20 MARCH 2023

Dear Course Delegate

COURSE ON PAVEMENT MATERIALS I

GRANULAR AND CEMENTED MATERIALS
MARCH 2023

The examination task has been developed for the Pavement Materials Course and is submitted
herewith.

Please follow the instructions attached in order to complete the examination properly.
You are to complete this extensive assignment ALONE. Anyone attempting to plagiarize someone
else’s work will be treated with zero tolerance!

The deadline for submission of the Extensive Exercise is 20 April 2023.

Wishing you diligence and inspiration!

Prof Kim Jenkins

SANRAL Chair
 Pavement Materials I Course
March 2023

Extensive Exercise on Granular and Cemented

PART 1 : MODELLING A GRANULAR BASE

TOTAL [100]

Question1: [45]

During the course, Workshop 3 included an analysis of the “first design phase” of the cement
stabilised layer of two pavements (one inverted and the other one normal), as shown below.
This is a Category B class of road. This task is aimed at the analysis of:

• “First design phase” the same as Workshop 3 with “Stresses and Strains” but with
updated pavement layer thicknesses. You must use the new pavement layer
thicknesses. Don’t forget to multiply your shift factor SF for the bound layers
• “Second design phase” for cemented layer. You did not calculate Phase 2 previously.
Attached is a Phase 2 calculation, with the cemented layer reducing Mr or E (stiffness)
during trafficking.
• Phase 1 and 2 pavement lives are then combined (added together) to give the total
pavement life (sum of weakest layer lives in each phase)

In order to perform this task, you will receive data from Rubicon Toolbox using the linear-
elastic computer design software to provide an Excel spreadsheet with deflections, stresses
and strains. You are given the stresses and strains for each phase and layer and need to carry
out MANUAL analysis of the results using the transfer functions provided below. Look at
Chapter 10 of SAPEM or the Hitchhiker’s Guide notes for extra information.

A pavement structure with a 4 layer system is to be designed. The material types and layer
thicknesses are shown below. BUT there are two options:

1. The granular base is above the cement treated subbase

2. The base is cement treated on top of a granular subbase.

The traffic axle loading is 100kN with “Super Singles” configuration i.e. one wheel on either
end of the axle. Tyre pressure is 750 kPa. The climate is DRY. Use the South African
Mechanistic Design & Analysis Method SAMDAM, from the notes mentioned.

Evaluated the Modular Ratios of the two pavement structures’ layers critically before doing the
analysis. Comment on any adjustments that are needed.
OPTION 1: GRANULAR ON CEMENTED (Design Phase 1 & 2)

p = 750 kPa
Analysis
Positions
Asphalt
Eas = 2750 MPa has=40mm 40mm

Granular Base G2
Ebase = 400 MPa hbase= 150mm 75mm

75mm

Ph 1: Cem Stab. Subbase C3 E = 1400MPa

Ph 2: Equiv.Gran G5A ECTSB = 280 MPa 125mm
hCTSB= 250mm
125mm

Subgrade
Esub = 140 MPa hsub= ∞

A) Carry out the following analysis:

• Select the stresses and strains (horizontal and vertical) at the critical positions, as
indicated on the pavement structure above for the given loading conditions, from the Excel
Sheets “Assignment Gran on Cem Stress-Strain-Results Design Phase 1” and
“Assignment Gran on Cem Stress-Strain-Results Design Phase 2”. Note that the during
Phase 1 you analyse the cemented layer for “fatigue” and during Phase 2 you analyse the
cemented layer for “equivalent granular permanent deformation”
• No evaluation of crushing of the cemented layer is required.
• Are the applicable Poisson Ratios used for each layer type? Comment on the selection of
Poisson Ratios.
• For Phase 2, calculate the Deviator Stress Ratio DSR for the granular layers (not the
subgrade) and the equivalent granular layers. You can use the shear parameters
Cohesion C and Friction Angle φ as provided in the notes. Show all of your workings.
Compare your calculated DSR with the 1/F (factor of safety) from SAMDM calculations and
comment on the relationship. You will need information from Section B).
OPTION 2: CEMENTED ON GRANULAR (Design Phase 2)
p = 750 kPa

Analysis
Positions
Asphalt
Eas = 2750 MPa has=40mm 40mm

Ph 1: Cem Stab. Subbase C3 E = 1400MPa

Ph 2: Equiv.Gran G5A ECTSB = 560 MPa 125mm
hCTSB= 250mm
125mm

Granular Subbase G5A

75mm
Ebase = 280 MPa hbase= 150mm

75mm

Subgrade
Esub = 140 MPa hsub= ∞

B) Carry out the analysis, selecting the stresses and strains (horizontal and vertical) at the
critical positions, as indicated on the pavement structure above for the given loading
conditions, from the Excel Sheets “Assignment Cem on Gran Stress-Strain-Results Design
Phase 1” and “Assignment Cem on Gran Stress-Strain-Results Design Phase 2”.

Set up a table for each of the 4 cases i.e. Option 1&2 and Gran/Cem vs Cem/Gran. Calculate
the Modular Ratio for each layer. Show the actual modular ratios of the layers in the table
(from Mr given) as well as the maximum modular ratio based on material classification (using
SAPEM Chapter 10 or TG2 (2020). Comment on the layer stiffness selections.

Determine the number of load repetitions until failure in the following layers for OPTION 1 and
2: (use SAPEM Chapter 10 to retrieve the transfer functions – under “Literature” folder shared
in class)

• Asphalt fatigue (continuously graded surfacing) – for Design Phase 1 and 2. Calculate
the asphalt life but don’t use it as the critical layer – see c) below*. Asphalt layers
don’t last for the entire pavement life)
 • Granular layer G2 (using the F factor) – if σ3 value is negative, keep σd constant and
shift the Mohr Coulomb circle to the right until σ3 = 0kPa (you can’t have -ve stress in
granular layer)
• Cement layer (Phase 1 using fatigue and Phase 2 using the equivalent granular
condition for design)
• Subgrade layer (for 10mm rutting option)

Populate the necessary values in these tables below:

Granular Base over Cemented Subbase Phase 1

Resilient Material Stresses or Strains for

Thickness Layer Evaluation
Modulus Inputs Pavement
Pavement (mm) and Value x SF
(MPa) and C,φ, F Stress kPa Life
Layer Material Shift Factor
Poisson’s safety, SF, or Strain ε (MESA)
Class only for
Ratio etc value (*) Cemented
2750
Surfacing 40 Asphalt -
0.44

150 400
Base
Granular 0.35

250 1400
Subbase
Cemented 0.3

Subgrade Semi-∞ 140

G8 0.35
(*) Also use C-term and φ-term and Safety Factor for transfer functions
Critical layer = ______ with ____ MESAs
Granular Base over Cemented Subbase Phase 2

Resilient Material Stresses or Strains for

Thickness Layer Evaluation
Modulus Inputs Pavement
Pavement (mm) and Value x SF
(MPa) and C,φ, F Stress kPa Life
Layer Material Shift Factor
Poisson’s safety, SF, or Strain ε (MESA)
Class only for
Ratio etc, value (*) Cemented
2750
Surfacing 40 Asphalt -
0.44

150 400
Base
Granular 0.35

280
Subbase 250 EG5A
0.35

Subgrade Semi-∞ 140

G8 0.35
(*) Also use C-term and φ-term and Safety Factor for transfer functions
Critical layer = ______ with ____ MESAs

Cemented Base over Granular Subbase Phase 1

Resilient Material Stresses or Strains for

Thickness Layer Evaluation
Modulus Inputs Pavement
Pavement (mm) and Value x SF
(MPa) and C,φ, F Stress kPa Life
Layer Material Shift Factor
Poisson’s safety, SF, or Strain ε (MESA)
Class only for
Ratio etc value (*) Cemented
2750
Surfacing 40 Asphalt -
0.44

250 1400
Base
Cemented 0.3

150 280
Subbase
Granular 0.35

Subgrade Semi-∞ 140

G8 0.35
(*) Also use C-term and φ-term and Safety Factor for transfer functions
Critical layer = ______ with ____ MESAs MESAs
Cemented Base over Granular Subbase Phase 2

Resilient Material Stresses or Strains for

Thickness Layer Evaluation
Modulus Inputs Pavement
Pavement (mm) and Value x SF
(MPa) and C,φ, F Stress kPa Life
Layer Material Shift Factor
Poisson’s safety, SF, or Strain ε (MESA)
Class only for
Ratio etc value (*) Cemented
2750
Surfacing 40 Asphalt -
0.44

250 400
Base
Cemented 0.35

150 280
Subbase
Granular 0.35

Subgrade Semi-∞ 140

G8 0.35
(*) Also use C-term and φ-term and Safety Factor for transfer functions
Critical layer = ______ with ____ MESAs

C) How does the life of the two options compare?

• Compare:
o the Design Phase 1 and Design Phase 2 results for Option 1 and Option 2 and
o the Total Life for Option 1 and 2 (*exclude the asphalt life as the critical layer in
the calculation, because it can be reapplied in stages)
• Comment on the difference in asphalt life between the two pavement structures in
Design Phase 2. Would the life of the asphalt layer play a critical role in the analysis?
• Can you justify the use of a granular over cemented type structure for overall
performance improvement? Are the differences in Egranular justified?

D) Check the stiffness of the granular layer in Option 1 and Option 2 (not the equivalent
granular layer nor the subgrade) using the stress that has been determined for that
layer, using the following equation:

Resilient Modulus Calculations using Stress dependency:

Mr = k1 (θ) k2
K1= 16.31 [MPa]
K2 = 0.532

How does the calculated Mr (or E) compare with the Mr that you were given and the values
you used for design? Provide critical insights.
 PART 2 : DESCRIPTIVE QUESTIONS

For each of the following questions, prepare an answer of between 600 and 1000 words using a word
processor. The issue that needs to be covered should be adequately addressed. The notes that you
received whilst on the course will assist, but additional literature will need to be sourced too. Provide
equations, diagrams and all references in the formal manner.

Question 2: [5]
A road is to be constructed over a very moist, fairly soft to firm clayey subgrade. Suppose that the clay
is expansive. Name at least five different methods of subgrade treatment so that the road will not be
badly damaged by expansion of the clay subgrade. Explain the construction/installation process for
each method, as well as its advantages and disadvantages. Draw cross–sections for the treatment
methods.

Question 3: [20]
a) GRANULAR MATERIALS: Describe the process of slushing of a G1 material, explaining how factors
such as stone size and filler play a role in improved matrix interlock. Discuss the risks involved in either
slushing or not slushing. Also critically discuss how the mechanisms of slushing could possibly influence
measurable performance parameters such as the shear parameters, stiffness and permanent
deformation of this material. (5)

b) STABILISED MATERIALS: Describe the differences between durability issues regarding natural
aggregate and aggregate that has been treated with cement or lime i.e. stabilized. Discuss some of the
shortcomings of previous durability tests that were specified for testing the durability of stabilized
materials. How have these shortcomings been addressed with the “newly” (more recently) developed
tests? Describe some of the new test procedures explaining the differences with the old ones. How will
this most likely influence the stabilization philosophy (hint: minimum stabilizer content?) (5)

c) RECYCLED CONCRETE AGGREGATE (RCA) AND - MASONRY (RM): You have been exposed to
the research on RCA and RM. It has reported that the material can self-cement. What are the benefits
and disadvantages of this phenomenon? Provide some innovative ideas on how to minimise the
disadvantages associated with self-cementation in particular. Except for durability aspects associated
with self-cementation, provide other durability aspects to consider (Hint: think of the material both in its
unbound and bound form.) (10)

Question 4: [10]
Provide an overview of the influence of climate on the performance of road building materials. Include
an explanation of some of the indices that are used to describe the climatic regions of southern Africa.
Which design parameters take account of the various indices (describe as many as possible and how
these properties and parameters account for climatic regions)? Is climate adequately modelled in our
current design procedures?

Question 5: [5]
Using chemical equations, describe the different reactions that take place when aggregate is treated
with lime or cement. Which reactions begin first and why? Describe the differences between the lime
and cement reactions also in terms of the rate of reaction, the properties of the aggregate influencing
the reaction and the material properties that can be expected. Also discuss the other factors that could
influence the reactions (excluding long term effects).
Question 6: [5]
a) Shrinkage cracking is a concern for stabilised materials and is generally detrimental. The novel
shrinkage model presented in class describes basic fundamentals to be understood in describing how
shrinkage cracks occur. By drawing a schematic explain how shrinkage cracking occurs (Hint: use
stress on your vertical axis plotted against time on the horizontal axis). Explain what is meant by
relaxation of a material and also show how this will influence your schematic. By referring to the various
components that influence the manifestation of tensile stresses in the material, what could be done
practically to reduce these stresses?

Question 7: [10]

A pavement is constructed on a silty clay subgrade, as depicted below.

a) Draw a pF suction profile for a silty clay (D1 L6+7 slide on moisture content vs suction)
b) The Water Table is located at h = 400 cm below the pavement structure. Calculate the in situ
moisture contents at positions MC1, MC2 and MC3 in the figure (hint: refer to example
calculations in class). Relate the suction parameter pF to internal stress levels. Show your
working calculations.
c) The Water Table rises to h = 50 cm below the pavement structure. Calculate the in situ moisture
contents at positions MC1, MC2 and MC3 in the figure (recalculate the heights of the positions
using the same proportional values of h/2)
d) How do the values for MC1 (top of subgrade) compare with the values estimated from Emery’s
work for Equilibrium Moisture Content and EMC/OMC ratios (hint: D1 L6+7 Slide 33 to estimate
a typical OMC and other slides from Emery for EMC/OMC). Discuss the factors that influence
the EMC/OMC and explain your assumptions. You can assume OMC = 17%
e) Discuss the importance of suction and explain how suction can be measured in the laboratory or
field (ref: D1 L6+7 Slide 17 and Masters research project of B. Rubulusa at Stellenbosch
University and other references) . What role can suction play in the considerations when
designing a pavement structure?

Pavement structure

MC1 Moisture Content = MC

h/2
h = height of silty clay
MC2
Subgrade
h/2
Water Table
MC3
Extra: Supplementary notes

Table B.10: Properties of Granular Materials (after Maree and Freeme)

Table B.11: Transfer Function and Constants for Asphalt Layers

Table B.12: Elastic Moduli for Granular Materials
Table B.13: Transfer Function and Constants for Shear Failure (Granular Materials)
Table B.14: Transfer Functions for Cemented Materials

Table B.15: Elastic Moduli and Material Properties for Cemented Materials in 1996 SAMDM
Table B.16: Transfer Functions for Subgrade and Selected Layer Permanent Deformation

Permanent Deformation

𝐍𝐍𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏(𝐚𝐚−𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥 ε𝐯𝐯 ) (601)

where NP = Standard axles to set level of permanent deformation

D = Vertical compressive strain at top of layer
εv = Constant, given below
a
Constants
A
Reliability Level
10 mm Terminal Rut Depth 20 mm Terminal Rut Depth
95% (Category A) 33.30 36.30
90% (Category B) 33.38 36.38
80% (Category C) 33.47 36.47
50% (Category D) 33.70 36.70