UNIT 2 SATELLITE TECHNOLOGY AND

DISTANCE EDUCATION
Structure
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Communication Satellites
2.3 Satellite Orbits
2.4 Characteristics of Satellites
2.5 . Satellite versus Terrestrial Communication
2.5.1 Satellite and terrestrial communication: A comparison
2.5.2 Types of television sets
2.6 Satellite based Communication and Distance Education
2.6.1 Some experiments in India
2.7 Teleconferencing
2.7.1 Technical description of teleconferencing
2.7.2 Advantages of teleconferencing
2.7.3 Types of teleconferencing
2.7.4 Organising teleconference sessions
2.7.5 Limitations of teleconferencing
2.7.6 Training and development communication channel
2.7.7 Some low cost option: the video class
2.8 Telephone-Mediated Instruction .
2.8.1 Voice mail
2.9 Emergence of Virtual Class
2.10 Let Us Sum Up
2.1 1 Check Your Progress: The Key

2.0 INTRODUCTION
We should certainly thank the discoverers of the radio waves, which have
revolutionized communication technology throughout the world. Though
there is a constant pressure on new technologies to facilitate national and
international communication, the usable radio frequency spectrum has its
own limitations. For example, television broadcasting needs higher
frequencies, the propagation conditions of which are severely limited. The
television service should therefore be local in nature, unless a chain of
transmitting stations is connected via cables or microwaves. This solution
too has its own limitations in application, since chaining transmitting
stations is a very expensive and complicated system and the transmitting
connections cannot be used over the oceans and long mountain ranges. The
need to overcome these problems of distance and cost gave birth to satellite-
based communication systems, which combine both space and
communication technologies.
In this unit, we shall focus on the reasons behind the importance of the
satellite-based communication systems in distance education. We shall
discuss the need, status, and potential of these systems and shall also
explore ways for the developing countries to use them. The talk-back
devices -teleconferencing and the telephone, will be given extended
Conthrrer. a i ~ d
Communrcarron .Vrtuorks

treatment because of their specific utility in distance education. Having

discussed the developments in applying the broadcast and cassette
technologies (Block 2) as well as the computer (!!nit 1 of this Blcrck) to
improve the efficiency of teaching-learning transact icillq. :ve now turn to
satellite-based communication.

2.1 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you should be able to:
a state the role of space orbit in positioning satellites.
explain the characteristics and applications of commi~nicationsatellites
in education in general and in distance educstion iil partice~!ar;
a distinguish between satellite and the terrestrial comniunication;
a . describe the techniques and types of teleconferencing:
a describe the importance of telephone-mediated instruction;
a justify the need for satellite-based communication in distance education;
and
a describe and predict the kind of virtual class that may emerge in future.
---
2.2 COMMUNICATION SATELLITES
A communication satellite is a spacecraft that receives signals from a
transmitter on earth and amplifies these signals, changes the carrier
frequencies, and then retransmits the amplified signals back to the receivers
on earth. The communication satellites are usually placed in a special earth
orbit, which makes them appear stationary to the transmitters and receivers
on earth. There are more than a hundred of these communication satellites in
orbit around the world, and new satellites are being launclled regularly.
The space age started in 1957 with the launching of Sputnik by the former
USSR. Since then, a number of satellites have been launched for various
purposes: telecommunications, meteorology, remote sensing. disaster
warning, defence and so on.
The key to satellite-based communication is not simply the satellite itself,
but other elements as well -a ground based transmission station known as
uplink, and a receiving disc known as downlink. The uplink sends signals to
the satellite, which amplifies and retransmits them back to the downlink, i.e.
the direct receiving disc, which in turn feeds a local station. See Figure 1.
Launching of satellites
A satellite is launched into a geostationary orbit using either an unmanned
vehicle or a piloted space shuttle that is reusable. The machine, popularly
known as the SatelliJe Launch Vehicle (SLV), has one or more rocket stages
that provide the acceleration needed to launch a satellite into the desired
earth orbit. The satellite is normally placed in a circular earth orbit by the

34
 Satellire Technology and D~sranceEdtrcar~on

SLV and then transferred, shifted or fixed into a geostationary orbit. A

special rocket in the satellite provides the acceleration needed to transfer the
satellite from a circular orbit into a geostationary orbit. This special rocket
in the satellite is called an iipogee motor or an Apogee Kick Motor (AKM).

Fig. 1: Transmission Through Satellite

The space shuttle provides an alternative method of launching

communication satellites. Launching satellites with a space shuttle is less
expensive than using unpiloted launch vehicles because a space shuttle can
launch more than one satellite on a single mission and then it can be reused
(Douglas, 1988). Once the satellite is fixed in the geostationary orbit, it
rotates in the same direction as the earth, at a velocity that equals the rate at
which the earth rotates.
In a short span of time. communication satellites have become the
predominant carriers of long distance communications. Since 6thApril 1965,
when the first commercial satellite, INTELSAT, was launched, the satellite
I- industry has grown to handle most national and international
1 communications. The satellite is used for direct broadcasting in many
I countries.
In India, the firsr Indian National Committee on Space Research
IINCOSPAR) was founded in 1982 for conducting space science
experiments. The primary ob.jectives of the Indian space programme are to
develop indigenous capability in advanced space technology/engineering; to
devriop capability for various applications of space technology for national

35
Computer and CommunicationNetworks

development; and to build scientific manpower for space science and

technology (DOS, 1991-92). The late Vikram Sarabhai, the first head of the
Indian Space Research Organization, opined that India, with its vast size and
population, and low level of economic development and literacy, should
draw the benefits of satellite technology to create a nation-wide television
service for instructional, educational, and related developmental purposes
(Srirangan, 1985). It took 15 years for Sarabhai's dream to be fulfilled in the
shape of the NSAT-A multi-purpose system. At present there are around 40
television satellites around the world (WCR, 1997). Table - 1 gives a
overview of some important satellite operators divided in terms of their
geographical operation area.

SATELLITE ORBITS
One of the important factors making the communication satellite useful for
specific purposes is the orbit into which the satellite has been fixed. There
can be four types of orbits available for positioning satellites in space
(Nicholson, 1976). We shall briefly discuss each of them just to have an
idea of the basics of the communication satellite.
i) Low orbit: In the early stages of the development of satellite technology,
the orbits were close to the earth surface (called 'low' in space technology).
In the absence of sophisticated satellite launching equipment, the satellites
could not be launched very far into space. Satellites in low orbits pass very
rapidly from horizon to horizon and can be used for communication only for
a short period. The speed of the revolution of the satellite in the low orbit
and that of the earth does not match. Therefore, satellites in low orbits are
not very useful for telecommunication purposes.
ii) Medium orbit: As space science progressed, more powerful satellite
launching vehicles (SLV) were designed and developed which made it
possible to place the satellite in a higher orbit. Satellite orbits ranging from a
few hundred to a few thousand kms above the earth's surface is classified as
the medium altitude orbits. Satellites in such orbits also revolve rapidly and
we need to move earth station antennas to chase the satellite in space. In
such cases, at least two antennas are installed: one antenna follows a setting
satellite and the other follows a rising one.
iii) Geo-synchronousorbit: At a distance of about 36,000 kms from the
earth's surface, an orbiting satellite can move at such a speed that it appears
to be stationary to the people on the earth. This orbit is known a geo-
synchronous or geo-stationary orbit. These days most of the new
communication satellites, both for national and international use, operate in
this orbit which is useful for communication purposes. Geo-synchronous
orbit satellite systems offer advantages in cost and complexity when
compared with the low and medium altitude systems.
 Tablel: Selected satellite operators around the world
Operators Organisation Services Satelli~s Reach
Interanational Operators
Founded in 1979 by international Telecommunication lnmarsat 2F1 (1990) Worldwide
maritime Organisation. Co- lnmarsat 2F2 (1991 )
operation between 179 member lnmarsat 2F3 (1992)
states including Japan, Nonvay, Inmarsat 3FI (19%)
UK and USA. lnmarsat 3F3
Co+perdion of 134 member Telecommunication, Satellite 24 satellites in orbit. Worldwide
states: Preparing to change status News gathering Approximately 1700 terrestrial
from 'international public service stations
to commercial. Part of the
organisation will remain in the
public domain to ensure regional
balance.
Regional Operators
Asiasat Asia's first regional satellite, totally Television broadcast Asiasat l(1990) Asla, Arab states, Eastern Europe
financed with private fund. Asiasat 2 (1995)
Launched In 1990. Asiasat 3
Arabsat International Group of Arab bic public television Arabsat I A (1985). Arabsat 1 B Mediterranean wunmes and North
countries . :ra:?;%mational television (1985). Anbsat IC (1992). Arabsat A*ha.
such as CNN and MBC ID (1993), Arabsat I E (1995),
'
Arabsat 2A (19%), Arabsat 2B
(1996)
National Operators
lndia Indian Space Research Telewmmunication, lnsat 2A (1992). lnsat 2B (1993). lndia and neighbouring countries
Organ~sation meteorological services, educatton. lnsat 2C (1 995) IRS 1 A (1 988),
IRS IB (1991) IRS P2 (1994), IRS
IC (1995) IRS P3 (1996)
Brazil EMBRATEL (Nat~onal Data, message, telev~s~on
and Brazilsat A1 (1985), Braz~lsatA2 Whole of Lat~nAmenca.
CommunicationsCompany) voice (1986), Bravlsat Bl(1994).
Bmilsat B2 (1995), Brasilsat B3A
(1997).

Source : World CommunicationReport, 1997. (p.160-162).

Computer ond Commun~cationh'rhvorks

The great advantage of a geo-stationary orbit is that the earth station

antennas do not have to track the satellite, but can instead be mounted in a
fixed position. In order for a satellite to remain in geo-stationary orbit. it
must satisfy the following conditions:
i) the angle of inclination must be zero (i.e , a special orbit directly
above the equator),
ii) the satellite must move in the same direction as the eartli's rotation.
iii) the satellite completes a revolution in 23.94 hours to match the rate
of earth's rotation on its axis.
Almost all communication satellites are geo-stationary, that is, their orbltai
period around the earth is 24 hours (23.94 hours to be exactj, so they appear.
from the earth, to occupy stationary positions in thc sky. The Indian
National Satellite series (INSAT) are also geo-synchronous satellites
positioned in the space. Because geo-synchronous satellites are used fer
communication purposes, we shall focus o n them in our discussion in this
IJnit.

/
/' Geo-synchronousorbit
36,000 h s . above the
equator -
\:v
:
A
' - ,
-2- P-,'
( R,
\
\

/' /
Lower Orbit " /

/
,
/

,
,*H
/--'-

Fig. 2: Orbital Slot

Due to the recent innovations in space technology, it is possible to use

synchronous satellites, which are so powerful and large as, to broadcast.
directly to inexpensive antennas located on the roofs of individual homes.
These satellites are not dependent on ground based recciving and
retransmission equipment. Because of the absence of an intermediate agent
in the reception of signals, this is a type of satellite, which offers the chance
of extensive use in the field of education, especially that of remote isolated
populations. Besides providing regional and local cove;age, it can distribute
signals at the national level.
Now we come to the fourth type of satellite orbit.
iv) Special orbit: There are a number of useful specialised orbits in space
for certain other services such as meteorology, remote sensing, natural
resources, etc. Among these is the medium altitude sun-synchronous polar
orbit that provides coverage of the same areas of the earth's surface twice a
day. Since such orbits are not useful for communication purposes, they shall
not form a part of our discussion in this unit.
38
 Satrllile techno lo^^ and Distunce Education

I
Check Your Progress 1
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
6 ) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit. ,
which orbit in space is most suitable for comrnanication satellites and
Iwhy? Give three reasons.
I

2.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF SATELLITES

All comn~unicationsatellites have s a n e comrnoii characterisr;r.s, which are
as follows:
i j Power: A live satellite does nor reqliire conventional power tci maintain
its position in space, except tiny amounts of energy necessary to correct its
position occasionally and check for disturbances caused by tile gravitational
influence of the moon, the sun and the earth. The power for receiving and
transmitting signals comes frem the solar batteries built into the satellite.
Solar panels, which convert sunlight into electrical energy, are used f ~ ther
functioning of the satellite system.
The relative positions of the sun, the earth and a geo-stationary satellite
change continuously as the earth rotate on its axis and revolve around the
sun. The solar panels on the satellite cannot generaLe powerienergy in the
absence of sunlight. In such a situation, a satellite cclipse occurs (A satellite
is said tc be in eciipse \\..henthe earth ~novecbetjvecn the suil and the
sateliite and it prevents sunlight from reaching the sateliite, i.e., when it is in
the shadow of the earth). The satellite must have storage batteries to provide
power during this time. These batteries arc recharged b j the solar cells
between eclipses.
ii) Large coverage: Satellite-based communication is independent of
distances. llnlike the terrestrial system. which mostly starts from the more
ri central urban areas. satellite-based co:nmunication can scrve the rural and
urban, central and far flung areas simultaneously. It can cater to very widely
I dispersed populations at a time. This characteristic of the satellite is
C, pa~ticularlyuseful for education at a distance.
Space scientists claim that three satellites in the geb-synchronous altitude
orbit can provide coin~nllnicationservices to the cntire earth on a full time
Compufer and Communrcatron Nerworks

basis, except for the polar regions, which are not visible from this orbit
(Nicholson, 1976).
iii) Multi-purpose uses: Satellites can be used simultaneously for the radio,
telephone, television and data traffic. Incidentally, technologists in Canada
have successfully received and transmitted three TV programmes using a
single ANIK 'Bytransponder (a domestic communication satellite of
Canada). Although at an experimental stage; it gives us an idea about the
extra-ordinary capacity of the satellite (ACCESS, 1980-81).
Multi-purpose satellites offer a wide variety of combinations. Besides
serving communication purposes, the satellites are also used for remote
sensing, such as is required in soil surveys, flood (assessment of area under
water, etc.), forestry (tree resources, tree diseases, etc.), oceanography, etc.
Because a satellite can provide more channels, it c w give more and better
transmission time for the distance teaching systems.
iv) Cost :The initial investment in the development and launching of a
satellite is very high, especially for the third world countries. A multi-
purpose satellite such as INSAT, needed a huge financial allocation in its
fabrication and launching. But when INSAT-IB was launched and became
operational, all demands for communication were met without adding new
investment. On the other hand, the terrestrial system, including the
microwave, needed additional infrastructure to meet the increasing
information needs of a country. Expanding telecommunication infrastructure
to provide communication services to different parts of the country is not
always an economically rational thing to do. Because telecommunication for
educational purposes cannot produce sufficient revenue to cover capital and
operational costs, the costs in this case should be counted in terms of social
and economic benefits, such as roads, water supply systems, schools, etc.
v) Planning: The implementation of satellite-based communication requires
advance planning. It needs more lead time than terrestrial communication
does. Therefore, the use of satellites should be linked to the overall socio-
economic and educational development of the country. Since it (satellite-
based communication) is closely linked with the educational development
and economic growth of the country, it should have a base in long term
planning.
vi) National and area spec~pccommunication: Satellite-based
communicafior?has the capability to cater to both the national and the area-
specific needs of a country. Though it is considered as a centralised systeiil
of communication, it can be regionalised as well. Regional production and
distribution centres could provide area-specific service. Educsticliizi: cunrent
can be shared at both the national and regional levels.
vii) Life of a satellite: The use of solar panels/celIc d e r i r l ~ sthe life ~f 2
satellite. The electrical energy output from a solar cell will decrease with
age: after 8 to 10 years, the electrical output from a solar cell will decrease
by about 20 per cent. The comm~~nication satellite are generally replaced
after about 10 to 12 years of cont~nuousservice. The life span of INSAT-LA
and IB was seven years. Launched in August, 1983, INSAT-IB completed
over 108 months of operational service in August, 1992.
 Satelllre Technologyand Distance Education

Check Your Progress 2

Notes: a) Write your answer in the space given below.
b) Compare your answer with the one given at the.end of this unit.
A communication satellite is essentially a centralised system of .
communication. Exp!ain how it can be used at regional levels to meet
peoples' information needs:
.....................................................................................................................
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SATELLITE VERSUS TERRESTRIAL

COMMUNICATION
From the discussion in Section 2.4 you can infer that satellite-based
communication has specific utility for distance learners or for the distance
learning system. Right from the advent of the communication satellites, it
has been recognized that communication through satellite has unique
benefits such as long distance, quality of performance, networking,
including one point to multi-points to one-point transmission capabilities.
Yet non-satellite systems have a significant role to .play in meeting the
communication needs of a country. The fact is that the satellite and
terrestrial systems supplement each other to make communication more
effective. Now let us compare the satellite-based communication and the
terrestrial systems of communication.

2.5.1 Satellite and terrestrial communication: A

comparison
Satellite and terrestrial systems -as modes of communication -are not
opposed to one another. Both systems supplement each other's potential' to
make communication more accessible and economical.

Satellite Terrestrial
Does not require ground-base, Nceds high-power, high-tower
high-power, high-tower systems. systems, (The height of the transmitter
at Pitarnpura, Delhi is 235 metres).
Does not need much ground Needs a number of transmitters for
equipment; direct reception wide coverage (at present
television sets can receive signals Doordarshan has a network of 529
directly from the satellite. transmitters spread all over the
country).
Cost of equipment is high, Cost of equipment is low.
however the costs are now falling
41
Computer and Communication Networks

however the costs are now falling

fast.
Being a highly-centralised system At times difficult because of technical
it provides more positive pacing and managerial hindrances in systems
and control over the developmental coordination. Further, because of the
process. position taken by the local authorities
controlling the flow of information at
the regional level, it becomes difficult
at times.
Use of satellite technology could Because of limited coverage, it has
inspire the teachers, students, and some drawbacks.
parents for modernisation because
it brings the whole world together
into a remote village.
Planning and implementation Needs comparatively less time.
require more lead time.
Effective for a large country or a Suitable for a small country or a part
group of countries. of the country.
Independent of distance. Limited coverage area.
Independent of the nature of Difficult in mountaineous and sea
terrain. areas.
Can meet the increasing demand of ~ohmunicationcapacity is bound to
communication without additional the regional system installation and
cost. requires additional cost.
More effective in meeting the Serves regional information needs
overall needs of people at the better.
national level.
A satellite failure can result in the Systems failure would not be as
entire system being inoperative disastrous as in the case of the satellite
which might pose severe system; readjustment and repair of
readjustment strains on the damage is manageable.
communication.
Needs parking spaces for the geo- Does not need parking space.
synchronous satellite which is
becoming more and more scarce.
Worldwide network connections Network is possible at the regional
via satellite can resolve the level only.
problem of unequal educational
opportunities and can ijrovide a
truly world-wide sharing of
educationa~~resources for
international education.
 Sarellire Technology and D~sranceEducatron

2.5.2 Type of television sets

Different television sets use different technology to receive signals from a
satellite or terrestrial transmitter. Depending on the type of broadcasting -
satellite or terrestrial, there are two types of receivers used:
a Direct Reception System (DRS)
Very High Frequency (VHF)
Without going into the technicalities of the two type of sets, we shall see ,
*
how they functionally differ from each other. Figure 1 will also help you
understand the difference between DRS and VHF systems.
DRS: The satellite transmits fairly high-power signals but it is not possible
to receive these signals by the normal television sets used for viewing
programmes of regular transmission. We neea to put in a parabolic antenna
and a low-noise pre-amplifier converter. The parabolic antenna is actually a
small antenna with a parabolic reflector. The antenna is placed at a focal
point of the parabola. A parabolic antenna is often called a dish antenna
because of its shape and physical appearance (see Figure 3). Such TV sets
that receive signals directly from the satellite are called the direct reception
system (DRS).

c. Fig.3: Parabolic Antenna

A DRS set can be installed anywhere in the country in the effective range of
the satellite, which is very wide. In India, DRS sets are installed in INSAT
P areas beyond the effective range of the terrestrial transmitterb.
VHF: The other system utilizes the ordinary very high fieq~encytelevision
set, which receives signals from the terrestrial transmitters after the latter
have received them from the satellite through TVRO (Television Receive
Only device). We all use such TV sets in our houses to view programmes
 Computer and C~mmunicatronNetworkr

telecast on the regular networks. You may have noticed that the VHF sets
can be installed only in the transmitting range of the terrestrial transmitters.
1 Check Your Progress 3
INotes: a) Write your answer in the space given below,
IDistinguish
b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of the unit.
between DRS and VHF sets. Give at least two differences
between them.
9 .....................................................................................................................

2.6 SATELLITE-BASED COMMUNICATION AND

DISTANCE EDUCATION
So far, we have mainly discussed the technical aspects of satellite-based
communication. Now let us turn to its use in distance education, which is
our major concern.
Satellite technology strengthens the capacity of the telecommunication
network and the information flow, which among other things gives a boost
to the educational development of a country. As we have discussed in this
unit, satellite technology is more effective among dispersed populations in
vast geographical terrains. That is why it will prove useful for the students
of farflung areas who are pursuing their study at a distance. With limited
intellectual resources, the satellite can be used more widely to provide
opportunities of university education even to those students who live in
small islands. For example, the University of the West Indies links its three
main campuses situated in three different islands, Jamaica, Barbados, and
Trinidad, with smaller extramural campuses on the island nations of St.
Lucia, Dominica, and Antigua (Block, 1985).
In big countries the satellite-based communication is an effective alternative,
to cover many hundreds of widespread isolated locations which are
otherwise very difficult to reach fiom the point of view both of cost and of
feasibility. In some of the extremely mountainous and inaccessible regions,
the satellite is the only solution. Its main advantage is its accessibility -it
reaches every comer. Secondly, because the target audience for distance
education courses run by the open universities is large and scattered across
vast regions, the high cost incurred can be easily justified. Studies elsewhere
have shown that transmission through the satellite has been relatively
cheaper and the system is more accessible to all parts of the country on a
personal basis (Hogie, 1987, Olof, 1986).
The satellite can be used for education in at least three ways -the telecast
of educational and developmental programmes for the general public
 Satellite Technology and Distonce Education

(country-wide discipline-based learning); the telecast of pre-recor&d

programmes for students at all levels of education as a component of the
routinelregular learning system; and the live telecast of educational
programmes with two-way interaction. In the first two cases the television
and radio are used as the general media. We have already discussed these
two media in detail in Units 2 and 3 of Block 2. In the third case, the
satellite is used to support some of the existing two-way communication
systems viz., the computer, videotext, teleconferencing, telephone, etc. Of
these, the use of the satellite for teleconferencing and telephone-mediated
instructions will be discussed in Section 2.7 and 2.8 respectively.
Telecommuni~ationcan be used largely for teleconferencing and telephone-
mediated teaching. The communication satellite can increase the reach and
effectiveness of teleconferencing and of telephone-mediated instwction.
We have given below an unabridged version of a paper presented at the VIII
Annual Con@rence of the Asian Association of Open ~niversities(Feb. 95).
We would like you to go through the material carefully.
The primary purposes of this exercise are:
i) To give a comprehensive account of the developments in this area in
the context of a developing countqv.
ii) To expose you to an insider's view (the author heads the Development
and Educational Communication Unit, ISRO) of the potential and
possibilities for harnessing satellite technologv for educational
purpose.
INTERACTIVE NARROWCASTING FOR DISTANCE EDUCATION
6.S.BHATIA

BACKGROUND
India is committed to the practical applications of space technology with the aim of
promoting national development. While this and the objective of. self-reliance do
necessitate major efforts in hardware development, the emphasis is equally on
creating system configurations that address the specific needs of the country.
Towards this end a large number of application oriented experiments are organised
jointly with user agencies. In the area of use of satellite communication for
education, experiments were conducted in satellite broadcasting for rural education
in 1975-76. Currently efforts are on in the use of one way video, two way audio
teleconferencing networks to provide interactiue Narrowcasting Systems for
Distance Education. The Development and Educational Communication Unit of
ISRO is the focal agency for the conduct of these experiments and for facilitating
the operationalisationof the system.
In the field of satellite broadcasting the first major experiment was the Satellite
InstructionalTelevision Experiment (SITE) which was conducted in 1975-76. In this
experiment 2400 dish antenna were installed in villages spread all over the country
and development oriented programmes were transmitted. This was a precursor to
the INSAT system, which has revolutionised the TV scene in the country. Today
educational broadcasts for school children, undergraduate students and students of
open universities are a regular feature of the National and Regional telecast.
Besides there are regular programmes for former and rural education.
Computer and CommunicatronNetworks

Dwing the last two years the Development and Educational Communication Unit
(DECU) of ISRO has been conducting several experiments in the use of interactive
television for distance education and training. This is also called a one way video
two-way audio teleconferehcing network. Such networks have been found very
effective for training and education where the learnerslparticipants are spread over
large distances at a number of location. The network is therefore very effe3ive in
fields of distance education, training of employees in large organisations and
training of rural development functionaries in the government. This paper discusses
the experience and plans of utilising the network for distance education.
SYSTEMS DESCRIPTION
While basically the system is a one way video two way audio teleconferencing
network, it has been called by several names like "talkback" network, "interactive
T V network .or "Interactive Narrowcasting". Some other names like SlNET
(Satellite based interactive Network) have also been employed by some user
agencies. A diagram of the systems configuration is given in Figure.
The system consists of three major elements. The teaching end, the receiving end
(dassroom) and the spacecraft. The teaching end consists of small studio and an
uplink earth station.
The teaching end originates the training materral either in the form of "live" lectures
or recorded video programmes from a small studio and; uplinks these television
signals to a geostationary communication satellite by means of an "uplink" earth
station which is located at the teaching end.
The satellite receives, amplifies and retransmits these signals which can be
received at any classroom within the coverage area by means of a Direct
Reception System (DRS) - a low-cost dish antenna of 8-12' diameter, front-end
electronics and an ordinary television receiver. A certain number of these
classrooms can be provided with capability to interact with the teaching end by
means of a voice link. The voice link can be implemented in two ways. One,
through the Public Switched Tetepf6ne to specific telephone numbers at the
teaching end. These calls are received at the teaching end by a small EPABX
located at the teaching end. Two, through a small satellite communication terminal
located in the classroom which transmits the processed audio signal via satetlite to
the teaching end where they are received and processed. Facilities for reception of
such satcom signals are provided at the teaching end. Classrooms where such
interactive (telephone or satcom) capabilities are provided are known a "talkback"
locations. Other classrooms are known as "receive-only" locations. The number of
talkback locations in a system are llmited by the system's capacity to receive
simultaneously, and process question for various talkback locations. The number of
receive-only classrooms are not limited by any such considerations.
A talkback or discussion session normally follows delivery of training material,
which form the teaching end.
A small studio setup at the teaching end serves two purposes: to originate 'live" or
recorded lectures and to accommodate the panel of experts who will participate in
the talkback sessions. The studio is linked to the uplink earth station in the forward
direction for transmission and in the reverse direction for routing calls received from
satcom talkback locations to. the studio.
Calls received via telephone and satcom are fed to the expert panel at the studio
classroom. They are simultaneously fed to the transmit chain at the teaching end
earth station. Questions arelheard "live" by the experts as well as participants at all
locations (talkback and receive-only). Specially devised procedures for putting
telephone calls on "holdnand feeding them sequentially to the expert panel one at a
time) have been developed.'Participationfrom satcom terminals is invited by visual
cuing. An anchor person in the teaching end classroom conducts the talkback
sessions and implements the procedures devised for the talkback sessions.
 ~ --

$atellite Technology and Distance Education

Visual images from the classroom at the teaching end and the audio signal
generated by the experts are transmitted by the uplink earth station and received by
all classrooms which are equipped with a DRS. Thus even receive-only locations
which are not equipped with talkback facilities can receive the training material as
well as the entire talkbak session.
A supplementary mode of interaction - through "fax" has also been implemented.
Wherein a "fax" connection is provided in the studio flow to the anchor person,
Some of the questions received by fax can be answered during the session, while
the remaining can be answered in the off-line mode, through mail or other means.

THE IGNOU EXPERIMENT

This experiment was conducted for 10 days from October 4 to 13, 1993. The
Teaching Centre for this experiment was located at IGNOU headquarters, Delhi. A
small TV broadcast facility (studio)equipped with audio-video teaching aids was
established in one of the rooms of IGNOU. The studio was liked through cable with
the Transportable Remote Area Communication Terminal (TRACT) of Space
Applications Centre (ISRO), parked temporarily in the IGNOU campus to provlde
uplink as well as down link to the INSAT-LIB satellite.
IGNOU Regional Directorate at the following ten locations, provided with a facility of
extended C band receiver terminals to receive the TV signals a ~ ad long distance
STD (Subscribers' Trunk Dailling) telephone for talkback, participated as Receiving
Centres.
Receiving Centres
1. Ahamedabad 6, Hyderabad
2. Bangalore 7. Jaipur
3. Bhopal 8. Madras [Chennai]
4. Bhubaneshwar 9. Pune
5. Cochin 10. Shillong
Ten days.of interactive teaching, orientation, and consultation/ discussion (October
4-13, 1993) was arranged for the students, the Academic Counsellors, and
Regional Directors and Assistant Regional Directors. Five hours (300 minutes) of
programme every day was divided into four sessions; each having almost one-third
of the time devoted for lecture/ discussion and rest two-thirds of the time for
question and answer using talkback technology.
Objectives of the ISRO-IGNOU Talkback Experiment
1. To develop understanding about the potential of tele-communication in
distance education.
2. To gain insights into the organisation, managerial, and technical constraints
and problems in operationalising such a system.
3. To study cost effectiveness and cost efficiency of the system.
4. To provide feedback to the people concerned for making the multimedia'
approach effective for educationnraining at a distance.
The target groups were:
1. Regional Directors : A total of 10 Regional Directors (RDs) and 10 Assistant
Regional Directors (ARDs) from selected 10 receiving Centres.
2. Counsellors i: About 20 Academic Counsellors were chosen from
Management Studies at each participating centre. This group was to
participate for more than four days of the experiment.
3. Counsellors II: About 20 Academic Counsellors from Commerce at each
participating centre. The second group was to participate for the next three
days of the experiment.
Cornpurer and CommunicafronNehvorks

4. Students o f Post-Graduate Diploma i n Higher Education (DHE): It was

expected at each centre there would be 40 DHE student participants.
The training programme was conducted through live lectures and the discussion
mode supplemented by graphics and charts, computer based graphics and a few
audio-visual aids and discussions. During discussions, the participants at
participating centres used the STD telephone facilities for asking questions in audio
mode. The questions were answered using the audio and video mode.
At the Teaching centre there was one Achor person for coordination and one or two
subject matter experts (teachers), dealing with the subject, for each session to
coordinate the discussions on the subject and answering the questions coming
from the participating Centres.
At the Receiving Centres there was one Moderator. In most of the cases the
Regional Director or Assistant Regional-Director or the Course
DirectorICoordinator, coordinated in the question and answer session. As the
teleteaching was a part of the Extended Contact Programme for the students, after
the teleteaching sessions were over, participants were back to their usual ECP
programme (course) for the rest of the time in the day.
The IGNOU with its rich experience in distance education organised the whole
show of teaching and counselling, managing the studio affairs and handling the
interactive communication with the cooperation of Development and Educational
Communication Unit (DECU), ISRO.
A study conducted by Prof. P.K. Sahoo* had the following to say: "During
teleconferencing, learners from each regional centre were given a fair chance to
ask questions. Each centre was given positive reinforcement to ask questions,
inspite of communication technology drawbacks. As a result, it was found that
during each session at least one participant from each centre got chance to interact
with the experts. Each centre got at least two chances in every programme for
question-answer activity. From each centre the questions were asked by 1-4
participants. Students' expressions were of different types like seeking
clarifications, making observations, expression by reactions etc. They focused on
the immediate presentation by resource persons as well as instructional activities
/learning eliperiences of participants. It was aiso observed that students put counter
questions to the resource persons, expressed opinions on the resource persons'
views as well as the views of participants for other regional centres."
All the participants and the resource persons made positive remarks about the role
of teleconferencing as one of components of ECP. Moreover, teleconferencing
worked as a successful networking of ECP activities all over the country. Thus the
central level coordination encouraged decentralisation activities taking place in 10
Regional Centres of the IGNOU.
A bird's eye view on the reaction of participants on each programme component
would reveal the credibility. The majority of participants have appreciated1 reacted
positively to almost all the programmes either to average extent or to a large extent.
With regard to content quality it can be witnessed that even though most of the
programmes were rated as of high quality, conceptual clarity, logical sequencing,
difficulty level of learners from different regions, and content coverage were of
average level.
Another evaluative study conducted by Dr. Arbind Sinha and others** made the
following observation. The experiment has succeeded its worth in satisfying the
participants and giving them new information which the majority of the participants
found useful for the distance education and most of them found it ideal for
extended contact programme. For the Regional Directors it provided a forum for
giving uniform instructions throughout the country and for the Assistant Regional
Directors it provided Some opportunity to participate along with the Regional
Directors. For the Academic Counsellors as well as the students it provided the
best possible counselling and an opportunity to take part in a national event.
 Satellire Technology and Distance Educarion

ONGOING SYSTEM AND FUTURE PLANS

In view of the effectivenegs of the system it has new been decided jointly by ISRO
1
and IGNOU to operate this system on an ongoing basis, and make it a v a i l W to
different organisations involved in Distance Education. . ,
Accordingly the transportable uplink (TRACT) proeed by ISRO has been stataoned
at the IGNOU campus for the next two years and a small studio has been g r W &
by IGNOU. This constitutes the teaching end. bne transponder 0 f . M IlellSAT
satellite has been earmarked exclusively for this ~ l p p l i n This
. Consti~bfothe
space segment. Each user agencies is setting &p its o m nertwork of m h r e
terminals. Accordingly -All India Management A'esociatian has set up foWet.1
receive terminals. The lGNOU is setting up a n- af 26 recx?iveteminats, The
National Open Schod has plans for installing 20 a temhtds arwl the I=
has plans of installing 12 terminals. . zd .L
All lndia Institute of Managwent Association (Aft%!&) has regulaaty bsgn Wng the'
system for student education and for holding sWrllers and Wrkshops. &has maah
its plan for hflising the network every month.

REGIONAL POSSIB*I;IME$
k.
. . 1
The nations of the Asian Region can benefit greatlFby sharing of experiences, data
. Hum*
and information, to avoid duplication, increase co@-benMt, help
Development in the field of distance education in t* region.
Satellite broadcasting, satellite based interactive nSIwowcasting, and data netwwks
are being used to support education and developmnt at the National Ievet Smilaf
networks could be found useful to support distance education at the Regional leuel. ,
Data networking have become universally accessilSIe and acceptable espesially by
researchers, and professionals of different fiel$s. The establishment of data
network in selected fields could be a useful, acceptable and viable proposition.
Regional broadcasting networks for entertainment already exist. However, bese
are a result of purely private commercial enterprkie. Very recently a commercial
satellie broadcasting channel, along with a comp&er training institution offeted a
computer certificate course on a regional level. EcOucational institutions kan m e
together and offer instructional programmes #hat can support sustainabie
development.
There have been-attempts like the one by I D R ~ .Canada to define a Gkrbat
Television Service (WETV) to foster free and balaaced cultural experience and to
create deeper puMic understanding of the eritical issues of sustainabk
development and the envirgnment. Efforts can be made to define regional saWliki,
broadcast servcie of similar nature,
Interactive narrowcasting network can be the qost effective tool for Human
Resource Development and Training. These ndtwork have the capability of
reaching out to a very large number of selected audience with common interests,
and provide them with information and education. ti has interactive capabiiities and
therefore the learning from such networks can be very high. Such networks can
have very great potential for Human Resource Development for sustaimbte
development in the region. The estabiishment and utilisation of such networks at
the Regional level needs to be seriously explored.
Some of the possible areas of use of satellite cormunication networks (including
broadcasting, interactive narrowcasting and data networks) to support distance
education could be as foltows:
1 -Training Idevelopment for teacher education at various levels. I
- Multimedia packages for training distance educators and functionaries such as
distance teachers, counsellors, academic managers and administrators.
- Brain storming/ information sharing programmes for HRD in distance education
by interested institutions in the regions.
[ - Presentation by distance educators on various themes of distance education.
-49
 Computer and CommunicationNerwclrkr

-Training programmed for non-teaching staff of distance education institutions in

1

the region.
-Development of database to lk shared by distance education inrtiiutiis.
-Development and shgring of software.
-Development of audhvideo programmes.
- Sharing the audio-v@eo programmes already available with 4 b instiWons in
the region.
- Exchange of expertise in using teleconferencing broadcasts, E-Mail, fax etc.,
facilities for educatiohal, training and research purposes.
Besides there could be programmes of common interest like health care,
management, rural development, computers, women studies, child labour etc. The
network could be used Ifor sharing material, syllabi, and other relevant information
on each course. If c+nsidered appropriate there could be teachers' training
programmes or even q i f i c a t e courses that could be offered to students.

t
The possibilities of sh 'ng of experiences and joint wrking by the Asian Open
Universities nced to be xplored.
TsRconlemndng in Msta& Education: IGNOU experiment, P.K. Sahoo, Inciibn Journal of Open
S"I
Learning, Vd. 3, pp-29-32, nuary 1994.
" Interactive communicationIfor distance education an evaluative study of ISRO - IGNOU experiment.
Arbind Sinha, D e w h Kishor+, Jawaid N Hashim, February 1994.

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 Satellite Technologyand Distance Education

2.7 TELECONFERENCING
Educational teleconferencing can be a valuable medium for distance
education. It involves the use of several media and permits interactive
group communication by means of a two-way broadcast. Three main types
of teleconferencing have been identified: i) audio teleconferencing, ii) video
teleconferencing and, iii) computer teleconferencing. We discuss in detail
about audio teleconferencing, being the most commonly used technique in
distance education institutions.
Till the early 1980, audio teleconferencing was at an experimental stage and
was used occasionally. But during the past few years it has to be a
routine part of the delivery strategies of some distance education
institutions. It was found that with the use of this means, the
communication costs could be'reduced and the quality of service to distant
learners improved without compromising the academic integrity of the
programmes. The flexibility, and the low capital a'nd operating costs of
audio teleconferencing make it a means of communication that is of special
interest to institutions serving students who live in small and widely
separated communities.
Today, dependence on this technology is accelerating. The interest in using
audio and related visual data that can be transmitted over regular telephone
lines appears to be related to the growth of distance education.

2.7.1 Technical description of teleconferencing

Teleconferencing is an electronic means which can bring together three or
four people in two or more locations to discuss or share the use of two-way
and oneLway video, both full motion and slow scan, electronic blackboards,
facsimile, computer graphics, radio satellite and videotext. Howevef-,the
most essential part of all forms of teleconferencing is a good quality audio
system to help immediate interaction among the participants for information
exchange.
Audio teleconferencing requires a multi-telephone line electronic switch or
interconnection device called a 'bridge' to which the user can attach a wide
variety of data transmission devices and telephones. The normal practice is
to connect one device per line to the bridge. Audio equipments used with
the bridge are the usual handsets, headsets, speaker-phones, radio
telephones, and microphone speaker units (often called 'conveners').
Audio teleconferencing uses regular telephone lines provided by local
public telephone companies. If the quality of standard business or
household lines is good enough, virtually any line could be used. Effective
contact through teleconferencing can be made in any reasonably quiet
environment. Occasional users normally purchase their service from the
local telephone company, teleconferencing consultants or a major user that
is willing to sell available time on its system. Any specialised terminal
equipment is usually rented for a week or a month. Consultants normally
provide a range of services including all the necessary equipment, long
distance toll charges, and user training.
Comptirer and Communication Nebvorks

The costs for starting a university or college-based private audio

teleconferencing system are not Large ifthe local telephone system has:
i. a relatively quiet line,
ii. ready accessibility, and
iii. acceptable local and long distance rates.

Interactive telbvision in support of distance education

A pilot distance educatioh programme introduced by UNESCO and the
International Telecommunication Union (ITU) has been launched in Morocco in
collaboration with the Mihistry of Education there. The aim is to achieve a link-up
between the audio visual'and telecommunication sectors and to explore ways in
which it can be applied tQthe country's education system. The project will seek to
solve the problem of buaetary constraints and meet the most pressing
pedagogicalneeds. Thege concerns were voiced at the Jomtein World Conference
on Education for All (

"I.
ch 1996). A plan of action was subsequently prepared by
UNESCO and ITU in Mo 1995 to Estimate the potential of interactive television in
regard to schooling and eacher training.
The principle of interactivity is vital to learning in that it fosters constant
improvement in the-training process, as students and teachers learn to adapt. It
also triggers interstudent dialogue, thereby creating interest and curiosity. The
communication of knowledge accordingly is no longer unidirectional, leading as it
does to spontaneous redction and lively comment on the part of students. .
The purpose of the ~ o d c c a n project is to furnish an umbrella bluep"nt for
improved teaching by uddating telecommunication infrastructures and upgrading
teacher training. The intpductory phase of the project will concentrate on
elaborating and finalisin$ the different stages of educational studies and teaching
methodology with the asisistance of a representative sample of teachers. It will then
be extended to the country as a whole and in particular to southern Morocco with its
largely illiterate rural population.
This second phase inva(ves a training programme for some 2,000 teachers, 500
school directors, admini~tratorsand technical staff. It also provides for five training

J
centres in each of the 'ain provinces of Morocco. Each centre d1 l be equipped
with the latest in technQ gicat and information system resources for fifty pupils, and
be placed under the s ervisibn of the school of Radio and Teleuiskn in Rabat,
which will circulate and disseminate information. The teaching ducumentation
centres will be linked tola data transmission network for ease of communication
with students, principally through e-mail and a CD-ROM system available in a
virtual library which tealdhers may use. The project is to be managed by .
technicians, engineers end administrators under the supervision of a project chief.
This project will be of three years duration. The first year will be devoted to

"1
preparatory work, inct ing staff training and the purchase and installation of
interactive eguipment: he distance edu~ationsystem wit1take off in the second
year. And finally, by the end of the third year, fbe teaching methods should be tried
and tested and the tec$ological aspects well under control. The system will be
extended to afl twenty-&vo provinces of the country by the year 2008. The overalf
cost is estimated at $6:million. Half of this run will be provided by the Moroccan
Government, with the ather half being paid by international institutions and
agencies. Feasibility studies are now under way to assess the possibility of

Verde. i
-
extending the project tn other developing countries such as Bangladesh and Cape

Source : World Communication Report, 1997 (p.106)

 Satellite Technology and Distance Edltcat~or!

2.7.2 Advantages of teleconferencing

There have been a few studies on the effectiveness of audio teleconferencing
from the point of view of student learning. These studies show that the
telephone is as effective a medium of education as is face-to-face teaching.
A study conducted in Canada found that upper level undergraduate statistics
students taught through teleconference did as well as or better than most
campus based students and had a zero drop-out rate! Traditional
correspondence instruction on the other hand reported an average drop-out
rate of 40-60 per cent. Satisfaction recorded among the students was high
and remote learners thought the course did not lack rigour or suitable
contact.
During the 1984 International Symposium of Teleconferencing there was
evidence of strong support for educational audio teleconferencing. The
support was mainly due to the consideration of the following advantages:
i) Effective support for remote learners: Teleconferencing can be very
useful when most of the potential students are widely scattered among
communities that are far apart and when each centre has a thin learner
population, say less then ten students, in a given course or programme.
ii) Cost effectiveness: The cost for starting and operating an audio
teleconferencing system is relatively low in comparison with other
available methods of serving remote learners.
iii) Flexible system: The system used can be adjusted quickly to serve
large or small groups.
iv) Familiar instructional mode: The mode of instruction is similar to that
of the seminar with the instructor being in charge of the discussion and
able to stimulate multi location interaction.
v) Easy scheduling adjustments: A scheduling adjustment can be made
almost as readily as for the on-campus classrooms.
vi) Multi-locational access-control: Access to the instruction in the
programme can be controlled through a limited number of off-campus
centres.
vii) High-quality instruction: The quality of instructional materials can be
kept high because of the need for careful and early preparation.
viii) Immediate feedback: The teleconferencing system provides the facility
for immediate feedback to the learners and allows them to convey their
reactions to the tutors.
Higher education has proved a fertile area for the use of
telecommunications. The need for communications, staff development, and
expert resources makes teleconferencing a particularly appropriate and
flexible means of teaching for the distance education institutions (Tietjen
and Shawrd, 1987). The use of telecommunication to facilitate two-way
communication among three or more students located at different venues
characterises teleconferencing. The technology of teleconferencing enhances
the quality of the interactive process among students and enables them to
easily contact the teacher or the expert from a distance. Under this teaching
strategy, the student gets immediate feedback from the teacher and from
fellow students as well. Live questiofls and answers greatly contribute to
make teleconferencing an effective learning technique. This interaction, i.e.,
sharing experience and understanding is a valuable component of distance
education, and as a central component, is directly related to certain variables
involving students -their characteristics, environment, attitudes, course
structure, pedagogy and evaluation.
Highlighting the importance of teleconferencing, some studies in the US
concluded that only about 30 per cent of all business meetings required face-
to-face contact. With the continuous escalation of travel costs, many
business agencies preferred teleconferencing for periodic inter-office
discussion and policy planning. Teleconferencing is flexible and easy to
arrange if the necessary technical infrastructure is available. Its potential can
be increased by the addition of extra equipment, for example, loud speaking
telephones (low cost), conferencing bridges (medium cost) and telewriting
or graphics facilities (high cost) such as computer graphics, etc.

2.7.3 Types of teleconferencing

You may find the term teleconferencing misleading. Some people interpret
the term to mean that television as a medium is a type of teleconferencing,
but teleconferencing covers a much wider range of means which are being
used in distance education or for other communication purpose. 'Tele' here
means distance, i.e., talking to the students at a distance, which makes it
useful for teaching at a distance.
Depending on the use of hardware, there can be three types of
teleconferencing:
i) Audio teleconferencing: Teleconferencing where the audio medium is
used as a two-way communication, is known as audio-teleconferencing.
Most audio-teleconferencing communication is auditory. The use of audio-
conferencing is rapidly becoming a preferred instructional medium in
advanced countries. Two-way audio communication is a more economic
method of academic interaction. For example, the University of Calgary is
involved in the creation of a system using audio telephone conferencing,
strictly as a teaching tool known as 'educational teleconferencing'. There
are some other universities in the developed countries using audio-
teleconferencing-for educational purposes, but such cases are today limited
in number.
There have been a number of studies on the effectiveness of audio-
teleconferenclng from the point of view of the students' learning (Ellis and
Chapman, 1982). Concluding his research findings, Rothe (1 985) states that
since audio-teleconferencing is rapidly becoming a preferred instructional
medium, it is time for the researchers and practitioners to analyse it in a
more conceptually precise way. This would discourage the present ad hoc
analyses, and would surely add to future research and planning and give rise
to experimentation, which might come up with a feasible model to suit our
socio-economic and cultural milieu.
 Satellite Technology and D~stanceEducation

A udiograph ics
An effective variation of audio conferencing technique is the use of
datalgraphics simultaneously along with sound. The system is called as
audiographics. A typical audiographics set up consists of an instructor site
and a number of remote sites. The instructor site consists of a speaker
phone, high powered PC-based microcomputer, modem, flatbed image
scanners, and high-resolution monitor. The remote sites have one or more
speaker phones and a computer along with a monitor to receive images.
Such a set up enables the instructor to teach in a real-time mode, showing
graphics through the computer screen. Figure 5 represents a typical
audiographics arrangement.

INSTRUCTOR SITE

...\_ Data Bridge

&+-++J& Audio Bridge

REMOTE SITES
Fig. 5: Audiographics Setup

ii) Video teleconferencing: This type of teleconferencing is arranged by

combining two-way video media. This technology is in limited use in
education due to its high cost and various other problems such as the linking
of multiple locations by the medium of video, availability of hardware, etc.
Video teleconferencing, however, has advantages over audio-
teleconferencing because of its visual component. Video teleconferencing
increases the quality of interaction because both the teachedexpert and the
student can see each other and can share their feeling and experiences. But
Cornpurer and Comniunrcarion Nenvorh

the problem is to justify the cost involved in arranging two-way visual

communication. Video teleconferencing needs, besides budgetary provision.
.the most sophisticated technology at both the source and receiving ends.
Uplinking facilities at the receiving end are required to make it a two-way
interactive communication system.
Taking all these constraints into consideration, we can find a moderate way
t o make use of video teleconferencing, that is, we can use one-way video
with audio return connection using the satellite uplink from the receiving
end. This arrangement is also difficult to make in our context because of
both financial and technological constraints. Some short-term experiments
using satellite have however been undertaken by the Indian Space Research
Organisation. The studies proved that one-way video and two-way
teleconferencing is an effective method of education and training at a
distance. The IGNOU-ISRO Training and Development Communication
Channel is currently running regularly for education and training by IGNOU
and other organisations. More about TDCC in section 2.7.6.
iii) Computer teleconferencing: It is the most effective way of
teleconferencing but at the same time involves a lot of cost, infrastructure,
etc. With the adequate facility of suitable hardware, information can be sent
and received at the convenience of both the teacher and the student with the
use of computers. Computer conferencing can be text-based or full video
based. More about this in unit 3 of this Block.

2.7.4 Organising t e l e c o n f e m e sessions

As a distance educator you may be given the responsibility of organising
teleconferencing for your students. It is therefore, very important for all of
us to clearly understand the techniques of organising teleconferences,
particularly in the context of a developing country.
The process of teleconferencing consists of four stages, which follow
systematically one after the other.
i) Planning: As in any business meeting, careful advance planni1.g is of
vital importance for the success of teleconferencing. First of all, decide the
content of your session. Right from the initial stages, you need to be well
aware of the possible issues to be involved in the discussion, and the needs
and attitudes of the students participating.
You need to know the number of students and the duration of each session.
Check all the necessary requirements, viz., demonstration of equipment
including a trial of microphones, etc. At the same time you need to have, on
the location, discussions with the technical staff involved in the operation of
teleconferencing -every operational detail has to be discussed with them
>
to avoid mid-conference failures.
ii) Preparing materials: After initial planning, prepare supporting materials
for the students. Educational teleconferencing should be enriched by the use
cf printed materials, including charts and diagrams. Printed guides should
reach the students well in time so that they can use these materials during
the teleconfcrer~cingsession and can actively participate in the discussion.
 Satellite Technology and Distance Education

iii) Preparing students: Preparing the students for active participation in

teleconferencing is an important function of the distance educator incharge
of the conference. The students should know in advance about the content
being discussed, objectives to be achieved, and about the teleconferencing
system. They should be psychologically ready to learn through talk-back
facilities and the preparatory activities should not take much time.
iv) Conduct in the actual session: After preparing the students, the actual
teleconferencing starts. The sessions should be interactive so that all the
students can actively participate and learn as much as they can from the
conference session.
While conducting the session, you have to keep some do's and don'ts in
mind. They are as follows:
The expert should have a good audible voice and sound communication
skills, and should undergo a simple audition test before being involved
in a teleconference, i.e. the expert(s) should be selected carefully.
The expert should speak directly into the microphone rather than to any
one side. By doing so (s)he will be able to speak directly to the students.
As far as possible, each student should be addressed by qame, if the
number of learners is small enough,
Like the self-instructional materjals, the discussion should be informal.
There is a need to add human touch and humour as and when reqdired,
provided it does not disturb the educational value of the discussion.
It is important to set.aside'sufficienttime for questions, answers and
discussions so as to make the sessions as interactive.as possible.
Each student should be encouraged to actively participate in the
discussion.
v) Feedback: After the conference is over, you should co-operate with the
students to satis@their specific needs and requirements. Therefore, they
should be given sufficient time to react to the quality of the conference. At
the same time the feedback session must help the students know about their
performance. Almost equal time should be given for preparing the students
for teleconferencing and collecting feedback from them.
For the students' convenience, the teleconference sessions could be recorded
on audio cassettes and be made available at the study centres for those
individual students who could not, for any reason, participate in the
conference. By doing so, you can make optimum use of the discussion held
during the conference.
Towards the end of the sessions, you should motivate the students to send
either personally or through letters, their reactions to and ideas about the
overall effectiveness of the teleconference. The reactions thus collected can
be used as inputs to improve the quality of the conferences to be held in the
future. Systematic evaluation of this type provides further inputs of use to
the teleconference organizers, distance teachers and experts in planing and
conducting better teleconferences.
Computer and Communrcation Nehvorkr

Check Your Progress 4 . .

Notes:.a) Write y o k answer in the space given below.

b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
Youcaregiven a onethour teleconferencing programme. If the minimum
'conferencing programme conditions, such as'the despatch of
supplementary materials, topic outline, physical facilities, etc, are provided,
:how would you plan for a one hour teleconferencing @ogramme?Take
,threeactivities -preparing the students, conducting the actual
:teleconferencing session a.nd collecting feedback -into account. How
much time will you allot to each component?
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The effectiveness of teleconferencing depends on the appropriateness of the

content being discussed and the resource~lnessof the expert invited to
conduct the discussion. An eminent scholar/expert can be brought into
teleconferencing from anywhere in the country to give a live presentation to
the participating student.

2.7.5 Limitations of teleconferencing

Teleconferencing has certain inherent limitations, due to which it is not in
frequentme in distance education. Some of these are as follows:
i) Teleconferencing requires a huge and very efficient telephonic, radio
and television network throughout the country.
ii) The chances of technical breakdown are quite high.
iii) The telephone charges are very high, which all the educational
institutions cannot afford.
iv) Teleconferencing is a costly technique of instruction. It requires
sophisticated technology and expert human power.
v) Teleconferencing is a mode of group communication, so the
willingness of each participant is an essential requirement, but this is
generally lacking especially among distance learners.

2.7.6 Training and Development Communication

Channel
With the success of the experimental phase of one-way video and two-way
audio teleconferencing (described in section 2.6), it has now become a
regular practice at IGNOU. The Training and Development Communication
Channel (TDCC) started by ISRO is being jointly operated from the
Electronic Media Production Centre, IGNOU. Apart from IGNOU, it is
 Satellite Technology and Distance Education

currently being used by a variety of user groups such as Govt. agencies,

ministries of state governments, public sector banks, and professional
%odies.There are around 200 reception centres of TDCC all over the
country. IGNOU itself has more than 150 receiving centres. The TDCC is
being used at IGNOU for the following purposes.
a Telecounselling to student groups;
a Training of study centre counsellor and co-ordinafors;
a Administrative interaCtion with Regional Centre functionaries;
a Extended Contact Programmes (ECP) with students.
Specialfeatures of TDCC
a Offers economics of scale as a single resource person at the teaching-
end can interact with any number of participants dispersed across the
country.
a Helps in improving the quality of training and instruction as top level
experts can be involved.
a Reduces communication gaps in organizations/institutionshaving
multiple branches, which are geographically dispersed.
a Real time interactivity provides a human face to distance education.
a Promotes participatory decision making and empowerment of gross-
root functionaries by establishing a direct linkage with the higher
echelons of the hierarchy.
a Enhances the quality of teaching and learning through a wide range of
visual support, viz. slides, transparencies, photographs, video clips and
computer data.
* Asynchronous mode of communication is also possible as the system
permits the recording of the entire session both at the teaching-end and
at the receiving end. These programmes can be used in other teaching
learning situations (IGNOU, 1997).
Since the use of one-way video and two-way audio conferencing systein has
proved to be a major success for quality teaching at a distance, we
reproduce below the guidelines provided by TDCC for its effective
utilization. We hope this will be of equal value to all intending to use such
a system in their organisations.

Tips for Effective Utilization

The teleconferencing system provided by TDCC essentially lays emphasis on
interactive and participatory teaching-learning. Hence, the pedagogic strategy
adopted by !he user organisation has to be appropriately devised to minimise one-
way lecturing to give enough scope for active participation from the receiving+nds.
The visual nature of the medium is also to be borne in mind so that appropriate
visuals and effective use of teaching aids are incorporated into the sessions. Here
are a few tips for making your teleconferencing more interesting and fruitful.
Plan the sessions into 1-1 % hour slots with' 15-20 minute intervals in between.
An anchorperson is to be included wherever more than one resource person is
envisaged in a single session. It is preferable to have an anchorperson with
Computer and Communrcatron Networks

subject expertise so that slhe can interpret the questions emanating from the
receiving-ends .better and coordinate between the resource persons.
In any session restrict the lecture portion to about 15 minutes or so in which
salient points regarding subject matter, issues involved, problem areas needing
deliberation or points for'collecfive decision making can be highlighted. Soon
after this, the session should be thrown open for questions1discussions1
interactivity from the nodes.
A maximum of three resource person is advised per session in order to give
each person sufficient time. In fact, the standard seating arrangements on the
dais in the studio provides for three resource persons and one anchorperson.
Make sure to seat the resource person nearest to the caption scanner to facilitate
convenient manipulation of visual materials, if any.
Dress : Totally black and white clothes are to be avoided. Pastel colours have a
better impact. Also avoid wearing very closely striped clothes. Dry, non-greasy hair
enhances one's looks.

To the Anchorperson
The anchorperson is responsible for initiating the session and conducting it
effectively both content-wise and presentation-wise.Time management, ensuring
adequate interaction from the nodes, coordinating among the resource persons,
providing a connecting-link wherever needed and eliciting feedback at regular
intervals are some of the skills expected of an anchorperson. Knowledge in the
subject matter concerned will be a definite advantage.

In particular, the anchorperson has to:

welcome all the participants;
introduce the theme and resource persons for the session;
announce the telephone and Fax number for interaction;
instruct the viewers from time to time as follows:
- watch the TV set, wait for the name of your station to be announced;
- when the telephone line is through, announce the name of your station as well
as your name;
- turn off the sound of the TV set to avoid feedback;
- advise all concerned to use the fax mode for interaction during the lecture and
the telephone after the session is thrown open for discussion;
filter out unwanted repetitive questions and decide the order of responses;
in case of a delay in responses from the receiving-ends, keep the session
going by generating theme based questions and engaging the resource
persons in discussion;
keep track of time and end by summing up the session, thanking the experts
and the participants;
announce the theme and time of the next session.
To the Resource Person
Resource persons are advised to structure their content with appropriate visuals to
suit the medium and to conduct themselves in an informal style to keep the distant
participants at ease. It will be useful if they get familiar with the studio environment
beforehand. In particular:
Adopt an interactive and conversational style.
Establish eye contactwith the viewers by looking into the lens of the camera
assigned to you (not into the floor monitor); Please note that the camera
 Satellite Technology and Distance Education

represents the distant audience. Incase there are audience in the studio as
well, look towards the local audience or the camera depending on the context.
a Of the two cameras shooting action within the studio, please note that the
camera with its 'tally light' [red light] on is the one which is active for the
moment concerned.
Please be brief in your lecture to leave enough time for interaction. In case the
subject so demands, you may consider segmenting the content into a series of
capsules with intervals for interaction.
Please prepare all the graphics material in A4 size paper [broadside] leaving 2
cm margin on either side and 1 cm margin in top and bottom. This will make
your graphics fill the TV frame correctly with adequate safety margin.
F,or textual material, the font size should be sufficiently big [font size 201. Lower
font sizes may not register clearly on the TV screen. Limit the number of lines
to about eight in a single frame.
Choice of colours for graphics is not restricted. However, please make sure to
draw the lines sufficiently thick and in good contrast.
The caption scanner provided in the studio takes hard graphics and normal
printed material. Hence, OHP transparencies are not required However in case
you have the transparencies, they can be shown through the caption scanner
by keeping a white paper below them.
Use a thin pointer for pointing while describing the graphics. The pointer should
be kept steady and not randomly shifted across the graphic to avoid the
viewers getting distracted.
Video tape inserts, if any, may be handed over to the Producer in advance of
the sessions. Also give himlher clear instruction regarding the same. The
control room facilities provide for playback of video tape in any one of the
formats namely VHS, U-Matic highband, Betacam.
To Coordinators at the Nodes
It is important to have a coordinator at each node to facilitate the qxopriate
seating of participant and regulating interactions. Please ensure that,
'a well before the start of a session, the par!k;pants are supplied with the
necessary background materials.
the operation of TV set, telephone, fax is checked for proper working.
the teaching end is informed at the earliest opoortunity of the status regarding

-
the number of participants and their profile. This can be best done innocuously
through the fax m o d e ,
wnen !he i ~ ~ i s i ~ ~ begin,
t ~ e nthey
q are regulated the s$me is regulated by
prioritizing. Keep the lengtn of queries short and crisp to ssv? on STD time and
also to make room for other receiving locations to partic$hte
\

in case of telephone disconnection etc., send back-up information to the

teaching end by fax.
the value of the TV set is toned down while using the telephone to avoid
feedback of the sound on the channel.
after the session is over, feedback of participants is collected both informally
and in writing and is promptly faxed to the teaching end.
2.7.7 Some low cost options: The Video class
In the units in Block 2, tve presented to you'a picture of educational
television along conventional lines. In other words, educational televi~ionin
that contest has been very much an offshi~otand extension ofcntn!net.cial
television. Therefore, even while we listed its advantages. most of us were
burdened by the thought of tnecting high costs. requircrnents of technical
expertise and infrastructure. In this sul~sectionwe will take a look at a
nonformal use of television for educational purposes -- the video class. At
first, this resulted in a good deal of surprise and \vnnder for us, and we are
sure it will have much the same efti'ct on J'OLI. !Sut h e n J O E tii~lstknow \~liy.
Here are some reasons:
i) The video class s~steriichaliengt:~.,ome basic premises regarding the
role of television In instructional design.
ii) It establishes rather unequivocally that ef'fccti~eteaching rests with the
teacher who should he kno\v!edgeable. d:vl?arnii:and competent. The
frills of com~nercialproduction are jl~cl-sliat they are 2- peripherals to
the business of teaching.
-.[he video ciass qstem. as we nlention~:clcnrl~cr.takes a stand again\t
certain conventional, and hy no\\ popi~lr:l-.~iotionsabout tele\~isiona5 a
medium and educationa! televis~on.Let us tdkc R brief look at h o t~h ~ s
is done.
Television as a medium i~considered
-- expensive

-a visual ]node of comm~inicalion

-- best in the hands of professional producers.
Interestingly enough, the video class sqste~nproves all of the above
wrong. The points that we should take note of are:
com~nercialproduction is expensive hut this is i l ~ real!y
t a necessity
for effective teaching
the role of television as a inass rnediulli is of greater relevance to
commercial programmes
the visual side of television prograrnmes is highljr overrated
com~nercialproducers are not an integral part of the business of
teaching.
At yet another level, ihe video class system proves that:
A plain leclure format can be a very effective teaching tool
The 'interactive nature' of educational programmes is highly
overrated. It has two sides -- pos~ti\leand negative - -- and
sometimes interaction could be a distraction from effective learning.
 ...
a I t 'i\ ~r;!l.ezIisilc2!1d ~111prod~ctive
to expect teachers to coniorn~to
thz nol.l:ls of'cummercial production. We need 'teacher-friendly'
studios and operational environment.
In \!IC~Jt tilt' video class \ystem delivcrs a quality classroom experience in an
affc>l.ci~bl:, c.on\eilient and time!) tnanncr. 7 ht optic11 thus recon~mends
itbr!finotIi ~npedagogical and operntianal grounds.
1

/Check Your Progress 5

I
1 Notes: a j Space has been provided below for your answers.
51 Cornpare yoclr answers with those given at the end of
i
1
this unit.

/I)
Write down three advantages of teleconferencing for distance
1 ' education.
I
J rij List any thrse reasons why the \iidc.r.i i:t.s system is relevant today.
;

1 .........................................................................................................

2.8 TELEPHONE-MEDIATED INSTRUCTION

In the previous section, you read about.te1econferencing as an application ot'
satellite-based communicarion. Another example of satellite-based
communication is telephone-mediated instruction.
The telephone as a medium of instruction can be of immense value to
distance education. Many of the cqnstraints or limitations of the distance
mode of teaching. such as isolation, remoteness, iack of peer group
interaction. etc. can be okercome by the use of the telephone. The use of the
telephone by d i s t a ~ ~ ceducators
e for instructional purposes is the most
personalised use of telecomrt~unicationsirt distance education. The
teiephone is being used extensively fcir pedagogical interaction by some
open universities in developed countries s:~ch as the U.K., Canada. etc. ,4nd
it is becoming popular both with distance students and with distance
teachers. India of course has ccrtain lir~itations,more speciiically a
telephone i~sfrasrructlrrethat is inadequate for the purpose of instruction.
Due to this reason, telephone-based instruc~ionhas not been popular in
India. In other words, the potential of'the telephone is yet to be exploited for
educational purposes in India.
Computer and Communication Nebvorks

The telephone can be used to assist and direct the students in place of face-
to-face teaching. The telephone facility, if available, can motivate the
distance students to contact their teachers or academic counsellors as and
when required, or to do so at specified timings, usually.in the evenings. The
teachers, in turn, can assist them in academic and personal concerns on a
individual and regular basis. This is one of the common and effective uses
of the telephone in distance education. Thus, interaction through the
telephone may be the key factor in breaking through the hurdle of individual
isolation in distance education.
Telephonic conversation is also very useful for distance counselling. You
may recall from ES-3 13, the role and significance of counselling in support
services. The telephone is an effective tool in the provision of counselling. If
adequate infrastructure is available, telephonic communication has no
barrier of distance and time (telephone through satellites has no barrier of
distance).
Telephone-based teaching is particularly helpful in various components of
language learning -grammar, vocabulary, oral examinations and
pronunciation. In other words, the telephone can be an effective medium in
teaching language skills and in correcting grammatical errors.
The advantages of telephone-mediated instruction are as follows:
Interactive
Multi-site linkage
Immediate
Personal
Cost effective (cost-effective in the sense that the system needs simple
equipment and can be easily operated by the students.)
Not much research has been done on telephone-based pedagogic interaction
so far. Experience, along with the findings of a few projects undertaken in
the developed countries reveals that the telephone has never been found
worse than face-to-face teaching and indeed has sometimes proved better in
facilitating an effective dialogue.
The satellite has added to the effectiveness of the telephone system in the
coantry tremendously. Now it is possible to bring the entire country together
through the numerous lines offered by the satellite. "The use of space for
extending telecommunication facilities through the satellite has made it
possible to providean effective and powerful media of reliable
telecommunication crossing international borders and vast stretches of
ocean and land territories. The use of satellite media has great significance
for a country like India not only for establishing international
telecommunication facilities but also for providing connectivity to its vast
network of facilities sprung in far-flung, remote and backward areas within
the country" (Pilot, 1992, on the World Telecommunication Day).
Although telephone tutorials with the tutor are very desirable, one-to-one
two-way telephonic communication on a large scale is just not practical. To
make telephone-mediated interaction between the teacher and the students
practically possible as a method of delivery of information, a group of
students could come together and contact their teacher by phone to satisfy
 Satellite Technology and Distance Education

their individual needs. This could be an effective use of the telephone

interaction in distance education.
If we wish to reach out to, and teach, scattered and isolated students,
telephone-mediated instruction is a way of providing the two-way
interactive tutorial, but India does not have a telephone system widespread
and reliable enough to be put to such use. The telephone network in the rural
locations (the area that could benefit most from the telephone) is very poor.
Similarly, the open university and all the study centres are not connected
through the telephone network even today. India is very concerned about
strengthening and expanding telephone network in rural areas, and
telecommunication in the country has undergone a metamorphosis during
the last few years. It is also expected that by the year 2001, the number of
telephones in India would be 26.44 million (Narain & Gupta, 1989). Taking
the population of the country into consideration, that would mean
approximately three telephone connections per 120 persons. It would then
obviously take us a long time to witness any significant application of the
telephone for distance teaching in,India.
1Check Your Progress 6 I
I Notes: a) Wlite your answer in the space given below.
I
IWhat are the two major weaknesses of the telephone-mediated instruction I
b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of the unit.

in the Indian context? ?

L-

2.8.1 Voice mail

Voice mail is emerging as an effective computer based telephone mediated
instructional strategy in distance education. It is currently in use ir. business
and industrial settings. It is essentially an elaborate system of 'mailboxes',
each like an individual answering machine where digitized voice massages
are delivered and retrieved at the convenience of the user. Each individual
on the system can have a personal computer space through which messages
are delivered and retrieved. Messages of a general nature can also be
broadcast to all users. Normally software for voice-mail is tailored to the
specific requirement of the users. In distance education, voice mail could be
very useful for disseminating general information to the public as well as to
the students. The system can also be made interactive so that the learner can
use hisher touch tone telephone at home and can know the status of his /her
assignment, grades received in term-end.examinations, etc.
 ~ -~ -- ~ . -
2,9 EMERGENCE- OF VIRTUAL GLASS ..

Yoit might at tirnes liave collie across t l ~ ephrase --virtual classroom" or

-virtual university". In this section, we will rlaboratc !]!I !hi. cclncepr of
"virtualisation" of e d ~ ~ c a t i and
o ~ l h o ~ \it cc.111ldinf!uet~c: [tie distance
education scenario in years to come. Thougll ~ilan:io f ihe "\,ir:ilal" issric-5
are the hybridization of a large numb(.:r ol'technologies, irrcludin~
computers, cognitive sciences and artiticiai iniclligcnce. ;i-c have inclucicd,
rliis in Unit 2 and riot in Unit 3. ':his is ~ l . i r n ~ l i i !h>e c a ~ ~ sofc ihe i n i t i a l >;age
of clcvelopnient and its relation to teizconier-i-i-lcs. I lo\\evcr. the cvr~ccptc:f
"virtual class" is not specific or limited to s:itellite ~echnnlogyalunc. Now
let us :lisc:~ss what virtual class 1nea:is.
The n.oril '\;ii?t!c?l' n?eans i n eflkci but 1101 fact. Tl~eref'~.>rc
a virt:lal class is
also a class in effect but not in fact. Hov: is i: possible? For a classroom to
exist, there must be a student. a teacher, physical co~riponents!ike a
buiiding. filrnirure. a blackSoar.ti etc. 2nd ::c:.tsin kn;)n.lcdge to bc taught and
learnt. Here, \ve are thinki~rgof all tlie>r 'irr eSfect'. anit ~:ot in its natural
settings. Let us consider what \L'C disc~issedcarlie!. ahout teleconferences, In
a teleconference class? all the co~nponentsoi'tlle class are at differcri'r plnccs,
giving the effect of a teaching-learning ~ituation.Therefore. many scholars
describe the teleconference as a means ~ f o r g a i ~ i s i n"\irtual'classroams".
g
As in.a classrooni, an ideal teleconfcrencc alloics the l~olic,v,ing(-l'ifllri &
Ra-jasingham, 1995: 107) colnlnunicntioi? ti:, take p!xe. tllus giving the
effect of the cia!;sroom and tiinctioniiig i;.!: 21 virtual classr.ocrn~.
r Everybod) should be able to hear and tall; lo Olli? iltiotllel.
a Everybody should he able to see the pcrwn i v ! ~ )i-i talking
a Everybody should be able to see wlirtt is on a whiteboard and be able ro
draw and M rite on it so that everjollt' c i x can see.
E v e r l b o d ~shouicl be able to see ari! uudiov!si!a! li~aterial. used such as
video or s l ~ d e sor multimedia presenratlons.
a Everybody should be able to handle an3 interact with any ob-ject,
machine or equipmeni that relates tc\,thc class.
a Everybody should be able tcl take ai\ay a copy or ~ e c o r dof\\ hat was
studied in the class.
In essence. the teleconference provi,ies 11s ~ v i t htllc ti1.s: virtun! taste ot'the
classroom. Ho\\:evcr, as i r hay hcen i r ~ t i i i ~ n i ct:u~-ii!:i
;l it i i not lil~tilzdto this
purpose alone. We can say that u ith ti!? tcli.cc)!lf'e~.ence.thi: \<rlual ciass has
emerged. Rut still all the cc?lnpc)net?tsare 'in fact' at different places, while
to be called 'virtual' they should be 'in efkct'. 'This is possible with the
emergence of 'Computer Gclierated Virtual Rrality' (CGVR). l'hc
developments related to parallel processing, artificial intelligence 3 r d
tcleco~n~ni;tiication, promises thc use ol'vir!ual realit:; it1 cducalion. l'hc
develop~rlentofthe World Wide \4'eb (disci~sscdill [)!?it 3 ) alsn pron~isesa
-great deal towards [lie "\/irtual class". A s sucll 1~11i!ersit1eshave come up in
the WWW, which can be accessed by any(-:ne. anj,v~.here in the world v, ith
the necessary technological facilities. Apart tic~nlreiic!i!~gtext aild viewing
recorded video presentations. as a learner you can chat with yuur teacher in
real-time mode, or even scc n live presentation ofthe lecture, ask ques~ions
and participate in a global discussion. The pc~~ssil~ilitie!;
of learning in the
virtual way are enormous. Howevcl-. this is ,just ttic bcgir?ni:lg.
Mukhopadhyay (1999) has re\iiewetl the issues related io vil-iual reality in
education. and concluded that the issue nf \,;irtualisation i r l primarily based
on computer technology. T'hough virtual classroi>n~s have largely been
developed around satellite based coin~licnicatio~l through interactive video.
auuio, computer cornmunicai-ion a~idc~~nbiriatlons oi'more than one
interactive media, effecci?;~virtual learning c.!~i.ironmentmake use of a large
number oftechnol~igiesinc!uding, computer, n~ultimedia,television, voice-
mail, e-mail. CD-ROhd. In!crnct 2nd WL1.:1+'.

2.10 LET US SUM UP

The discussion iri this unit ~ O C ~ I Sor1C an
~ in!roduction to satellite
tcchno1og;r-comn1~111icatio17 satciii~e.:-is a ~ e h i c l eto promotc thc
. .
disscminatiorl of l~no\vleclgeiinl:!~~~:~at:o~i. l'hc key pcir~tsInny be
s u m ~ n ~ r i s easd tvllnws:

-- A ilominant l'orce t ~ ort.\801~~tionise

t l ~ etciecomnlu:~icaii(~~~s
;ystem in
the \vorld.
!: is a .;;ricecr;ifi ;;l?.ich r x e i v c s siyia!s finm an earlh st:~tinnand
retr:111sitiits Ihc:i1 biicli to ti:: earth Ibr scjcial app!ications.
-- 'i'llere are fcjc: r!pes of iirbits low orbit, mediu~nurbit,
geostaiionary o h i t anc! special orbit lor positioning the satellites in
the space. i'om!nunicatio~lsatellites arc usuall~.placed in the geo-
synci~ronousorbit.
Com~noncharacteristics
-They generate power with the Iielp o r solar panels.
--The\, have large coverage anti can bc uhsd for 1:1111tip:epurposrs.
-- Initial investment for the fiil:ricai:on a,~ciIc?unchins (21-satellitesis
high.
r A comparison of'satellite and rerrrqirial comn~unicationsystems.
Teleconfercncing and teiephone-mediated instruction as educational
aids.

r 'fhe emergence ofthe 'virtual class' has paved the way f'or a nen
paradigm of learning.

2.1 4 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS: THE KEY -- ~

I . The geo-synchronous orbit is most suitable for communication satellites.

A satellite in this orbit moves in such a \\.a!; that it :lppears stalior~aryt i i
Cornpurer and ~ommunicarionNetworks

the people on the earth. The services of such satellite are available for all
the time to the people concerned.
2. Area specific programmes (ASP) produced at a regional production
centre can be telecast through satellite. Doordarshan telecasts ASPS
through RVSAT for local audiences in their own languages.
3. DRSs receive signals directly from the satellite while VHF sets can
receive signals from the terrestrial transmitters only.
DRSs can be installed beyond the effective range of the terrestrial
transmitters while VHF sets are to be installed within the effective range
of the terrestrial transmitters.
4. Your answer may be something like this:
i) Preparing the students -- 15 minutes
ii) Presentation of the content -- 30 minutes
iii) Feedback -- 15 minutes
5. i) Advantage of teleconferencing
a most of the widely scattered students can be approached through
teleconferencing.
. a many different topics can be covered.
a scheduling adjustments are easier.
a constant contact with the teacher.
iii) Three reasons, why the video class is relevant today are:
(a) The video class systetii challenges the basic premises on which the
role of educational television is defended.
(b) By doing this, it opens up the possibilities of low-cost, teacher-
friendly uses of the medium.
(c) This offers a new perspective in the use of television from the point
of view of instructional design and infrastructural and production
costs.
6 . There are some weaknesses of telephone-mediated instruction, such as:
a The telephone based one-to-one interaction with a large number of
students is very difficult.
Use of the telephone for education is a costly affair.
a It requires close co-ordination.
a In Ir.dia basic infrastructure required for this purpose is not adequate,
nor is it efficient.