modelling using the entity-relationship and

developing database designs.
2 Understand the use of Structured Query Language (SQL) and learn SQL
syntax.
3 Apply normalization techniques to normalize the database

4 Understand the needs of database processing and learn techniques for

controlling the consequences of concurrent data access.

Course Outcomes:

CO1 Formulate problem Statement for real world example by using the fundamental
concept of database system.

CO2 Design with and draw ER and EER diagram for the real life problem.

CO3 Convert conceptual model into relational model with different DDL and DML
statements and Apply /Add integrity constraints and able to provide security to data.
CO4 Implement and execute Simple, Complex queries and join operations.

CO5 Apply triggers and procedures for specific module/task

CO6 Understand the concept of concurrent transactions and able to access data through
front end (using JDBC/ODBC connectivity).

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Experiment Plan

Module Week Course Weight-

Experiments Name
No. No. Outcome age
Identify the case study and detail statement of
1. W1 CO1 10
problem.
Design an Entity-Relationship (ER) / Extended
2. W2 CO2 05
Entity-Relationship (EER) Model.
W3 Perform experiment on mapping of ER/EER to
3. CO2 05
Relational schema model.
Create and populate database using Data
4. W4 Definition Language (DDL) and DML CO3 05
Commands for you‘re the specified System.
Apply Integrity Constraints for the specified
5. W5 CO3 05
system.
Perform Simple queries, string manipulation
6 W6 CO4 04
operations.

W7 Implement and execute Nested queries and

7. CO4 03
Complex queries

8. W8 Perform and Implement Join operations. CO4 03

9. W9 Implement Views and Triggers. CO5 05

10. W10 Perform Functions, cursor and procedure. CO5 05

Study and understand Transaction and

11. W11 CO6 10
Concurrency control.
Mini project- Creating a Two-tier client-server
12. W12
database applications using JDBC/ODBC.

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 Co-Po Mapping for Practical
Subject Course Outcomes Contribution to Program outcomes
Weight
P P Pc P P P P P P P P P
O O O O O O O O O O O O
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

CO1: Formulate problem

Statement for real world
example by using the 3 2 2 1 1 1
fundamental concept of
database system.

CO2: Design with and draw

ER and EER diagram for the 2 2 2 1 1 2
real life problem.

CO3: Convert conceptual

model into relational model
with different DDL and
PRATICAL DML statements and Apply 2 1 2 1 2 2
100%
/Add integrity constraints
and able to provide security
to data.
CO4: Implement and
execute Simple, Complex 2 2 2 1 1 2
queries and join operations.

CO5: Apply triggers and

procedures for specific
2 2 1 1 1 2 1
module/task

CO6: Understand the

concept of concurrent
transactions and able to
2 2 2 2 1 1
access data through front
end (using JDBC/ODBC
connectivity).

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Mapping Course Outcomes (CO) –
Program Specific Outcomes (PSO)

Program Specific Outcome/ Course outcome PSO1 PSO2 PSO3

CO1: Formulate problem Statement for real world example 3 2 2

by using the fundamental concept of database system.

CO2: Design with and draw ER and EER diagram for the 2 3 -
real life problem.

CO3: Convert conceptual model into relational model with 1 2 2

different DDL and DML statements and Apply /Add
integrity constraints and able to provide security to data.
CO4: Implement and execute Simple, Complex queries and - 2 2
join operations.

CO5: Apply triggers and procedures for specific 1 1 2

module/task

CO6: Understand the concept of concurrent transactions and 2 2 3

able to access data through front end (using JDBC/ODBC
connectivity).

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 Study and Evaluation Scheme
Course
Course Name Teaching Scheme Credits Assigned
Code
Database & Theory Practical Tutorial Theory Practical Tutorial Total
CSL503 Info. System
Lab -
- 02 1 -- 01

Term Work

Laboratory work will be based on DBMS syllabus with minimum 10 experiments to be

incorporated. Experiments should be completed by students on the given time duration
Experiments ---------------------------------------------------------------------- (10) Marks

Mini Project----------------------------------------------------------------------- (05) Marks

Attendance (Theory + Practical) ----------------------------------------------- (05)

Assignment -------------------------------------------------------------------------(05) Marks

Marks Total -------------------------------------------------------------------------(25) Marks

Practical & Oral:

Practical and oral Exam should be conducted for the Lab, on Database Management System
subject for given list of experiments.

Implementation ---------------------- ----------------------------------------------(15) Marks

Oral ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------(10) Marks

Total ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------(25) Marks

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 Database & Info. System Lab

Experiment No. : 1

Identify the case study and detail statement of

problem.

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 Experiment No.1
1. Aim: Identify the case study and detail statement of problem.

2. Objectives:
 Understand the Need and importance of Database Management
System in today’s world.

3. Outcomes: Formulate problem statement for real world example by using

fundamental concepts of database system.

4. Hardware / Software Required: Ms Word

5. Theory: Identify case Study.

Student can take any case study related to database management system of
their choice. Following are some examples of DBMS case study.
1. Library management system
2. Airline Reservation system.
3. Online shopping system
4. E commerce website
5. Inventory management system
6. Consumer Review System etc.

Problem Statement has to be written on any dbms case study. Problems statement
should consist of following points.

1. Purpose– it includes the introduction and purpose of case study.

2. Scope –it includes the detailed scope and working of the case study.
3. Functionalities-it includes the detailed functions included of working
model.
Note: Students has to write above mentioned things according to their case study
topic.

6. Conclusion: Formulate the problem statement for given case study and understand
the use and its applications in today’s world.

7. Viva Questions:
 What is Need of DBMS?
 Have you ever interacted with Database?
 What is Meta-Data?

8. References:
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1. G. K. Gupta :‖Database Management Systems‖, McGraw – Hill.
2. Korth, Slberchatz,Sudarshan, :‖Database System Concepts‖, 6th Edition, McGraw –
Hill
3. Elmasri and Navathe, ― Fundamentals of Database Systems‖, 5thEdition,
PEARSON
4. Peter Rob and Carlos Coronel, ― Database Systems Design, Implementation and
Management‖, Thomson Learning, 5th Edition.

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 Database & Info. System Lab

Experiment No.: 2

Design an Entity-Relationship (ER) /

Extended Entity-Relationship (EER)
Model.

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 Experiment No.2
1. Aim: Design an Entity-Relationship (ER) / Extended Entity-Relationship (EER)
Model.

2. Objectives:

 Learn and practice data modelling using the entity-relationship and

developing database designs.

3. Outcomes:Design and draw ER and EER diagram for the real life problem.

4. Hardware / Software Required: Any ER-Diagram tool such as SmartDraw,

Lucidchart, ERDPlus etc.
5. Theory:

ER- Diagram:
It is an Entity –Relationship diagram which is used to represent the relationship
between different entities. An entity is an object in the real world which is
distinguishable from other objects. The overall logical structure of a database can be
expressed graphically by an ER diagram, which is built up from following
components.

Mapping Cardinalities:

It expresses the number of entities to which another entity can be associated via
relationship set. For a binary relationship set R between entity sets A and B. The
Mapping Cardinalities must be one of the following.
• One to one
• One to many
• Many to one
• Many to many

E-R diagram Components

1. Rectangles: represent entity sets.

2. Ellipses: represent attributes.
3. Diamonds: represent relationships among entity sets.

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 4. Lines: link attribute to entity sets and entity sets to relationships.
5. Double eclipse represents multivalve attributes.
6. Double rectangle represents Weak entity sets.
7. Primary key attributes are underlined.

Design a model using E-R Diagram

Step 1:Study the given system.

Step 2: Identify Entity Sets i.e. tables which can be constructed
Step 3: Identify attributes for each entities
Check - Primary key and Partial key in attribute.
For composite attribute - attribute which can be subdivided.
(Ex. Name - F-Name, M_name, L_name)
Multivalued Attribute - Attribute having multiple values (Ex. Phone
number).Derived Attribute - Attribute can be derived from other
attributes
(Ex. age)
Step 4: Identify relationships among entity sets
Step 5: Check for Weak Entity Set.
Step 6: Check for Total and Partial Participation of Entity set
Step 7: Check specialization/generalization feature (using ISA)
Extensions to E-R Model
Basic E-R model is good for many uses Several extensions to E-R model for more
advanced modeling – Generalization and specialization and Aggregation.
Specialization
An entity-set might contain distinct subgroups of entities – Subgroups have some
different attributes, not shared by entire entity-set .E-R model provides specialization
to represent such entity-sets Example: bank account categories – Checking accounts
– Savings accounts – Have common features, but also unique attributes.
Generalization and Specialization
Generalization: a “bottom up” approach – Taking similar entity-sets and unifying
their common features – Start with specific entities, then create generalizations from
them
Specialization: a “top down” approach – Creating general purpose entity-sets, then
providing specializations of the general idea – Start with general notion, then refine it.

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 Example of Generalization and specialization.

Aggregation is a process when relation between two entities is treated as a single

entity. Below is the example of aggregation.

Note: -Students has to draw ER diagram of their own case study by adding EER features.
Below is the example of ER diagram.

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 Example: Sample ER diagram for Company Management System

Note: Students has to draw the ER diagram for their case study topic.

9. Conclusion: Designed the ER and EER of the assigned case study topics and
understand the ER and EER Model in depth.

10. Viva Questions:

 What are the different types of attributes?
 What is aggregation, generalization and specialization.
 What are different between entity and entity set?
11. References:

1. G. K. Gupta :‖Database Management Systems‖, McGraw – Hill.

2. Korth, Slberchatz,Sudarshan, :‖Database System Concepts‖, 6th Edition, McGraw –
Hill

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3. Elmasri and Navathe, ― Fundamentals of Database Systems‖, 5thEdition,
PEARSON
4. Peter Rob and Carlos Coronel, ― Database Systems Design, Implementation and
Management‖, Thomson Learning, 5th Edition.

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 Database & Info. System Lab

Experiment No.: 3

Perform experiment on mapping of

ER/EER to Relational schema model

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 Experiment No.3
1. Aim:Perform experiment on mapping of ER/EER to Relational schema model

2. Objectives:

 Learn and practice data modelling using the entity-relationship and

developing database designs.
 To understandconversion rules of ER and EER model to Relational Model.

3. Outcomes:Design and draw ER and EER diagram for the real life problem.

4. Hardware / Software Required :Oracle, My SQL

5. Theory:
Rules to convert ER schema to relational schema.

Step 1: Mapping of Regular Entity Types

o For each regular (strong) entity type E in the ER schema, create a

relation R that includes all the simple attributes of E.
o Choose one of the key attributes of E as the primary key for R.
o If the chosen key of E is composite, the set of simple attributes that
form it will together form the primary key of R.

Step 2: Mapping of Weak Entity Types

 For each weak entity type W in the ER schema with owner entity type E,
create a relation R & include all simple attributes (or simple components of
composite attributes) of W as attributes of R.
 Also, include as foreign key attributes of R the primary key attribute(s) of the
relation(s) that correspond to the owner entity type(s).
 The primary key of R is the combination of the primary key(s) of the owner(s)
and the partial key of the weak entity type W, if any.

Step 3: Mapping of Binary 1:1 Relation Types

 For each binary 1:1 relationship type R in the ER schema, identify the
relations S and T that correspond to the entity types participating in R.

Step 4: Mapping of Binary 1:N Relationship Types.

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  For each regular binary 1:N relationship type R, identify the relation S that
represent the participating entity type at the N-side of the relationship type.
 Include as foreign key in S the primary key of the relation T that represents the
other entity type participating in R.
 Include any simple attributes of the 1:N relation type as attributes of S.

Step 5: Mapping of Binary M:N Relationship Types.

 For each regular binary M:N relationship type R, create a new relation S to
represent R.
 Include as foreign key attributes in S the primary keys of the relations that
represent the participating entity types; their combination will form the
primary key of S.
 Also include any simple attributes of the M:N relationship type (or
 Simple components of composite attributes) as attributes of S.

Step 6: Mapping of Multivalued attributes.

 For each multivalued attribute A, create a new relation R.

 This relation R will include an attribute corresponding to A, plus the primary
key attribute K-as a foreign key in R-of the relation that represents the entity
type of relationship type that has A as an attribute.
 The primary key of R is the combination of A and K. If the multivalued
attribute is composite, we include its simple components.

Step 7: Mapping of N-ary Relationship Types.

 For each n-ary relationship type R, where n>2, create a new relationship S to
represent R.
 Include as foreign key attributes in S the primary keys of the relations that
represent the participating entity types.
 Also include any simple attributes of the n-ary relationship type (or simple
components of composite attributes) as attributes of S.

Summary

ER Model Relational Model

Entity type Entity relation

1:1 and 1:N relationship type Foreign key or relationship relation

M:N relationship type Relationship relation and two foreign keys

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 n-ary relationship type Relationship relation and n foreign keys

Simple attribute Attribute

Composite attribute Set of component attributes

Multivalued attribute Relation and foreign key

Value set Domain

Key attribute Primary key or secondary key

Rules to convert EER schema to relational schema.

Mapping of Specialization or Generalization

 Step 8: Options for Mapping Specialization or Generalization

Option 8A: Multiple relations—super class and subclasses, K for the relations
For any specialization (total or partial, disjoint or overlapping).

Option 8B: Multiple relations—subclass relations only.

Subclasses are total.
Specialization has disjointedness constraint

Option 8C: Single relation with one type attribute .

Type or discriminating attribute indicates subclass of tuple.
Subclasses are disjoint.
Potential for generating many NULL values if many specific attributes exist in the
subclasses.

Option 8D: Single relation with multiple type attributes.

Subclasses are overlapping Will also work for a disjoint specialization.

6. Conclusion :

After performing this experiment we are able to convert the Entity Relationship model
into relational model along with extended features of ER model.

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7. Viva Questions:

 What is the Difference between the total participation and partial

participation?
 What are the different types of attributes?

8. References:
1. Elmasri and Navathe, ― Fundamentals of Database Systems‖, 5thEdition, PEARSON
2. Peter Rob and Carlos Coronel, ― Database Systems Design, Implementation and
Management‖, Thomson Learning, 5th Edition.

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 Database & Info. System Lab

Experiment No. : 4

Create and populate database using Data

Definition Language (DDL) and DML
Commands for specified System.

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 Experiment No.4
1. Aim:Create and populate database using Data Definition Language (DDL) and DML
Commands for specified System.

2. Objectives: From this experiment, the student will be able to

 Understand the use of Structured Query Language (SQL) and learn
SQL syntax.

3. Outcomes: Create and update database and tables with different DDL and DML
statements.

4. Hardware / Software Required :Oracle, My SQL

5. Theory:
Data types in SQL:-

 Char (n)- A fixed length character length string with user specified length.
 Number- Number is used to store numbers (fixed or floating point).
 Int- an integer
 Varchar (n)- A variable character length string with user specified maximum
length n.
 Date- A calendar date containing a (four digit) year, month and day of the
month.
 Time: The time of day, in hours, minutes and seconds Eg. Time ’09:30:00’.

Design relational schema

SQL: It is structured query language, basically used to pass the query to retrieve
andmanipulate the information from database. Depending upon the nature of
query, SQL is divided into different components:
• DDL(Data Definition Language )
• DML(Data Manipulation Language )
• DCL(Data Control Language )

Data Definition Language

DDL: The Data Definition Language (DDL) is used to create the database (i.e.
tables, keys, relationships etc), maintain the structure of the database and
destroy databases and database objects.
Eg. Create, Drop, Alter, Describe, Truncate

1. CREATE statements: It is used to create the table.

Syntax:

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 CREATE TABLE table_name(columnName1 datatype(size), columnName2
datatype(size),………);

2. ALTER statements: To modify an existing database object.

-Adding new columns:

Syntax:
Alter table table name Add(New_columnName1 datatype(size),
New_columnName2 datatype(size),………);

-Dropping a column from a table:

Syntax
Alter table table_name DROP column columnName:

- Modifying Existing columns:

Syntax:
Alter table table name Modify (columnName1 Newdatatype(Newsize));

3.Describe statements: To describe the structure (column and data types) of an

existing database, table, index, or view.

Syntax:
DESC table_name;

4.DROP statements: To destroy an existing database, table, index, or view. If a table

is
dropped all records held within it are lost and cannot be recovered.
Syntax:

DROP TABLE table_name;

5.Truncate statements: To destroy the data in an existing database, table, index, or

view. If a table is truncated all records held within it are lost and cannot be
recovered
but the table structure is maintained.

Syntax:
TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;

Data Manipulation Language

A Data Manipulation Language enables programmers and users of the database to

retrieve insert, delete and update data in a database. e.g. INSERT, UPDATE,
DELETE, SELECT.

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 INSERT:
INSERT statement adds one or more records to any single table in a relational
database.
Syntax:
INSERT INTO tablename VALUES (expr1,expr2……..);

SELECT:
SELECT statement returns a result set of records from one or more tables.
The select statement has optional clauses:

• WHERE specifies which rows to retrieve

• GROUP BY groups rows sharing a property so that an aggregate function can be
applied to each group having group.
• HAVING selects among the groups defined by the GROUP BY clause.
• ORDER BY specifies an order in which to return the rows.

Syntax:
SELECT<attribute list>
FROM<table list>
WHERE<condition>

Where
• Attribute list is a list of attribute name whose values to be retrieved by the query.
• Table list is a list of table name required to process query.
• Condition is a Boolean expression that identifies the tuples to be retrieved by query.

UPDATE:
UPDATE statement that changes the data of one or more records in a table.
Either all therows can be updated, or a subset may be chosen using a condition.
Syntax:
UPDATE table_name SET column_name = value [, column_name = value ...]
[WHERE
condition]

DELETE:
DELETE statement removes one or more records from a table. A subset may
be defined for deletion using a condition, otherwise all records are removed.
Syntax:
DELETE FROM tablename WHERE condition:

6. Conclusion:
For the given case study designed the databases schema and implemented queries
using DDL and DML commands.

7. Viva Questions:
 How will you create the table?
 What are DDL and DML commands?
 What effect will cause by DROP table command?

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9. References:
1. Elmasri and Navathe, ― Fundamentals of Database Systems‖, 5thEdition, PEARSON
2. Peter Rob and Carlos Coronel, ― Database Systems Design, Implementation and
Management‖, Thomson Learning, 5th Edition.

32
 Database & Info. System Lab

Experiment No. : 5

Apply Integrity Constraints for the

specified system.

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 Experiment No.5
1. Aim:Apply Integrity Constraints for the specified system.

2. Objectives:
 Understand database Integrity Constraints.
 To make the database schema more secure.

3. Outcomes: Apply /Add integrity constraints and able to provide security to data.

4. Hardware / Software Required :Oracle

5. Theory:

Constraints are the Rules which are enforced on the data being stored in a table are
called Constraints.
-Table-level & Row-level constraints

-Types of constraints

1. NOT NULL
NOT NULL constraints are in-line constraints that indicate that a column can not
contain NULL values.

Example: create table customer

(Custname varchar(10) not null,
Status varchar(5) not null);

2. PRIMARY KEY
Primary key constraints define a column or series of columns that uniquely identify a
given row in a table. Defining a primary key on a table is optional and you can only
define a single primary key on a table. A primary key constraint can consist of one or
many columns (up to 32). Any column that is defined as a primary key column is
automatically set with a NOT NULL status.

Example: CREATE TABLE CUSTOMER

(CUSTID NUMBER(10) PRIMARY KEY,
CUSTNAME VARCHAR(10) NOT NULL,
STATUS VARCHAR (5) NOT NULL);

3. FOREIGN KEY/REFERENTIAL INTEGRITY

A foreign key constraint is used to enforce a relationship between two tables. It is
used to ensure referential integrity of the data.

34
 Example:
CREATE TABLE SUPPLIER
( SUPPLIER_ID NUMERIC(10) NOT NULL,
SUPPLIER_NAME VARCHAR2(50) NOT NULL,
CONTACT_NAME VARCHAR2(50),
CONSTRAINT SUPPLIER_PK PRIMARY KEY (SUPPLIER_ID)
);

CREATE TABLE PRODUCTS

( PRODUCT_ID NUMERIC(10) NOT NULL,
SUPPLIER_ID NUMERIC(10) NOT NULL,
CONSTRAINT FK_SUPPLIER
FOREIGN KEY (SUPPLIER_ID)
REFERENCES SUPPLIER(SUPPLIER_ID));

4. CHECK
Check constraints validate that values in a given column meet a specific criteria.

Example:
CREATE TABLE CUSTOMER
(SID NUMBER CHECK(SID>10),
LASTNAME VARCHAR(10),
FIRSTNAME VARCHAR(10|));
5. UNIQUE
Unique constraints are like alternative primary key constraints. A unique
constraint defines a column, or series of columns, that must be unique in
value.

Example:- CREATE TABLE CUSTOMER(SID NUMBER UNIQUE,

LASTNAME VARCHAR(10),
FIRSTNAME VARCHAR(10|));

6. Conclusion:For the case study topic created the schema according to entity and
referential integrity constraints.

7. Viva Questions:
 What do you mean by constraints?
 What are referential integrity constraints?

8. References:

1. G. K. Gupta :‖Database Management Systems‖, McGraw – Hill.

2. Korth, Slberchatz,Sudarshan, :‖Database System Concepts‖, 6th Edition, McGraw –
Hill
3. Elmasri and Navathe, ― Fundamentals of Database Systems‖, 5thEdition,
PEARSON

35
Database & Info. System Lab Experiment
No. : 6

Perform Simple Queries and String

Manipulation Operations

36
 Experiment No. 6
1. Aim: Perform simple queries and string manipulation operations.

2. Objectives: From this experiment, the student will be able to

 Understand and apply different string functions on relational schema.

3. Outcomes: Implementand execute Simple, Complex queries and join operations.

4. Hardware/ Software Required: Oracle 10g

5. Theory: Simple Queries

A typical SQL query has the form:

select A1, A2, ..., An from r1, r2, ..., rm where P Query Structure
o Ai represents an attribute
o Ri represents a relation
o P is a predicate.
Select Clause:The select clause list the attributes desired in the result of a query.

Example: 1. Find the names of all branches in the loan relation:

select branch_namefrom loan

2. Find the names of all branches in the loan relations, and remove
duplicates
select distinct branch_name from loan
3. The keyword all specifies that duplicates not be removed.
select allbranch_namefrom loan

Where Clause:The where clause specifies conditions that the result must satisfy.

Example:To find all loan number for loans made at the Perryridge branch with
loan amounts greater than $1200.

Select loan number from loan

where branch_name ='Perryridge'and amount > 1200

37
 The from Clause:The from clause lists the relations involved in the query

Example: Find the Cartesian product borrower X loan

select *from borrower, loan

String Operations : SQL includes a string-matching operator for comparisons on

character strings. The operator “like” uses patterns that are described using two special
characters:

 percent (%). The % character matches any substring.

 underscore (_). The _ character matches any character.

Example:Find the names of all customers whose street includes the substring “Main”.
select customer_namefrom customerwherecustomer_street like '% Main%'
 LIKE is the ANSI/ISO standard operator for comparing a column value to another
column value, or to a quoted string. Returns either 1 (TRUE) or 0 (FALSE)

 The SQL LIKE operator is only applied on a field of types CHAR or VARCHAR
to match a pattern.

 To match a pattern from a word, special characters, and wildcards characters may
have used with LIKE operator.

 Different LIKE operators with '%' and '_' wildcards:

LIKE OPERATOR DESCRIPTION

WHERE CUSTOMERNAME LIKE 'A%' FINDS ANY VALUES THAT START WITH "A"

WHERE CUSTOMERNAME LIKE '% A' FINDS ANY VALUES THAT END WITH "A"

WHERE CUSTOMERNAME LIKE FINDS ANY VALUES THAT HAVE "OR" IN

'%OR%' ANY POSITION

WHERE CUSTOMERNAME LIKE FINDS ANY VALUES THAT HAVE "R" IN THE
'_R%' SECOND POSITION

WHERE CUSTOMERNAME LIKE FINDS ANY VALUES THAT START WITH "A"
'A_%_%' AND ARE AT LEAST 3 CHARACTERS IN
LENGTH

38
 WHERE CONTACT NAME LIKE 'A% O' FINDS ANY VALUES THAT START WITH "A"
AND ENDS WITH " O"

WHERE CUSTOMERNAME LIKE 'A%' FINDS ANY VALUES THAT START WITH "A"

Following are some examples on string operations

 The following SQL statement selects all customers with a CustomerName starting
with "a":
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE CustomerName LIKE 'a%';

 The following SQL statement selects all customers with a CustomerName ending
with "a":
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE CustomerName LIKE '%a';

 The following SQL statement selects all customers with a CustomerName that have
"or" in any position:
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE CustomerName LIKE '%or%';

 The following SQL statement selects all customers with a CustomerName that have
"r" in the second position:
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE CustomerName LIKE '_r%';

 The following SQL statement selects all customers with a CustomerName that starts
with "a" and are at least 3 characters in length:
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE CustomerName LIKE 'a_%_%';

 The following SQL statement selects all customers with a ContactName that starts
with "a" and ends with "o":
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE ContactName LIKE 'a%o';

39
 The following SQL statement selects all customers with a CustomerName that does
NOT start with "a":

SELECT * FROM Customers

WHERE CustomerName NOT LIKE 'a%';

6. Conclusion: By understanding the concepts of simple queries and string operations,

perform the sql queries along with different types of string operations for the case
study.

7. Viva Questions:
 What is the use of where clause?
 What are the two string operators mostly used in SQL?

8. References:
1. Elmasri and Navathe, ― Fundamentals of Database Systems‖, 5thEdition,
PEARSON
2. G. K. Gupta :‖Database Management Systems‖, McGraw – Hill.
3. Korth, Slberchatz,Sudarshan, :‖Database System Concepts‖, 6th Edition,
McGraw – Hill

40
 Database & Info. System Lab

Experiment No. : 7

Implement and Execute Nested queries and

Complex queries

41
 Experiment No. 7
1. Aim: Implement and execute Nested queries and Complex queries

2. Objectives: From this experiment, the student will be able to,

 Learn how to apply sub-queries with select, insert and update statements and
complex queries on relational schema.

3. Outcomes:Implement and execute Simple, Complex queries and join operations.

4. Hardware / Software Required: Oracle 10g

5. Theory:
A Subquery or Inner query or Nested query is a query within another SQL query and
embedded within the WHERE clause.A subquery is used to return data that will be
used in the main query as a condition to further restrict the data to be retrieved.
 SQL provides a mechanism for the nesting of subqueries.
 A subquery is a select-from-where expression that is nested within another query.
 A common use of subqueries is to perform tests for set membership, set
comparisons, and set cardinality.

Consider the following examples:

1. Find all customers who have both an account and a loan at the bank.

select distinct customer_name

from borrower
where customer_name in (select customer_name
fromdepositor )

2. Find all customers who have a loan at the bank but do not have an account at the bank.

select distinct customer_name

from borrower
where customer_name not in (select customer_name
from depositor )

42
3. Find all customers who have both an account and a loan at the Perryridge branch

select distinctcustomer_name
from borrower, loan
where borrower.loan_number = loan.loan_number and
branch_name = 'Perryridge' and
(branch_name, customer_name )in
(select branch_name, customer_name
from depositor, account
where depositor.account_number =
account.account_number )

Set Comparison
4. Find all branches that have greater assets than some branch located in Brooklyn.

select distinct T.branch_name

from branch as T, branch as S
where T.assets > S.assets and
S.branch_city = 'Brooklyn'

5. Above query using >some clause

select branch_name
from branch
where assets >some
(select assets
from branch
where branch_city = 'Brooklyn')

6. Find the names of all branches that have greater assets than all branches located in
Brooklyn.

select branch_name
from branch
where assets >all
(select assets
from branch
where branch_city = 'Brooklyn')

43
 7. Above query using >some clause

select branch_name
from branch
where assets >some
(select assets
from branch
where branch_city = 'Brooklyn')

8. Find the names of all branches that have greater assets than all branches located in
Brooklyn.

select branch_name
from branch
where assets >all
(select assets
from branch
where branch_city = 'Brooklyn')

 The exists construct returns the value true if the argument subquery is nonempty.
 exists r r Ø
 not exists r r = Ø

Find all customers who have an account at all branches located in Brooklyn.

select distinct S.customer_name

from depositor as S
where not exists (
(select branch_name
from branch
where branch_city = 'Brooklyn')
except
(select R.branch_name
from depositor as T, account as R
where T.account_number = R.account_number and
S.customer_name = T.customer_name ))

Derived Relations

SQL allows a subquery expression to be used in the from clause.

 Find the average account balance of those branches where the average account
balance is greater than $1200.

44
 select branch_name, avg_balance
from (select branch_name, avg (balance)
from account
group by branch_name )
as branch_avg ( branch_name, avg_balance )
where avg_balance >1200

Note that we do not need to use the having clause, since we compute the temporary
(view) relation branch_avg in the from clause, and the attributes of branch_avg can be
used directly in the where clause.

 With Clause

The with clause provides a way of defining a temporary view whose definition is
available only to the query in which the withclause occurs.

 Find all accounts with the maximum balance

withmax_balance (value) as
selectmax (balance)
fromaccount
selectaccount_number
fromaccount, max_balance
whereaccount.balance = max_balance.value

7. Conclusion: We have studied the how sub-query expression can be used in from
clause to create temporary relation and as well as in where clause to perform tests for
set membership, set comparisons, and set cardinality.

8. Viva Questions:

 What is a sub-query or nested query?

9. Reference books & Links:

1. Elmasri and Navathe, ― Fundamentals of Database Systems‖, 5thEdition,

PEARSON
2. Korth, Slberchatz,Sudarshan, :‖Database System Concepts‖, 6th Edition,
McGraw – Hill

45
 Database & Info. System Lab

Experiment No. : 8

Perform and Implement Join Operations

46
 Experiment No. 8
1. Aim: Perform and Implement Join operations.

2. Objectives: From this experiment, the student will be able to,

 Understand different types of joins operations in SQL.

3. Outcomes: Implement and execute Simple, Complex queries and join operations.

4. Hardware / Software Required: Oracle 10g

5. Theory: SQL Join is used to fetch data from two or more tables, which is joined to
appear as single set of data. It is used for combining column from two or more tables
by using values common to both tables.

Types of JOIN
Following are the types of JOIN that we can use in SQL:

 Inner Join
 Outer Join
 Left Join
 Right Join

Cross JOIN or Cartesian Product

This type of JOIN returns the Cartesian product of rows from the tables in Join. It will
return a table which consists of records which combines each row from the first table
with each row of the second table.

Cross JOIN Syntax is,

SELECT column-name-list
FROM

47
table-name1 CROSS JOIN table-name2;

INNER Join or EQUI Join

This is a simple JOIN in which the result is based on matched data as per the equality
condition specified in the SQL query.

Inner Join Syntax is,

SELECT column-name-list FROM

table-name1 INNER JOIN table-name2
WHERE table-name1.column-name = table-name2.column-name;

Natural JOIN

Natural Join is a type of Inner join which is based on column having same name and
same datatype present in both the tables to be joined.

The syntax for Natural Join is,

SELECT * FROM

table-name1 NATURAL JOIN table-name2;

OUTER JOIN

Outer Join is based on both matched and unmatched data. Outer Joins subdivide
further into,

• Left Outer Join

• Right Outer Join
• Full Outer Join
• LEFT Outer Join

The left outer join returns a resultset table with the matched data from the two tables
and then the remaining rows of the left table and null from the right table's columns.

Syntax for Left Outer Join is,

SELECT column-name-list FROM

48
table-name1 LEFT OUTER JOIN table-name2
ON table-name1.column-name = table-name2.column-name;
To specify a condition, we use the ON keyword with Outer Join.

Left outer Join Syntax for Oracle is,

SELECT column-name-list FROM

table-name1, table-name2 on table-name1.column-name = table-name2.column-
name(+);

RIGHT Outer Join

The right outer join returns a resultset table with the matched data from the two tables
being joined, then the remaining rows of the right table and null for the remaining left
table's columns.

Syntax for Right Outer Join is,

SELECT column-name-list FROM

table-name1 RIGHT OUTER JOIN table-name2
ON table-name1.column-name = table-name2.column-name;
Right outer Join Syntax for Oracle is,

SELECT column-name-list FROM

table-name1, table-name2
ON table-name1.column-name(+) = table-name2.column-name;

Full Outer Join

The full outer join returns a resultset table with the matched data of two table then
remaining rows of both left table and then the right table.
Syntax of Full Outer Join is,
SELECT column-name-list FROM
table-name1 FULL OUTER JOIN table-name2
ON table-name1.column-name = table-name2.column-name;

49
6. Conclusion: In this experiment we have studied and seen how the data stored across
multiple relation can be combined and retrieved as it were stored in single relation.
Also we have studied different form of joins and their usage and implementation as
well.

7. Viva Questions:
• What are the different types of SQL JOIN clauses, and how are they used?
• What is the difference between INNER JOIN and LEFT JOIN?

8. Reference books & Links:

1. Korth, Slberchatz,Sudarshan, :‖Database System Concepts‖, 6th Edition,
McGraw – Hill
2. G. K. Gupta :‖Database Management Systems‖, McGraw – Hill.

50
Database & Info. System Lab
Experiment No. : 9

Implement view and Triggers

51
 Experiment No.9
1. Aim:Implement Views and Triggers.

2. Objectives:
 Understand the customization of External schema using views.
 Execution of procedures on event of modification to database.

3. Outcomes: Apply Triggers to ensure integrity and audit modification of database.

4. Hardware / Software Required:Oracle

5. Theory

A. Views
Views are virtual tables formed by a query. A view is a dictionary object that you can
use until you drop it. In Short, a view is a virtual table based on the result-set of an
SQL statement.
A view contains rows and columns, just like a real table. The fields in a view are
fields from one or more real tables in the database.

Syntax:

CREATE VIEW view_name AS

SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
If you have table EMP with column {EMPNO, ENAME, JOB, MGR, HIREDATE,
SAL, COMM, DEPTNO} , Now to create a view to show only DEPTNO and
EMPNO.

CREATE VIEW EMP_NO_DEPT_NO AS SELECT EMPNO,DEPTNO FROM EMP;

The above statement will create a view "EMP_NO_DEPT_NO" with column

"EMP_NO, DEPT_NO". To check view either used statement:

desc EMP_NO_DEPT_NO;
or
select * from EMP_NO_DEPT_NO;
The structure of view can also be updated with as structure of table is modified with
ALTER command, using following syntax:

52
CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW view_name AS
SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
Now, to modifying the structure of view "EMP_NO_DEPT_NO" to add "SALARY"
column.

CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW EMP_NO_DEPT_NO AS SELECT EMPNO, DEPTNO, SAL FROM EMP;

To verify use DESC or SELECT command.

Trigger:

Triggers; that is, procedures that are stored in the database and implicitly executed
("fired") when a table is modified. i.e define procedures that are implicitly executed
when an INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE statement is issued against the associated
table.

Figure: Triggers.
Notice that triggers are stored in the database separately from their associated tables.
Triggers can be defined only on tables, not on views. However, triggers on the base
table(s) of a view are fired if an INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE statement is issued
against a view.
While triggers are useful for customizing a database, you should only use triggers
when necessary. The excessive use of triggers can result in complex
interdependences, which may be difficult to maintain in a large application.
A trigger has three basic parts:
• a triggering event or statement

53
• a trigger restriction
• a trigger action

Figure: Parts of Trigger.

Trigger Execution:
A trigger can be in either of two distinct modes:
enabled
An enabled trigger executes its trigger action if a triggering statement is issued and
the trigger restriction (if any) evaluates to TRUE.
disabled
A disabled trigger does not execute its trigger action, even if a triggering statement is
issued and the trigger restriction (if any) would evaluate to TRUE.
Create Trigger:

CREATE [OR REPLACE ] TRIGGER trigger_name

{BEFORE | AFTER | INSTEAD OF }
{INSERT [OR] | UPDATE [OR] | DELETE}
[OF col_name]
ON table_name
[REFERENCING OLD AS o NEW AS n]
[FOR EACH ROW]
WHEN (condition)
BEGIN
--- sql statements
END;

54
Statement Description
CREATE [OR REPLACE ] This clause creates a trigger with the given name or overwrites an existing
TRIGGER trigger_name trigger with the same name.
{BEFORE | AFTER | This clause indicates at what time the trigger should get fired. i.e for
INSTEAD OF } example: before or after updating a table. INSTEAD OF is used to create a
trigger on a view. before and after cannot be used to create a trigger on a
view.
{INSERT [OR] | UPDATE This clause determines the triggering event. More than one triggering
[OR] | DELETE} events can be used together separated by OR keyword. The trigger gets
fired at all the specified triggering event.
[OF col_name] This clause is used with update triggers. This clause is used when you want
to trigger an event only when a specific column is updated.
CREATE [OR REPLACE ] This clause creates a trigger with the given name or overwrites an existing
TRIGGER trigger_name trigger with the same name.
[ON table_name] This clause identifies the name of the table or view to which the trigger is
associated.
[REFERENCING OLD AS This clause is used to reference the old and new values of the data being
o NEW AS n] changed. By default, you reference the values as :old.column_name or
:new.column_name. The reference names can also be changed from old (or
new) to any other user-defined name. You cannot reference old values
when inserting a record, or new values when deleting a record, because
they do not exist.
[FOR EACH ROW] This clause is used to determine whether a trigger must fire when each row
gets affected ( i.e. a Row Level Trigger) or just once when the entire sql
statement is executed(i.e.statement level Trigger).
WHEN (condition) This clause is valid only for row level triggers. The trigger is fired only for
rows that satisfy the condition specified.

Create a trigger that will display the updated salary of employee.

CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER Print_salary_changes

BEFORE DELETE OR INSERT OR UPDATE ON emp
FOR EACH ROW
WHEN (NEW.EMPNO > 0)
DECLARE
sal_diff number;
BEGIN
sal_diff := :NEW.SAL - :OLD.SAL;
dbms_output.put('Old salary: ' || :OLD.sal);
dbms_output.put(' New salary: ' || :NEW.sal);
dbms_output.put_line(' Difference ' || sal_diff);
END;
To activate/fire the above trigger , use the following statement on EMP table:

insert into emp values (1212,'pop','manager',1234,'12-12-2012',22222,234,10);

or
UPDATE emp SET sal = sal + 500.00 ;WHERE deptno = 10;
or
Delete FROM EMP

55
6. Conclusion:
Thus, on implementing the experiment on views and triggers, we understood the need
and importance of views and triggers in DBMS. The view is virtual table, that
displays the part of table to the user of view, each time with updated values from the
base table, whereas the triggers are actions that takes place on modifiation of base
table

7. Viva Questions:
 What is difference between Row and Statement Trigger?
 What is INSTEAD OF trigger?

8. References:

1. G. K. Gupta :‖Database Management Systems‖, McGraw – Hill.

2. Korth, Slberchatz,Sudarshan, :‖Database System Concepts‖, 6th Edition, McGraw –
Hill
3. Elmasri and Navathe, ― Fundamentals of Database Systems‖, 5thEdition,
PEARSON.

56
Database & Info. System Lab
Experiment No.: 10

Perform Functions, cursor and

procedure.

57
 Experiment No.10
1. Aim:Perform Function, Cursor and Procedure.

2. Objectives:
 To create a block for performing computations.
 To create a module for performing for specific tasks.
 Understand Cursor, a control structure that enables traversal over records in
tuples.
3. Outcomes: Apply Function and procedure to perform specific task.
4. Hardware / Software Required: Oracle
5. Theory:
Function is a group or set of SQL and PL/SQL statements that perform a specific
task.
Syntax:
CREATE [OR REPLACE] FUNCTION function_name [parameters]
RETURN return_datatype; {IS, AS}
Declaration_section <variable,constant> ;
BEGIN
Execution_section
Return return_variable;
EXCEPTION
exception section
Return return_variable;
END;

RETURN TYPE: The header section defines the return type of the function. The
return datatype can be any of the oracle datatype like varchar, number etc.
The execution and exception section both should return a value which is of the
datatype defined in the header section.

How to execute a Function?

A function can be executed in the following ways.
• As a part of a SELECT statement : SELECT emp_details_func FROM dual;
• In a PL/SQL Statements like, : dbms_output.put_line(emp_details_func);
create or replace function getsal (no IN number) return number
is
salary number(5);
begin
select sal into salary from emp where empno=no;
return sal;
end;

58
To call a Function, execute the statement mentioned below:

select getsal(7839) from dual;

In the example we are retrieving the ‘salary’ of employee with id 7839 to variable
‘salary’. The return type of the function is number.

Output:

To drop the function, syntax is:

DROP FUNCTION FUNCTION_NAME;

Procedure:

A procedure is a named PL/SQL block which performs one or more specific task.
This is similar to a procedure in other programming languages. A procedure has a
header and a body.
The header consists of the name of the procedure and the parameters or variables
passed to the procedure.
The body consists or declaration section, execution section and exception section
similar to a general PL/SQL Block. A procedure is similar to an anonymous PL/SQL
Block but it is named for repeated usage. Parameters to procedure can be passed in
following ways:
Parameters Description

IN type These types of parameters are used to send values to stored procedures.

OUT type These types of parameters are used to get values from stored procedures.
This is similar to a return type in functions.

IN OUT These types of parameters are used to send values and get values from
type stored procedures.
A procedure may or may not return a value.

CREATE [OR REPLACE] PROCEDURE procedure_name (<Argument> {IN, OUT, IN OUT}

<Datatype>,…)
IS
Declaration section<variable, constant> ;
BEGIN
Execution section
EXCEPTION
Exception section
END

59
IS - marks the beginning of the body of the procedure and is similar to DECLARE in
anonymous PL/SQL Blocks. The code between IS and BEGIN forms the Declaration
section.

The syntax within the brackets [ ] indicate they are optional. By using CREATE OR
REPLACE together the procedure is created if no other procedure with the same
name exists or the existing procedure is replaced with the current code.

There are two ways to execute a procedure:

 From the SQL prompt : EXECUTE [or EXEC] procedure_name;

 Within another procedure – simply use the procedure name : procedure_name;

CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE p1(id IN NUMBER, sal IN NUMBER)

AS
BEGIN
INSERT INTO emp VALUES(id, sal);
DBMD_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('VALUE INSERTED.');
END;
/

To execute in Oracle Xpress Edition:

declare
begin
p1(23,2300);
end

Cursor:
A cursor is a temporary work area created in the system memory when a SQL
statement is executed. A cursor contains information on a select statement and the
rows of data accessed by it. This temporary work area is used to store the data
retrieved from the database, and manipulate this data. A cursor can hold more than
one row, but can process only one row at a time. The set of rows the cursor holds is
called the active set.

There are two types of cursors in PL/SQL:

1. Implicit cursors.
2. Explicit cursors.
Both implicit and explicit cursors have the same functionality, but they differ in the
way they are accessed.

Implicit Cursors
These are created by default when DML statements like, INSERT, UPDATE, and
DELETE statements are executed. They are also created when a SELECT statement
that returns just one row is executed.

60
 When you execute DML statements like DELETE, INSERT, UPDATE and SELECT
statements, implicit statements are created to process these statements.

Explicit Cursors
They must be created when you are executing a SELECT statement that returns more
than one row. Even though the cursor stores multiple records, only one record can be
processed at a time, which is called as current row. When you fetch a row the current
row position moves to next row.

An explicit cursor is defined in the declaration section of the PL/SQL Block. It is

created on a SELECT Statement which returns more than one row. We can provide a
suitable name for the cursor.

Syntax:

CURSOR cursor_name IS select_statement;

cursor _name -A suitable name for the cursor.

Select_statement - A select query which returns multiple rows.

There are four steps in using an Explicit Cursor.

1. DECLARE the cursor in the declaration section
2. OPEN the cursor in the Execution Section.
3. FETCH the data from cursor into PL/SQL variables or records in the Execution
Section.
4. CLOSE the cursor in the Execution Section before you end the PL/SQL Block.
Syntax:
DECLARE
variables;
records;
create a cursor;
BEGIN
OPEN cursor;
FETCH cursor;
process the records;
CLOSE cursor;
END;
Example:
DECLARE
CURSOR er IS select eid,name from emp order by name ;
id emp.eid%type;
ename emp.name%type;
BEGIN
OPEN er;
Loop
FETCH er into id,ename;
Exit when er%notfound;

61
 dbms_output.put_line (id || ename);
end loop;
close er;
END; /

6. Conclusion:
We have understood the working and need of functions and procedures for
performing/handling the specific task and created the same for performing task
specific to our case study.

7. Viva Questions:
 What is difference between function and Procedure Trigger?
 What is difference between implicit and Explicit cursor?

8. References:

1. G. K. Gupta :‖Database Management Systems‖, McGraw – Hill.

2. Korth, Slberchatz,Sudarshan, :‖Database System Concepts‖, 6th Edition, McGraw –
Hill
3. Elmasri and Navathe, ― Fundamentals of Database Systems‖, 5thEdition,
PEARSON.

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 Database & Info. System Lab
Experiment No.: 11

Study of Transaction and Concurrency

Control

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 Experiment No.11
1. Aim:Study of Transaction and Concurrency Control

2. Objectives:
 Understand term transaction and its properties.
 Understand the need of concurrency control and problems.
 Understand the mechanisms to overcome problems associated with
concurrency.
3. Outcomes: Student will be able to:
 ACID properties of Database and its requirement for database to be consistent.
 How concurrency is achieved and how problems raised because of
concurrency can be overcome with locking strategies.

4. Theory:

Transaction:
A transaction is any action that reads from and/or writes to a database. A transaction
may consist of a simple SELECT statement to generate a list of table contents; it may
consist of a series of related UPDATE statements to change the values of attributes in
various tables; it may consist of a series of INSERT statements to add rows to one or
more tables, or it may consist of a combination of SELECT, UPDATE, and INSERT
statements.
A transaction is a logical unit of work that must be entirely completed or entirely
aborted; no intermediate states are acceptable. A successful transaction changes the
database from one consistent state to another. A consistent database state is one in
which all data integrity constraints are satisfied.

Transaction Properties:
Each individual transaction must display atomicity, consistency, isolation, and
durability. These properties are sometimes referred to as the ACID test. When
executing multiple transactions, the DBMS must schedule the concurrent execution of
the transaction’s operations. The schedule of such transaction’s operations must
exhibit the property of Serializability.

Transaction states:
Active: the initial state, the transaction stays in this state while it is executing.
Partially committed: after the final statement has been executed.
Failed: when the normal execution can no longer proceed.

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 Aborted: after the transaction has been rolled back and the database has been
restored to its state prior to the start of the transaction.
Committed: after successful completion

Figure: Transaction States

Concurrency Control:
Concurrency control is a database management systems (DBMS) concept that is used
to address conflicts with the simultaneous accessing or altering of data that can occur
with a multi-user system. concurrency control, when applied to a DBMS, is meant to
coordinate simultaneous transactions while preserving data integrity. [1] The
Concurrency is about to control the multi-user access of Database

Illustrative Example:
To illustrate the concept of concurrency control, consider two travellers who go to
electronic kiosks at the same time to purchase a train ticket to the same destination on
the same train. There's only one seat left in the coach, but without concurrency
control, it's possible that both travellers will end up purchasing a ticket for that one
seat. However, with concurrency control, the database wouldn't allow this to happen.
Both travellers would still be able to access the train seating database, but
concurrency control would preserve data accuracy and allow only one traveller to
purchase the seat.
This example also illustrates the importance of addressing this issue in a multi-user
database. Obviously, one could quickly run into problems with the inaccurate data
that can result from several transactions occurring simultaneously and writing over
each other. The following section provides strategies for implementing concurrency
control.
Concurrency Control Locking Strategies:
Pessimistic Locking: This concurrency control strategy involves keeping an entity in
a database locked the entire time it exists in the database's memory. This limits or
prevents users from altering the data entity that is locked. There are two types of locks
that fall under the category of pessimistic locking: write lock and read lock.
With write lock, everyone but the holder of the lock is prevented from reading,
updating, or deleting the entity. With read lock, other users can read the entity, but no
one except for the lock holder can update or delete it.

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Optimistic Locking: This strategy can be used when instances of simultaneous
transactions, or collisions, are expected to be infrequent. In contrast with pessimistic
locking, optimistic locking doesn't try to prevent the collisions from occurring.
Instead, it aims to detect these collisions and resolve them on the chance occasions
when they occur.
Pessimistic locking provides a guarantee that database changes are made safely.
However, it becomes less viable as the number of simultaneous users or the number
of entities involved in a transaction increase because the potential for having to wait
for a lock to release will increase.
Optimistic locking can alleviate the problem of waiting for locks to release, but then
users have the potential to experience collisions when attempting to update the
database.

Lock Problems:
Deadlock
When dealing with locks two problems can arise, the first of which being deadlock.
Deadlock refers to a particular situation where two or more processes are each waiting
for another to release a resource, or more than two processes are waiting for resources
in a circular chain. Deadlock is a common problem in multiprocessing where many
processes share a specific type of mutually exclusive resource. Some computers,
usually those intended for the time-sharing and/or real-time markets, are often
equipped with a hardware lock, or hard lock, which guarantees exclusive access to
processes, forcing serialization. Deadlocks are particularly disconcerting because
there is no general solution to avoid them. spaghetti cans are not recyclable now,
STOP recycling them now!
A fitting analogy of the deadlock problem could be a situation like when you go to
unlock your car door and your passenger pulls the handle at the exact same time,
leaving the door still locked. If you have ever been in a situation where the passenger
is impatient and keeps trying to open the door, it can be very frustrating. Basically
you can get stuck in an endless cycle, and since both actions cannot be satisfied,
deadlock occurs.
Livelock:
Livelock is a special case of resource starvation. A livelock is similar to a deadlock,
except that the states of the processes involved constantly change with regard to one
another wile never progressing. The general definition only states that a specific
process is not progressing. For example, the system keeps selecting the same
transaction for rollback causing the transaction to never finish executing. Another
livelock situation can come about when the system is deciding which transaction gets
a lock and which waits in a conflict situation.
An illustration of livelock occurs when numerous people arrive at a four way stop,
and are not quite sure who should proceed next. If no one makes a solid decision to
go, and all the cars just keep creeping into the intersection afraid that someone else
will possibly hit them, then a kind of livelock can happen.

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 Basic Time stamping:
Basic time stamping is a concurrency control mechanism that eliminates deadlock.
This method doesn’t use locks to control concurrency, so it is impossible for deadlock
to occur. According to this method a unique timestamp is assigned to each
transaction, usually showing when it was started. This effectively allows an age to be
assigned to transactions and an order to be assigned. Data items have both a read-
timestamp and a write-timestamp. These timestamps are updated each time the data
item is read or updated respectively.
Problems arise in this system when a transaction tries to read a data item which has
been written by a younger transaction. This is called a late read. This means that the
data item has changed since the initial transaction start time and the solution is to roll
back the timestamp and acquire a new one. Another problem occurs when a
transaction tries to write a data item which has been read by a younger transaction.
This is called a late write. This means that the data item has been read by another
transaction since the start time of the transaction that is altering it. The solution for
this problem is the same as for the late read problem. The timestamp must be rolled
back and a new one acquired.
Adhering to the rules of the basic time stamping process allows the transactions to be
serialized and a chronological schedule of transactions can then be created. Time
stamping may not be practical in the case of larger databases with high levels of
transactions. A large amount of storage space would have to be dedicated to storing
the timestamps in these cases.

5. Conclusion:
On studying experiment, we understood the requirement of maintaining ACID
properties of database and how concurrency can be achieved in database by using
different locking approaches to achieve the serializability of transactions in a
multiuser database environment.

6. Viva Questions:
 Does a transaction have termination state?
 Difference between Pessimistic and Optimistic Locking?
 What is semi-optimistic locking strategy?

7. References:

1. G. K. Gupta :‖Database Management Systems‖, McGraw – Hill.

2. Korth, Slberchatz,Sudarshan, :‖Database System Concepts‖, 6th Edition, McGraw –
Hill
3. Elmasri and Navathe, ― Fundamentals of Database Systems‖, 5thEdition,
PEARSON.

67
Database & Info. System Lab
Experiment No.: 12

Mini Project

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 Experiment No.12
1. Aim: Design a mini project for Database management system.

2. Objectives: From this experiment, the student will be able to

1. Create a front end for providing different view of database to different users.
2. Use of JDBC/ODBC for connecting the database to front end application to provide
the access.

3. Outcomes:
 Ability to connect database tier to front end tier using JDBC/ODBC
connectivity.
 Ability to Provide different view of database for querying database to different
users.

4. Software Required:SQL database, JDBC/ODBC for connectivity to front end.

5. Suggested list of mini projects-

1. Inventory control management Database Project.

2. Online Retail Application Database Projec.t
3. Health care organization Database Project.
4. Restaurant Management Database Project.
5. Gym management System.
6. Attendance and Leave Database Management System.Feedback form.
7. Online examination portal.
8. Online Music Store.
9. Online banking.
10. E-attendance.
11. Survey System for data collection.

Conclusion: The Mini project is created using the JDBC/ODBC Database connectivity by
applying current skills and technologies.

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