The World Bank’s Changing Face: The Photographs of

the World Bank Reports, 1955–2009

Sebastian Grevsmühl

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ports, 1955–2009. [Research Report] Centre Alexandre Koyré - CRHST; CNRS; EHESS. 2012. �hal-
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The World Bank’s Changing Face: The Photographs of the World
Bank Reports, 1955–2009
Sebastian Vincent Grevsmühl, Centre Alexandre Koyré, EHESS/CNRS, Paris, May 2012.

This report was funded by the GATSEG project, Le gouvernement et l'administration des
techno-sciences à l'échelle globale, ANR project 2009-2011, directed by Dominque Pestre.

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Introduction

Throughout its history, the World Bank evolved from a comparatively small developing bank
into a global key player in world economics and governance. This development was in no
means homogenous and even less uncontroversial, yet at many occasions, critics and
supporters alike resorted to what should become an important publication in the ever growing
landscape of institutional reports: the World Bank annual report. As a major publication of the
Bank, accounting publicly for its credits, loans, general activities and objectives, the World
Bank reports (WBRs) may be identified as a valuable source in drawing a big picture of the
historical institutional development of this major funding organisation throughout the second
half of the twentieth century. The reports reflect also the Bank’s growing power and influence
within an increasing globalised world. However, as any communication medium, the WBRs
prove also to be far from what one may identify as a “neutral” communication channel and
even further away from an “objective” interface with the public. They are rather an image
which the World Bank desires to build up in the public and which it would like to attribute to
itself. The annual reports are therefore in no way simple communication products, but rather
highly complex and problematic objects, mobilizing a large diversity of visual media, such as
graphs, photographs, charts, maps and tables. Besides the graphs and charts, photography
(first black and white, then in colour) may be identified as the privileged medium of the
WBRs, constituting their main iconographical element.

In this case study, we propose therefore to analyse in a quantitative and qualitative way the
fabrication of the World Bank’s public image with the help of the photographs employed. In
other words, to narrow the huge range of possible methodologies and objects of analysis
down, we contended to limit our analysis to the large panoply of photographic material
offered by the WBRs. We are indeed aware that the photographs represent only one of many
facets of the World Bank’s public face, yes even only a small sample of what represents today
a hugely diversified publication landscape of the Bank. Nevertheless, with (hopefully) the
right questions at hand, we contend that the photographs have an important story to tell about
the Bank’s own history.

A word of caution may be also added. To visualise the quantitative information gathered, we
chose to produce different charts and graphs. We are well aware of the power of visualisations
1
and the possibility of directing the attention of the reader to specific parts and portions of any
graph, or the possibility of effectively hiding certain variables. This is for example the case of
simple area charts where some elements may be hidden behind other values due to the
overlapping nature of the chart. This type of chart is therefore only used in order to provide a
general overview of especially peak values when dealing with many variables on a long time-
scale. A detailed analysis necessitates a smaller time interval, allowing for the use for
example of clustered column charts where all values appear next to each other. The most
common chart employed in this study is however the stacked area chart which displays the
trend of the contribution of each value over a certain time span.

The structure of our analysis

Our analysis sets out in a first part with a quantitative outline of the major formal
characteristics of the WBRs, namely the report size and the number of photographs included,
the geographical locations of the regions depicted, as well as the photographic perspective
adopted by the photographer and/or designer in the actual layout of the report. In an already
more thematic perspective (the geographical location counts strictly speaking also to this
perspective), the gender of the persons depicted (if applicable), as well as different human
categories are determined (worker, farmer, doctor, etc.).

In a second quantitative approach, all the major themes are explored which make up the
thematic structure of the WBR photographs. For this purpose, the photographs were roughly
classified into different thematic domains (which prove in some cases to be overlapping),
namely infrastructure/energy/communication, agriculture, education, medical issues,
environmental issues and animal themes.

However tentative, we try to refrain in the first two mainly quantitative parts from any other
reflections which impose themselves from the simple knowledge of the WBRs, the WB
history and broader geopolitical, institutional and scientific developments. In other words,
relatively few comments should be found in the first two sections regarding elements which
may not be developed with the help of statistical argumentations gained from the quantitative
report analysis. The third and last part goes therefore beyond that rule and attempts a
summary and qualitative interpretation of the knowledge gained from the foregoing analysis.
A general historical periodisation is finally attempted in order to make out the majors
developments of the Bank.

2
1. Quantitative Outline

1.1. Quantitative Report Size and Iconographical Elements Evolution

Report Size Evolution

450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
1946
1949
1952
1955
1958
1961
1964
1967
1970
1973
1976
1979
1982
1985
1988
1991
1994
1997
2000
2003
2006
2009
Report Years

Total number of pages Number of graphs/maps w/o tables

Number of photographs w/o front cover Number of pages of volume 1

Figure 1 : Graph showing the historical evolution of the total number of pages of the WBRs, as well as the
number of photographs and charts, graphs and maps included in the reports.

Iconographical Elements

120
110
100
90
80
Number of Elements

70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1946

1949
1952
1955
1958

1961
1964
1967
1970

1973
1976
1979
1982

1985
1988
1991
1994

1997
2000
2003
2006
2009

Report Years

Number of photographs w/o front cover Number of graphs/maps w/o tables

Figure 2 : Evolution of the number of iconographical elements.

3
Our first figure shows the evolution of the report size together with the number of
photographs as well as charts, graphs and maps one may find in the reports. Firstly, we would
like to point out that the upper graph of figure 1 of the total number of pages reflects basically
three major changes. In the year 2000, at a historical peak of a total of 362 pages, the annual
report was divided into two volumes, probably for easier handling, printing and distribution.
This was done only once before, namely in 1955, precisely at the same moment when black
and white photographs (dark blue line) were introduced for the first time. Significant efforts
have been involved since the year 2000 to reduce the report size to a more readable size. This
includes for example the publishing of the second volume as accompanying CD-ROM.
Between 2000 and 2004, the printed first volume of the report was held below a total of 200
pages (dotted line). Between 2005 and 2009, with the new involvement of the design studio
Gensler Studio 585 (as indicated on the credits page), another major change in layout
permitted to reduce the size of both volumes together to less than 200 pages, with the first
volume of around almost constant 65 pages. This was achieved by eliminating the chapter
“thematic perspective” which was an important element of former reports, but which was now
partly included into the chapter on “regional perspective”. The rough drop in 2008 of the total
number of pages to a “total” of 65 pages is due to the fact that the second electronic volume of
the report could unfortunately not be accessed for this study to be included (only the total
number of volume 1 could be included). The very last steep rise in the total number of pages
in 2009 reflects the inclusion of the electronic volume 2 content, which includes a power
point presentation, accounting therefore also for a steep rise of the number of graphs and
maps (see the red line).

Turning in a second step to the evolution of the number of photographs, depicted in finer
detail in figure 2, we may observe that photographs were introduced as late as 1955 (in the
tenth annual report) – graphs only two years earlier, in 1953. The number of graphs and maps
in each report, compared to the number of photographs, shows a more or less close correlation
especially for the period between the mid-1960s and the mid-1990s. Despite a rapidly
growing report size in terms of total page size numbers, their numbers (graphs /maps and
photos) have however not increased as importantly. Only since 1997, graph and map figures
and those of photographs have risen in a substantial way. Photographs are generally limited to
the descriptive part of projects, regions and WB strategy, a par of the report which forms
volume 1 since WBR2000. The accounting part, listing loan numbers and amount, eligible
regions list etc. take throughout the WBR evolution more and more space. Starting from the
late 1960s, with loan activities rising dramatically, this part, which became the second volume
since 2000, became an increasingly important, non-photographic part of the report.

Thirdly, when considering the graphs together, we may identify three main periods. The first
period stretches from the introduction of photography to the WBRs in 1955 to the mid-1960s.
Photographs are in this first period the dominant iconographical element, with an average of
13 photographs per report, compared to approximately 7 photographs per report during the
following period. At the same time, during the second period, running from the mid-1960s to
the mid-1990s, there is a rather constant growth of total page numbers, yet the numbers of
graphs and photos stay in this first period almost at the same level. From an iconographical

4
perspective, this is a fairly constant period, where photographs on the one hand, and maps and
charts on the other are in a relative equilibrium. Compared with total page numbers, the
iconographical elements play therefore a decreasing overall role. The third period starts in the
second half of the 1990s and stretches to the end of the enquiry period considered in this
analysis. More specifically, since the year 2000, one can observe in this last period the
stepwise convergence of the number of report pages and of pictorial elements. For the reports
issued between 2004 and 2007 (and probably also 2008, if the second volume would have
been at hand), almost every second page contains a graph, map or photograph, compared for
example to approximately every thirteenth page in 1985 and every eighth page in 1955. From
an iconographical perspective, this last period is also an inversion of the first period: graph
and map totals have taken over the lead in comparison with total photograph numbers.

Were one to name these three, rather distinct periods, we would suggest naming the first
period (1955-1965) the photographic period due to the iconographical dominance of
photographs. The long, second period could be labelled the mixed period, with an equilibrium
of graphical and photographic elements, yet an overall iconographic decline tendency due to
an important increase in total page size number. The last period may be labelled the
convergence or full iconographic period, where all iconographical elements are fully
developed and largely present in the reports.

5
1.2. Quantitative Geographical Evolution

Photographs According to World Regions (1)

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
1955

1958
1961

1964
1967
1970
1973

1976
1979

1982
1985
1988

1991
1994
1997

2000
2003
2006

2009
Report Years

No country specified (excl. insitutional) Sub-Saharan Africa

Latin America & Caribbean South Asia
East-Asia & Pacific Europe & Central Asia
Middle East & North Africa

Figure 3 : Stacked area chart showing the total number of photographs per report year as a sum of
different world regions.

Photographs According to World Regions (2)

35

30

25

20

15

10

0
1955

1958
1961

1964
1967

1970
1973

1976
1979

1982
1985
1988

1991
1994

1997

2000
2003
2006

2009

Report Years

No country specified (excl. insitutional) Sub-Saharan Africa

Latin America & Caribbean South Asia
East-Asia & Pacific Europe & Central Asia
Middle East & North Africa

Figure 4 : Simple area chart showing the number of photographs of a specific geographical category per
report year, with the Middle East in the foreground and no country specification in the background.

6
The World Bank fostered obviously at different moments in history interest in different
regions. The photographs in the reports reflect at least partly some of those regional decisions
and strategies. Figure 3, the stacked area chart in which all regions are visible, shows three
distinct periods, especially from a European perspective. The first period runs from 1955, the
introduction of photographs in the WBRs, to the mid-1960s. Europe, and not so much central
Asia, played a central role in these first reports, because it was a region of key interest as we
will argue in the qualitative analysis in the third part of our report. Yet, one can also see that
Europe was at the time already in “competition” with other regions, most notably the Sub-
Saharan countries and especially Latin America, which were right from the beginning
dominantly depicted regions. The Middle East was during this first period only of sporadic
interest.

During a second and rather long period, which runs roughly from the mid-1960s to the mid-
1990s, Europe played only a minor role, whereas other regions became increasingly important
for the World Bank. According to the peaks of the simple area chart in figure 4 – this
information is not easily discernible in the stacked area chart of figure 3 – Sub-Saharan Africa
became in this second period one of the most dominantly depicted regions, especially between
1973 and 1984. A similar analysis counts for the Middle East, which is only since the mid-
1970s continually integrated into the reports, with exception of the 1983 and 1984 WBRs.
Whereas the overall amount of photographs attributed to specific regions remained
astonishingly constant between 1968 and 1994, with also more or less constant regional
distributions, things changed rather radically after the special issue of 1995 (celebrating the
first fifty years of the WB), which is therefore not considered here (all geographic values were
set to zero).

The last period runs therefore from 1996 to 2009, where one may observe a rapid increase in
the total number of photographs. Europe and Central Asia have become once again a
permanent photographic subject since 1996, whereas the new focus was oriented not to
central Europe as during the first period, but rather countries in Central Asia, outside of the
European Union. The vast majority of identifiable photos can be located either in Latin
America (especially between 1997 and 2005) and Sub-Saharan Africa (especially between
1998 and 2005), the two major iconographical geographic regions of the last WBRs. To a
slightly lesser degree, South Asia also became an importantly depicted region, especially
between 1998 and 2006. The last period shows also that many photos could only be attributed
without any ambiguity to specific regions due to the actual report structure, which maintained
a classification by region. However, a vast amount of photographs could not be identified,
since captions were mostly missing. With an average of over 21 unidentified photographs
since 2002, a major, yet consistent layout change is reflected in that number.

7
1.3. The Photographic Perspective

Photographic Perspective

30

25

20

15

10

0
1955
1958
1961
1964
1967
1970
1973
1976
1979
1982
1985
1988
1991
1994
1997
2000
2003
2006
2009
Report Years

landscape / macroscopic views between landscape / human scale

human scale close-up

Figure 5 : Graph showing the differentiation of WBR photographs according to four perspectival themes.

As a last strictly formal element, the photographic perspective was analysed according to four
categories: landscape perspective and macroscopic views involving the depiction of vast areas
paralleled often by an absence of any discernible person; the mixed scale perspectives
showing already more detail; the human scale perspective, allowing for the representation of
persons and objects at a human scale; and finally the close-up perspective, showing the most
details, with an emphasis often on one person or a certain object.

In a very general way, one can say that throughout the WBR history, the human scale and the
close-up perspective a more or less correlated and the same observation counts for the
landscape perspective and the mixed scale perspective. Also in the perspectival category,
three main periods, covering roughly the same time intervals as before, may be identified. The
first period covers the years between 1955 and 1965. As figure 5 shows, it may be identified
as what we would like to call the landscape period. A vast majority of the photographs (62 of
a total of 109) are associated to this type of perspective, since the themes explored are mostly
of large-scale nature, such as dams, ports, roads and canals (as the quantitative analysis of the
themes will show later). Close-up pictures are practically absent in this period. After 1965, in
the second, long period between the mid-1960s and the mid-1990s, the landscape perspective
plays only an inferior role. This period may be labelled the human scale period, since almost
half of all the photos (94 of a total 218) are of this type of perspective. With approximately
fifty photographs each, the mixed scale and the close-up perspectives may be considered as

8
equally important in the second period. The last period between 1996 and 2009 is vastly
dominated by the close-up perspective, with almost half of all the photos fitting in this
category (203 of a total of 447). Also the human scale perspective is dominant (154 of a total
of 447) in the last period, whereas the mixed-scale and landscape perspectives (57 and 33 of a
total of 447) are rather marginal. Therefore, we would like to suggest labelling the last period
the close-up period.

1.4. General Gender Issues

Before turning to more detailed human categorisations, which imply however mostly
occupational activities, we would like to draw the attention to more general gender
observations. The WBR photographs were classified for this purpose in sole male, sole female
and mixed gender categories in order to get a feeling how gender is represented throughout
WBR history.

Gender

60

50
Total Number of Photos

40

30

20

10

0
1955

1959

1963

1967

1971

1975

1979

1983

1987

1991

1995

1999

2003

2007

Report Years

sole male mixed gender sole female

Figure 6 : Stacked area chart showing evolution of three gender groups.

9
 Gender

25

20
Number of Photos

15

10

0
1955

1959

1963

1967

1971

1975

1979

1983

1987

1991

1995

1999

2003

2007
Report Years

sole male mixed gender sole female

Figure 7 : Graph of statistical evolution of mal, female and mixed gender photographs.

Both, the area chart in figure 6 and the graph in figure 7 show an almost exclusive dominance
of male representations until to the end of the 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s.
Especially the area chart shows well how both, mixed gender and sole female photographs
started thereafter to be mobilised as well, despite a general sole male dominance until the end
of the 1990s. It is safe to say that since the end of the 1990s – the cumulative area chart shows
this well – mixed gender and the sole female theme together have become largely
predominant over sole male photographs. A closer look at the statistics reveals that between
1995 and 2009, of a total of 391 photographs, 147 photographs could be classified as
representing mixed gender, compared to 142 sole male photographs and 102 photographs
showing only female gender.

If one would attempt a gender periodisation, the first period might be said to run slightly
longer than our usual first period introduced already above. Here, only a t the very end of the
1960s, female and mixed gender representations start to become commonplace and to show
up in sufficient numbers to have an overall impact. It is therefore safe to say that the first
period between 1955 and the end of the 1960s is a male dominated period, allowing only for
very few female subjects being depicted. For the reports between 1955 and 1969, of a total of
68 photographs, 51 are sole male depictions, whereas 13 are mixed gender and only 4 sole
female representations. The second period running from the end of the 1960s to the mid-
1990s is a period of gradual convergence of sole male photographs on the one hand, and
female and male gender representations on the other. The third period between 1995 and 2009
is a dominantly mixed gender period, where gender representations have found the most
significant equilibrium, despite a lasting sole male importance.

10
One may also add that as products of their time, the World Bank Reports are also gendered in
the sense that it was literally unimaginable in the 1950s and 1960s to include female
representations in the official Bank statement. The predominant themes of this first period
excluded any female relevance – namely massive, large-scale projects such as dams and the
construction of highway infrastructure – since the only subjects depicted were male
construction workers. The clear underrepresentation of the female gender reflects of course a
more deeper and general neglect in the West of many gender issues before the so-called
“sexual revolution” in the late 1960s.

Comparison: Female Literacy, Adult Education and

Gender Representations
14

12
Number of Photos

10

0
1955

1959

1963

1967

1971

1975

1979

1983

1987

1991

1995

1999

2003

2007

Report Years

women education / female literacy adults (education) / students

sole female

Figure 8 : Graph depicting comparison between sole female photographs, adult education representations
and the female literacy theme.

If one compares the education category “female literacy” with both, the human category
“student” and the gender category “sole female,” one may observe that education, and
especially female literacy became only briefly in the 1980s, and on a larger scale after the end
of the 1990s, important elements of the WBRs. Indeed, by the mid-1980s, increasing female
literacy especially in Africa and Asia became a key goal for the WB which is reflected in
some photographs (see especially WBR 1984). WBR 1984 for example acknowledges that the
work women realise must be included and evaluated as a major economic factor. Female
education in particular is identified as the key to birth control and economic independence.
The adoption of the so-called Millennium Development Goals (MDG) by the WB which
include the eradication of extreme poverty and hunger, universal primary education, gender
equality and women empowerment, the improvement of maternal health and the reduction of
child mortality (see for example WBR 2002) led to the large increase of photographs since the

11
end of the 1990s in the female and education categories. The same may be said for the
medical and health issues which have also seen a large increase since the end of the 1990s.
They were closely associated to the struggle improving the situation of women and their
children in developing countries.

1.5. The Human / Social Category

The area chart in figure 8 is certainly difficult to read due to the very high number of variables
depicted. Several general tendencies can however be made out. The reader may also be
assured already at this point that several issues only briefly mentioned here, will play again a
major role in the thematic analysis of the WBR photographs. First, one can see in figure 9 that
workers are throughout the WBR history a major social category and with a total of 190
photographs, they make up more than a third of all the depictions of this report category (the
category total is 580 photographs). Farmers and fishermen are the second important social
category, with 103 photographs throughout the reports. This means that together, workers and
farmers form more than half of all the photographs in this category. Civilians, depicted here in
grey, represent the third important theme with a total of 89 depictions. Their individual
occurrences follow however different evolutions.

Workers, especially the first two group sizes were until the mid-1960s the only dominant
theme. Only after 1965 one can speak of a real, meaning a statistically significant
diversification. For instance, farmers started from 1965 on to become a commonly depicted
social category and especially during the 1970s, they were a very important theme. Whereas
during the first period one could find a total of 30 photographs representing workers and only
7 photographs showing farmers or fishermen, the farmer and fisher ratio increased
importantly during the second period, with 79 “worker” depictions and 46 photographs of
farmers and fishers. Primary education, which was no issue in the first period, started to
become during the late 1960s an element of iconographical attention, with photographs
showing pupils at school. Civilians started only in the early 1980s to play an iconographical
role. Their number increased drastically in the third and last period between the mid-1990s
and the end of the enquiry period in 2009. Here we find also adult education and health
related issues, such as doctors with children in hospitals or child vaccinations. Children seem
to be in general during this last period an important pictorial element.

12
 Human / Social Category

50
45
40
35
Total occurences

30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1946
1950
1954
1958
1962
1966
1970
1974
1978
1982
1986
1990
1994
1998
2002
2006
Report Years
workers (group size 1-5) workers (6-15) workers (16+)
farmers / fishermen (size 1-5) farmers / fishermen (6-15) farmers / fishermen (16+)
pupils (+teacher) (1-5) pupils (+teacher) (6-15) pupils (+teacher) (16+)
baby / young child / kids mother / father +child(ren) doctor(s) +child(ren)
politicians / bankers civilians (no other function) scientist(s) / technical staff
adults (education) / students WB/EDI teacher (+particip.)

Figure 9 : Stacked area chart showing distribution of photographs according to different human and
social categories.

With theses indications at hand, the first period from 1955 to 1965 may be qualified as the
worker period. The second period stretching from 1966 to 1995 is a period where farmers and
fishermen gain a lot in importance (46 photographs show farmers and fishermen, 79 workers).
To acknowledge this fact, we would like to refer to this period as the worker and farmer
period, although workers still have statistically speaking the overhand. The last period from
1995 onwards shows a strong diversification (as already the second period), yet civilians have
taken here an important role. We would like to refer to this last period therefore as the period
of civil society.

13
 Illustrative Elements

8
7
Total number of photos

6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1985

1987

1989

1991

1993

1995

1997

1999

2001

2003

2005

2007

2009
Report Years

smile pictures (adult or mix)

smile pictures (only children)
illustr. purpose / posing (no other categ.)

Figure 10 : Stacked area chart of illustrative human elements, 1985-2009.

We added figure 10 in order to quantify also photographs that show human subjects not
primarily according to a social category, but rather for the purpose of demonstration of
contentedness. These “smile” pictures are completely absent of any early report and they have
become an important iconographical element only rather recently, during the last twelve years
or so. They confirm the general tendency of this period towards full iconographical reports,
with many illustrative elements, known normally only of other publication media, such as
advertising brochures. The dominance of the close-up perspective, with a more “equal
gender” approach and often civilians involved, as well as the absence of geographical
indications, confirms the illustrative purpose of those photographs.

14
2. The Thematic Distribution
For this study, the WBR photographs were roughly classified into six different thematic
domains, namely infrastructure/energy/communication, agriculture, education, medical issues,
environmental issues and animal themes. Due to the high number of variables (especially in
the first case), charts were mostly privileged above graphs for clearer visibility and better
information extraction.

2.1. Infrastructure, Energy and Communication Related Themes

Infrastructure, Energy, Communication

6
Total Number of Photos

0
1955

1958

1961

1964

1967

1970

1973

1976
1979

1982
1985

1988

1991

1994
1997

2000
2003

2006

Report Years 2009

dam / barrage / hydro-electr. plant constr. irrigation / drainage sys (constr./maintenance)
steel plant / iron factory road / bridge / tunnel construction
railroad (plan., construction & station) indust.workshop (small scale) / factory
port / canal (constr./shipping/unloading) power stat.(diesel/nucl./therm.), coal mine, oil
fresh water supply (well, pipel., transp.) housing construction
pipe-/transmission line (energy related) telecomm (infrastr., shop, cyber-cafe etc.)

Figure 11 : Simple area chart of evolution of different fundamental infrastructural sectors, with dams and
barrages in the background and the telecommunication sector in the foreground, allowing easily grasping
peaks and dominant themes with the inconvenience of hiding small and similar values.

15
 Infrastructure, Energy, Communication

18
16
14
Total Number of Photos

12
10
8
6
4
2
0
1955

1958
1961

1964
1967
1970
1973
1976
1979
1982
1985
1988
1991
1994

1997
2000
2003
2006
2009
Report Years

dam / barrage / hydro-electr. plant constr. irrigation / drainage sys (constr./maintenance)

steel plant / iron factory road / bridge / tunnel construction
railroad (plan., construction & station) indust.workshop (small scale) / factory
port / canal (constr./shipping/unloading) power stat.(diesel/nucl./therm.), coal mine, oil
fresh water supply (well, pipel., transp.) housing construction
pipe-/transmission line (energy related) telecomm (infrastr., shop, cyber-cafe etc.)

Figure 12 : Stacked area chart of the same categories as in figure 11, with each contribution now visible
throughout the chart.

Both, figures 11 and 12 reveal again three rather distinct periods, covering approximately
1955 to 1965, 1966 to 1995, and 1996 to 2009. Peak contributions lie here clearly within the
first and last periods, yet when considering the average, one may observe that every period
includes approximately 100 photographs (97, 98 and 105) in this category, yet their thematic
distribution is however strikingly different. The first period includes (with only one
exception) solely photographs that may be attributed to the first 8 themes (dam,
irrigation/drainage etc., until power station). This implicates that one can identify this period
as a major, large-scale industrial and infrastructural project, with dams and barrages, roads,
bridges and tunnels, as well as ports and canals as dominant photographic themes. Housing,
telecommunication and fresh water supply are no issues yet.

The second period between 1966 and 1995 shows an overall more evenly distributed picture.
The dominance of large-scale industrial infrastructural projects is partly succeeded by other
themes, such as small-scale industrial workshops, which make up now the by far largest
single-theme contribution with over one fifth of all photographs in this category and period
(21 photos of a total of 98). The water issue, almost completely absent from the first period,
has become also a highly dominant theme, with depictions showing irrigation and drainage
systems (16 photos), as well as fresh-water supply sources (9 photos), such as wells and water
transportation in rural areas. Some new themes, completely absent from the first period, are

16
housing and telecommunication, even though contributions rest still punctual. The second
period reflects in this sense a diversification, but also a reduction in the size and scale of the
projects, rendering the themes more compatible to direct human comprehension and
interaction. As we will see later, many of these themes may also be related to other categories,
such as the medical category, since especially water questions have also a profound impact on
public health, hygiene and disease control. For the time being, this second period may be
called for our convenience the diversification and down-scaling period.

The peaks of the simple area chart of figure 11 show well that the major obsession of the last
period between 1995 and 2009 are fresh-water issues (21 photos of a total of 105), as well as
industrial workshops (27 photos of a total of 105). Road repairs and constructions, as well as
port scenes, such as the unloading of boats, are the third and forth major theme (17 and 14
photos), followed finally by telecommunication depictions (10 photos). It seems that this last
period is characterised by an emphasis on local economies, such as small factories, where
different industrial goods are produced, as well as the installation of a better coverage of fresh
water access and sanitation facilities in a certain number of WB countries. One may call
therefore this last period the sanitation and local economies period.

2.2. Agricultural Issues

Agricultural Issues

12

10
Number of Photos

8
6
4
2

0
1955

1958

1961

1964

1967

1970

1973

1976

1979

1982

1985

1988

1991

1994

1997

2000

2003

2006

2009

Report Years

cotton/tea/fibre/lumber/palm/coff. plant harvest/plantation (fruit, veg, tea)

agricultural machine lumber transport & chopping
corn/rice prepar./grow./seed./milling) warehouse / storage (coffee, etc.)
village life (food present./washing) market life / economic exchange
agricultural development projects / rehabilitation

Figure 13 : Stacked area chart of evolution of agricultural issues.

As figure 13 shows, agricultural issues are during the first years of the WBRs almost absent.
The large infrastructure build-up, as discussed in the previous section, was not accompanied
by any agricultural developments. Agricultural issues started to play a durable role only in a

17
second period, which may be placed once again roughly between the mid-1960s to the mid-
1990s. Photographs in this time period are closely bound to harvest and alimentary themes,
most notably the growing, seeding or preparation of corn, rice, tea, vegetables or fruit. These
two themes make up more than half of all the photographs in this category and period (34 of
59). Since 1995, there is a growing interest in depicting different life situations within
different (mostly rural) communities. The two themes “village life” and “market life” are
therefore predominant in this last period, with over half of all the photos of this period
contributing to either one of the two themes (9 and 29 photographs of a total of 73).One must
add that the only form of economic exchange that is depicted in the reports are almost
exclusively typical market situations. In the most recent reports however, other forms were
sometimes added, such as traders at stock exchange (WBR2007), clients in a bank
(WBR2009) or money exchange business (WBR2009)

The first period until the mid-1960s may therefore be called from a quantitative point of view
the non-agricultural period. The second period running from the mid-1960s to the mid-1990s
is the alimentation and plantation period, conveying one basic message or question: how to
feed the world. The third period may be labelled the market period, with a growing emphasis
on its economic meaning.

2.3. Evolution of Educational Depictions

Education Sector

9
8
7
Number of Photos

6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1955

1958

1961

1964

1967

1970

1973

1976

1979

1982

1985

1988

1991

1994

1997

2000

2003

2006

2009

Report Years

learning / teaching at school agricul. / industr. education (mostl. non-formal)

women education / female literacy WB / EDI teaching (in field or US)

Figure 14 : Simple area chart of photographs that may be attributed to the educational sector.

Compared to other categories, the education sector is a rather simple category. The 1950s and
the first half of the 1960s don’t contain any school related images, but only WB related
education projects which aim at agricultural or industrial non-formal education or field

18
teaching of policy makers. Only since the late 1960s, educational environments in a
traditional sense (like schools) have become an important pictorial element. Therefore, only
with the beginning of this second period from the mid-1960s to the mid-1990s, one may speak
of a statistically significant educational category. Since 1997, one can observe an important
increase of the number of educational activities and one can observe that the school has
become in the third period between 1997 and the end of the enquiry period one of the
favourite photo motives of the WBRs. Female literacy, which shows important peaks in 2001
and 2002, is the second important theme of this last period, although it has played already
during the second period at three other occasions an important role, most significantly in
1990.

It is fair to say that our first period (covering 1955-1965) is in other words a non-educational
period, whereas the second period (1966-1995) represents in average a primary education
period. The third period (1996-2009) may finally be qualified as a broader, education and
female literacy period.

2.4. Medical and Health Issues

Medical and Health Issues

6
Number of Photos

0
1970

1972

1974

1976

1978

1980

1982

1984

1986

1988

1990

1992

1994

1996

1998

2000

2002

2004

2006

2008

Report Years

birth control / motherhood public health (clinic, doctor, ambulance...) infection prevention (water, HIV, vaccinat.,...)

Figure 15 : Simple area chart showing the distribution of medical and public health issues.

The area chart in figure 15 is a striking example of a category which started relatively late to
become an important iconographical element. Our usual periodisation doesn’t seem
completely adequate in this case, since the very first occurrence of a medical issue dates back
to 1972, well after our usual mid-1960s transition period. However, our last period, which we
usually locate starting in the mid or late 1990s, seems still to be relevant, since one may
observe only since 1998 the regular and increasing appearance of health issues. Disease
prevention campaigns, depicted here in white, are the major theme of the last period (42 of a
total of 63 photographs), although they started being depicted already in 1992.

19
To put it in other words, public health issues play only since the 1970s a role, disease
prevention campaigns only since the 1990s. In a more general sense, one may observe since
the year 2000 a dramatic amplification of all health issues. Birth control together with the
importance of motherhood, which play statistically already the leading role before the year
2000 with 7 occurrences, take up a recurring role in five consecutive reports of the new
millennium. The pre-1970 period may therefore be called the non-medical period, followed
by the birth control period, which could be limited, strictly speaking, to the period covering
1972 to 1981, since one can observe a diversification of themes at the end of the 1980s and
the beginning of the 1990s. The last period, which starts around the late 1990s, may be called
the prevention period.

2.5. Environmental Issues

Environm ental Issues

3,5

2,5
Number of Photos

1,5

0,5

0
1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

Report Years

deforestation soil erosion (control/as risk) natural disaster impact (hurr./earthquake)

overpopulation / slums / refugee camps envir. aw areness comm. (icons etc.) sustainability / recycling etc. / environ. plan

Figure 16 : Clustered column chart of number of photographs related to environmental issues, 1985-2009.

20
 Environm ental Issues

4,5

3,5

3
Number of Photos

2,5

1,5

0,5

0
1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009
Report Years

deforestation soil erosion (control/as risk) natural disaster impact (hurr./earthquake)

overpopulation / slums / refugee camps envir. aw areness comm. (icons etc.) sustainability / recycling etc. / environ. plan

Figure 17 : Stacked area chart of environmental issues in WBRs 1985-2009

Just as the medical and health issue chart, the two environmental charts of figures 16 and 17
are relatively simple and contain a total of solely 24 photographs. In general one can say that
environmental issues don’t play any role before 1985 and that since 1999, one can observe an
important increase in environmental issues. It is difficult to introduce a periodisation to this
category, since it covers only a relatively small time-span and sample size. There are however
two dominant themes which may be pointed out and which cover the years 1993 to 2009:
natural disaster impact and sustainability.

2.6. Animal Themes

One of the last categories analysed for this report are animal depictions, as shown in figure
18. This is insofar an ambiguous category, since many themes may be related to other
categories, such as fishing to agricultural or environmental themes, or animal health
instruction to the medical sector. We decided however to count these photographs apart in
order to obtain an idea about the representation of “nature” in the WBRs. All animal
depictions proved to be of economic and nutritional nature, whereas cattle representations
dominate our “usual” first two periods, with small-scale fishing activities taking over
beginning in the 1990s. The small total number of photographs in this category does however
not allow for any further deductions, yet it would probably be fair to call the last period the
fishing period.

21
 Animal Themes

3
Total Number of Photos

0
1955

1958

1961

1964

1967

1970

1973

1976

1979

1982

1985

1988

1991

1994

1997

2000

2003

2006

2009
Report Years

cattle animal health instruction & control

poultry farm fishing (vessel, cargo)
fishing small-scale (boats, net repair, selling)

Figure 18 : Stacked area chart of animal themes in WBRs 1955-2009.

2.7. Miscellaneous Category

The miscellaneous category of figure 19 confirms finally some earlier observations. For
example, in the human elements category, we labelled the last period covering 1995 to 2009,
due to the large increase of “civilian” involvement, the “civil society period”. Indeed, figure
19 shows this very well, explicit references to civil society and the build-up of participatory
processes may be found only in this last period. The so-called “market life period”, identified
as the time-span running again from 1995 to 2009 in the agricultural category and embracing
also as the only category economy related depictions, may be correlated with elements such as
microcredit, pension reform or poverty reduction. The publicity and illustration effect was
already noted in figure 9 as part of the human category. Here again, the rising number of
photographic depictions employed for purely illustrative purposes confirms the tendency of
the last fifteen years or so of our enquiry period, that the photographs in the reports play a
increasingly illustrative role, better known from other publication media such as advertising
brochures. As largest contributor to the miscellaneous category, the “publicity effect” in the
reports of the last period can not be neglected.

22
 Miscellaneous

14
Total number of photos

12
10
8
6
4
2
0
1985

1987

1989

1991

1993

1995

1997

1999

2001

2003

2005

2007

2009
Report Years

Urban life / street scence

other: micorcredit, pension reform, tourism
Publicity (smiling, etc.)/ illustration effect
participatory process / civil soc.
poverty reduction

Figure 19 : Stacked area chart of photographs depicting miscellaneous themes, not directly applicable to
other categories.

23
3. Summary and qualitative Analysis

3.1. Periodisation summary

1st period, roughly 2nd period, roughly 3rd period, roughly

1955-1965 1966-1995 1996-2009

Iconography and photographic period mixed period, decline convergence, full

Page Size Total in importance iconographic period

World Region Europe and some Sub-Saharan region Sub-Saharan region

investments in South dominant and Latin America
dominant, yet most
photos unlabelled

Perspective landscape period human scale period close-up period

Gender male dominated gradual gender mixed gender period

period convergence

Human / Social worker period worker and farmer / civil society

categorisation fishermen period

Infrastructure / large-scale industrial diversification and sanitation and local

Energy / Comm. / infrastructure period down-scaling economies

Agriculture non-agricultural alimentation and market period

period plantation period

Education non-education period primary education education and female

period literacy period

Medical Issues Non-medical period birth control period prevention period

Environmental non-environmental first degradation sustainability and

Issues period issues natural disaster
period

Animal Themes (cattle period) (cattle period) fishing period

Miscellaneous n/a n/a confirms some

elements of 3rd
period, most notably
“publicity effect”

Table 1 : Periodisation as attempted during quantitative analysis

24
3.2. The Role of Photography in the Word Bank Reports

With all these diverse elements at hand, we are now able to identify not only some general
tendencies and elements of certain periods, but also some major reasons why certain
iconographical themes appear, or do not appear, at specific time intervals. The World Bank
was created in 1944 at the Bretton Woods conference to finance the reconstruction of Europe
and to help developing countries (which were at the time still rather small in number).
Photographs of the reports issued between 1955 and 1965 reflect particularly well the nature
of this large-scale industrial and infrastructural project. The photographs document so to
speak the “grandiose” nature of those projects, most notably via the choice of landscape
perspective, often realised with an oblique, bird’s eye view on the represented object, such as
dams, hydro-electric plants, ports, canals and power stations, often in the absence of any
human being. One may understand now clearer the reason why perspective was introduced as
a formal element: it followed the assumption that certain photographic motives and themes
demand specific perspectival choices. With only male workers represented, this first period is
also clearly gendered in the medium of photography, namely by male dominance, reflecting in
a broader sense the rejection of any gender considerations before their radical rehabilitation
during the so-called “sexual revolution” of the late 1960s.

Photograph numbers in the mentioned infrastructure categories drop almost immediately after
1965, which is a clear indication for profounder changes taking place within the Bank. Indeed,
the first period reflects in a sense an important period of the Cold War, during which the
United States as true world power excel at dominating some parts of Europe and developing
countries of the South. In a general way, with no access to private funding alternatives, the
South had no other choice as to follow closely the lead indicated by the West. The
reconstruction of Europe (and the funding of anti-communist allies), mostly visible in its
gradual, but effective recovery after the Second World War, is accompanied by the WB by
large-scale project funding in the energy and infrastructure sector. The complete absence of
certain themes, such as medical issues and environmental issues, and the relative absence of
agricultural and certainly educational questions (only seven photographs were counted in
these two categories altogether), reinforces the majestic nature of the infrastructural
reconstruction period, with its black and white focus on massive cement and concrete
structures. Agricultural issues enter the reports so to speak (besides some plantation
photographs) through the backdoor, via the representation of massive irrigation systems and
canals, which form also an important part of this infrastructural period. The 1950s and 1960s
see basically two-thirds of the WB borrowings going into the energy and transportation
sector, a domain which is traditionally considered in Bank circles as safe and rather profitable.
The agricultural and social domains on the other hand are in this early phase of the Bank’s
history simply conceived as not profitable enough.

Things changed however substantially during the second half of the 1960s. The second, long
period is first of all shaped by the arrival of a new WB president in 1968, the American
economist and former secretary of defence (and architect of the Vietnam War) Robert
McNamara. Under his instigation, a rapid diversification takes place, with new themes
entering the Bank’s agenda, directed mainly towards the social and agricultural sectors –

25
domains considered beforehand as unprofitable or risky funding. Whereas infrastructural
funding decreases dramatically in comparing the 1960s to the 1970s (64% to 34%), other
sectors take up in importance: agricultural funding doubles during the same time frame (13 %
to 28%) and social projects (like water access and education) triple in funding volume (4% to
13%). The overall funding increases also rather dramatically, especially during the 1970s and
1980s, a fact which is well reflected in the steady growth of total page numbers of the WBRs.

Some of these developments are of course also reflected in the medium of photography,
where one can observe a diversification of the themes depicted and we called this therefore
for the infrastructure category the “diversification and down-scaling period.” Other categories
are however also involved. Primary education for example is throughout the 1970s an iconic
motive of the reports – a period which in this sense we have rightly labelled the “primary
education period.” The same may be said for yet other categories. Infrastructural projects do
not only loose their initial importance, they are also diversified and down-scaled, meaning
that individual, smaller, less “grandiose” projects are considered for funding. This is once
again (at least partly) reflected by the perspectival renderings of most photographs which are
for the vast majority taken at a more human level with a reduced framing. The move from the
landscape perspective to the human scale reflects here in a sense the fundamental policy
change within the Bank, pushed forward by McNamara, in funding more socially oriented
projects. Landscape photographs are simply not considered useful in accounting for claimed
“benefits” of, for example, the so-called “green revolution,” which started to take up in
importance especially in the late 1960s. Most photographs try to communicate a human
dimension of this important agricultural transformation, showing individual farmers in
plantations and fields rather than vast landscape modifications. When consulting figure 13
showing the distribution of agricultural issues, one sees that the harvest and plantation of tea
and fruit and the preparation, growing and seeding of rice or corn are indeed the most
important themes of what we called “the alimentation and plantation period.” The “green
revolution” is also accompanied by photographic themes exploring infrastructural
developments, such as irrigation systems or field instructions on new agricultural techniques
and methods (see figure 14). The second period may therefore be considered also on an
iconographical level the Bank’s “golden age” of agriculture, a sector in which funding would
however be dramatically reduced towards the end of the 1990s.

After McNamara’s resignation in 1981, structural adjustments programs become the key
strategy of the WB under the new president Clausen who instigates ultra-liberalist strategies.
In brief, structural adjustments aim at imposing the so-called “free market” on borrowing
countries. When not complying with orthodox liberalisation rules, such as the
denationalisation of different sectors, countries may not receive money or be sanctioned by
the Bank. The structural adjustments prove, however, to be by and large ineffective and they
are officially abandoned by the end of the 1990s. This part of the WB history is however very
difficult to relate to any iconographical tradition in particular. Other visual themes, which start
at the beginning of the 1990s to take up in importance, are environmental issues and health
questions which are indeed both accompanied by WB thematic reports, issued between 1992
and 1994.

26
With the nomination of the Australian economist James Wolfensohn as new WB president in
1995, a new era starts at the World Bank. Under Wolfensohn’s leadership, all the major
development questions are attacked in some way or another, ranging from the fight against
poverty to the risk of climate change and the battle against major epidemics and pandemics.
When considering the actual WBRs more closely, one can observe that major changes in
layout accompanied Wolfensohn’s presidency. The annual report was divided into two
volumes, its overall size reduced and the iconographical part augmented therefore rather
dramatically (especially when considering only the first volume) and new media were
mobilised in the dissemination of information. We believe that legitimacy is a major issue
which can account for these changes.

Indeed, the changes can be interpreted as an answer to a major crisis in legitimacy which the
Bank was experiencing especially towards the end of the 1990s. The Bank’s structural
adjustment programs were considered in general a severe failure. The media strategy
consisted so to speak in engaging contestation by building up a less austere and certainly a
very much friendlier and positive image in order to rebuild confidence. If the reports of the
new century have one basic message, it should probably read: things are going well and
people are happy! The high number of “illustrative photographs” is tangible proof of this shift
towards a new strategy which we labelled the “creation of contentedness.” Indeed, their use is
normally known only in the case of other publication media, such as for example advertising
brochures. The increasing number of photographs showing for Western eyes rather “exotic”
people (very often children and in close-up perspective) smiling, like on can see for example
on the cover page of WBR1999, is a clear indication for the use of photography with the aim
of establishing an affective link with reader. Children are particularly helpful in achieving this,
as big publicity campaigns of call for donations, showing for example the iconic starving
child, have proven many times. In the WBRs, the use of “smile” photography allows in a
similar sense to sell the Bank’s funding programs as not only largely beneficial to the local
population, but also as highly effective, creating a large number of satisfied and content
people, no matter which developing region one looks at in the world. The deliberate absence
of captions, another important characteristic of the last period, allowing for no precise
geographic location or thematic categorisation, renders those photographs clearly more global
and universal. They are in other words the visual analogue to the stereotype, a category of
visualisation which Uwe Pörksen has aptly labelled the “visiotype.”

The World Bank had to seek for this specific purpose the help of publicity professionals, as
the credits pages of the reports indicate. Starting from WBR2000, the design coordination and
layout was no longer in the hands of the in-house “Graphic Design Unit“ (as is still the case in
WBR1999), but exclusively in those of professionals in global branding and design. This new,
professional approach to the creation of the public face of the Bank implied also new
aesthetics, as for example the important increase in the use of the close-up perspective shows
(see figure 5). Allowing for a detailed and sometimes more affective engagement, close-up
photographs were mainly chosen from the in-house “World Bank photo library” and
integrated and sometimes cropped for the final layout (some photographs for example
reappear in different reports with different cropping). This publicity turn implied also the

27
increased use of graphics and charts, seeking compression of knowledge in abbreviated visual
form and reflecting a general development to a now highly visual communication medium.

Finally, what makes the reports of the last period also unique is the fact that the strategy of the
creation of contentedness is reinforced by the photographic presence of other themes which
would be in other contexts quite simply alarming for the reader. Severe environmental issues
and natural disasters, pandemics such as AIDS and the seemingly ever enduring fight against
poverty are all common photographic subjects of the last reports, hardly themes that would
normally help rising the spirit of the reader. Yet in this new context, the convergence of
apparently highly contradicting visual themes seems only to reinforce the global message of
contentedness.

Yet one must not forget that with the outsourcing of the report design, the WBRs underwent
also a fundamental normalising process. That is the reason why today, the WBRs seem to fit
so well into the broader landscape of institutional annual reports, be it of the Pan-America
Health Organization or of CHF International. Publication media can of course help only to a
restricted degree in steering against losses of legitimacy. The future will show if the Bank is
also willing to undergo fundamental structural changes to overcome its crisis.

28