UPSC CSE 2024/25

GS-3
MAINS MODULE
By Dr. Shivin Chaudhary
 DISASTER MANAGEMENT

YEAR QUESTION MARKS

How important are vulnerability and risk assessment for

2013 pre-disaster management. As an administrator, what are key 10
areas that you would focus in a disaster management

Describe various measures taken in India for Disaster Risk

Reduction (DRR) before and after signing ‘Sendai Framework
2018 for DRR (2015-2030)’. How is this framework different from 15
‘Hyogo Framework for Action, 2005?

Vulnerability is an essential element for defining disaster impacts

2019 and its threat to people. How and in what ways can vulnerability 10
to disasters be characterized? Discuss different types of
vulnerability with reference to disasters.

2019 Disaster preparedness is the first step in any disaster 10

management process. Explain how hazard zonation mapping
will help disaster mitigation in the case of landslides

2020 Discuss the recent measures initiated in disaster management

by the Government of India departing from the earlier reactive 15
approach.

DEFINITION OF DISASTER:

● The DM Act 2005 uses the following definition for disaster:

○ "Disaster" means a catastrophe, mishap, calamity or grave occurrence in any
area, arising from natural or manmade causes, or by accident or negligence
which results in substantial loss of life or human suffering or damage to, and
destruction of, property, or damage to, or degradation of, environment, and is of
such a nature or magnitude as to be beyond the coping capacity of the
community of the affected area."
● UN International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR) offers a commonly accepted
definition of a disaster:"A disruption of the functioning of a community or a society,
involving widespread human, material, economic, or environmental losses and
impacts, which exceeds the ability of the affected community or society to cope using
its own resources."
 Elements highlighted by the definition

Serious disruption A disaster involves a significant disturbance or interruption in the

normal functioning of a community or society.

Widespread losses Disasters result in extensive human, material, economic, or

and impacts environmental damages, affecting a significant portion of the affected
area or population.

Capacity to cope The magnitude of the disaster exceeds the ability of the affected —
overwhelmed community or society to manage and recover using its own resources
and capacities.

Evolution of concept of Disaster

Act of God ● They were considered uncontrollable and were interpreted as

expressions of divine will or punishment.
● This perspective focused on the external forces beyond human
control.

Act of Nature ● Advancement of scientific understanding: The focus shifted

from supernatural explanations to recognizing natural processes as
the primary causes of disasters.
● Disasters were seen as a consequence of the interaction between
these natural hazards and human populations.

Act of Human ● Recognition of societal factors and human activities as

significant contributors marked a shift in understanding.
● This perspective acknowledges that disasters are also shaped by
human actions and decisions.

Terms Associated With Disaster

Hazard

● Hazard is an event that has potential for causing injury/ loss of life or damage:
○ People: Death, injury, disease and stress
○ Property: Damage to property, economic loss, loss of livelihood and status
○ Environment: Loss of flora and fauna, pollution, loss of biodiversity.
● Hazards can arise from various sources, including natural processes, human activities,
technological failures, or a combination of these factors.
Types:

Natural hazards: ● They are physical phenomena that occur naturally and can
be categorized as:
○ Geophysical (earthquakes, landslides, tsunamis, and
volcanic activity),
○ Hydrological (avalanches and floods),
○ Climatological (extreme temperatures, drought, and
wildfires),
○ Meteorological (cyclones and storms/wave surges),
or
○ Biological (disease epidemics and insect/animal
plagues).

Quasi-natural ● It arises through the interaction of natural processess and

hazards: human activities.
○ For example; smog, desertification etc.

Anthropogenic ● They are hazards that result from human actions or inaction.
hazard: They are distinct from natural hazards and have the
potential to negatively impact humans, other organisms,
ecosystems, and biomes.
○ Examples of anthropogenic hazards include
pollution, deforestation, the use of herbicides and
pesticides, and chemical spillages.

Vulnerability

Vulnerability may be defined as “conditions determined by physical, social, economic, and

environmental factors or processes, which increase the susceptibility of a community to the
impact of hazards.”
 Types of Vulnerability

Economic ● Assessing the potential impacts of hazards on economic assets

Vulnerability and processes.
● Consideration of income sources, access to means of
production, economic fallback mechanisms, and availability of
natural resources.
● Poorer families with limited resources may be more vulnerable,
leading them to settle in hazard-prone areas

Physical ● Determining the potential for physical impact on the environment.

Vulnerability ● Proximity to the source and origin of disasters plays a role
● Example: Wooden homes may be less likely to collapse in
earthquakes but more vulnerable to fire.

Social ● Assessing the potential impact of events on specific groups.

Vulnerability ● Consideration of vulnerable groups like the poor,
pregnant/lactating women, disabled individuals, children, and the
elderly.
● Example: Some citizens may be unable to protect themselves or
evacuate during flooding, such as the elderly or differently-abled
individuals.

Environmental ● Assessing the potential impact of events on the environment,

Vulnerability: including flora, fauna, ecosystems, and biodiversity.
● Example: Wetlands are sensitive to factors like increasing
salinity, pollution from stormwater runoff, and erosion.

Attitudinal ● Referring to the community's attitude and response to events or

Vulnerability: disasters.
● Negative attitudes, lack of initiative, and dependence on external
support can increase vulnerability.
● Resulting in conflicts, hopelessness, and reduced coping
capacity.

Risk

● Risk is a measure of the expected losses due to a hazard event occurring in a given
area over a specific time period.
● Disaster Risk: The likelihood over a specified time period of severe alterations in the
normal functioning of a community or a society due to hazardous physical events
interacting with vulnerable social conditions, leading to widespread adverse human,
material, economic, or environmental effects that require immediate emergency
response to satisfy critical human needs and that may require external support for
recovery. (IPCC)
 ● Disaster risk arises when hazards interact with:
○ Physical,
○ Social,
○ Economic and
○ Environmental vulnerabilities.

Risk = Probability of Hazard x Exposure x Degree of Vulnerability

Relationships between Hazard, Vulnerability and Risk

Disaster Management
Definition by UNISDR, 2004: Disaster Risk Management “implies the systematic process of
using administrative decisions, organisation, operational skills, and capacities to implement
policies, strategies and coping capacities of the society and communities to lessen the impact of
natural hazards and related environmental and technological disasters. These comprise all
forms all activities including structural and non- structural measures to avoid (prevention) or to
limit (mitigation and preparedness) adverse effects to hazards”.

The DM Act 2005 uses the following definition for disaster management: “Disaster
Management” means a continuous and integrated process of planning, organising, coordinating
and implementing measures which are necessary or expedient for:

● prevention of danger or threat of any disaster;

● mitigation or reduction of risk of any disaster or its severity or consequences;
● capacity-building;
● preparedness to deal with any disaster;
● prompt response to any threatening disaster situation or disaster;
● assessing the severity or magnitude of effects of any disaster;
● evacuation, rescue and relief;
● rehabilitation and reconstruction;

Three key stages of activities in disaster management

Before a disaster To reduce the potential for human, material, or environmental losses
caused by hazards and to ensure that these losses are minimised when
disaster strikes;

During a disaster To ensure that the needs and provisions of victims are met to alleviate
and minimise suffering;

After a disaster To achieve rapid and durable recovery which does not reproduce the
original vulnerable conditions.

3 Goals of Disaster Management:

1. Reduce, or avoid, losses from hazards;
2. Assure prompt assistance to victims;
3. Achieve rapid and effective recovery.

Disaster Management Cycle

● The Disaster management cycle illustrates the ongoing process by which governments,
businesses, and civil society plan for and reduce the impact of disasters, react during
and immediately following a disaster, and take steps to recover after a disaster has
occurred.
 ● The complete disaster management cycle includes the shaping of public policies and
plans that either modify the causes of disasters or mitigate their effects on people,
property, and infrastructure.

Phases of Disaster Management Cycle

Pre-disaster Risk Management Phase

Mitigation and Measures taken to minimize or Implementing building codes,

Prevention eliminate the risks and constructing flood barriers, and
vulnerabilities associated with promoting land-use planning to reduce
disasters. the impact of hazards.

Preparedness Knowledge, capabilities, and Developing emergency response

actions of governments, plans, conducting drills and exercises,
organizations, community training emergency response teams,
groups, and individuals “to stockpiling essential supplies
effectively anticipate, respond to,
and recover from, the impacts of
likely, imminent or current hazard
events or conditions. (UNISDR)
The traditional 3 Rs (Rescue,
 Relief & Restoration) are now
being replaced by 3 Ps
(Prevention, Preparedness &
Proofing).

Post-disaster Crisis Management Phase

Prediction and Monitoring and forecasting Collecting and analyzing data,

Early Warning hazards to provide early maintaining a robust monitoring
warnings to communities at risk. system, and disseminating timely and
accurate warnings to the public.

Impact It aims to understand the extent Conducting rapid assessments and

Assessment and severity of the damage damage surveys to evaluate the
caused by a disaster. impact on people, infrastructure, the
environment, and the economy

Response Immediate actions taken to save Search and rescue operations,

lives, alleviate suffering, and emergency medical assistance,
protect property during and evacuation, providing temporary
immediately after a disaster. shelters, distributing relief supplies

Recovery Restoring and rebuilding the Debris removal, infrastructure repair,

affected communities and rehabilitation of affected individuals
infrastructure after a disaster. and households, economic recovery
measures, and psychosocial support

Reconstruction Long-term process of rebuilding Improving land-use planning,

and improving infrastructure, strengthening disaster management
livelihoods, and systems to capacities, and implementing
enhance resilience to future measures to reduce future risks.
disasters.
 Disaster Management in India

Evolution of Disaster Management in India

Pre-Independence Era Post-Independence Period

● Relief-oriented approach with the ● Disaster management was delegated

establishment of relief departments to the Relief Commissioners in each
during emergencies. state.
● Policy was designed to help only ● Relief Commissioners were only
people affected after the disaster responsible for distributing relief
happened. material and money in the affected
● Activities include only providing relief areas.
and food supply at the time of ● Later 5 years plans for disasters were
calamity. introduced.

Institutionalization and Shift towards Proactive Approach:

● 1990s: Establishment of a disaster management cell under the Ministry of
Agriculture.
● 1990: UN General Assembly declared the decade as the 'International Decade for
Natural Disaster Reduction' (IDNDR).
○ High-powered Committee chaired by Mr. J.C. Pant formed after major disasters
(Latur Earthquake, Malpa Landslide, Orissa Super Cyclone, Bhuj Earthquake).
● 2002: Disaster management division shifted under the Ministry of Home Affairs.

Evolution of Disaster Management of India

From Relief to ● Shifting focus from providing immediate relief to proactive

Risk Reduction measures aimed at mitigating hazards and building resilience.
● Recognizing the importance of preparedness, prevention, and
long-term solutions to minimize the impact of future disasters.

From ● Departing from separate entities addressing specific hazards

Compartmental to to an integrated approach.
Integration ● Emphasizing coordination and collaboration among various
stakeholders to address multiple hazards and ensure a
cohesive response.
● Eg, Formation of National Crisis Management Committee
(NCMC) and National Executive Committee (NEC)

From Ad-hoc to ● Transitioning from ad-hoc and reactive measures to a

Organized structured framework for disaster management.
● Establishment of the Disaster Management Act in 2005,
 leading to the formation of the National Disaster Management
Authority (NDMA) and State Disaster Management
Authorities (SDMAs).
● Enabling a systematic and organized approach to planning,
coordination, and implementation of disaster risk reduction
measures.

From Single ● Moving away from addressing single hazards in isolation to

Hazard to Multi- recognizing the interconnectedness of multiple hazards.
Hazard ● Understanding the need to consider and address the
interactions between different hazards, such as floods
triggering landslides.
● Adopting a comprehensive multi- hazard approach to better
address the diverse risks faced by communities.

Institutional Framework of Disaster Management

The Government of India enacted the Disaster Management Act, 2005, which envisaged the
creation of a three-tier structure comprising of the:
● National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA),
● State Disaster Management Authorities (SDMAs) and
● District Disaster Management Authorities (DDMAs)
 Key National-Level Decision-Making Bodies for Disaster Management

Name Composition Vital Role

1. Cabinet - Prime Minister - Evaluates from a national security

Committee on - Minister of Defence perspective, especially for incidents
Security (CCS) - Minister of Finance with potential security implications.
- Minister of Home Affairs - Oversees preparedness, mitigation,
- Minister of External Affairs and management of CBRN
emergencies and disasters with
security implications.
- Provides directives for CBRN
emergency management and disaster
prevention, mitigation, and effective
response.
2. National Crisis - Cabinet Secretary - Oversees command, control, and
Management (Chairperson) coordination during disaster response.
Committee - Secretaries of - Directs the Crisis Management
(NCMC) Ministries/Departments and Group as required.
agencies with specific DM - Issues directions for specific actions
responsibilities during crisis situations.

3. National - Prime Minister (Chairperson) - Lays down policies, plans, and

Disaster - Members (not exceeding nine) guidelines for disaster management.
Management nominated by the Chairperson - Coordinates the enforcement and
Authority implementation of disaster
(NDMA) management policies.
- Oversees the NDMP and DM plans
of ministries and state governments.

4. National - Union Home Secretary - Assists NDMA in discharging its

Executive (Chairperson) functions.
Committee (NEC) - Secretaries to the GOI in the - Prepares the National Plan for
Ministries/Departments disaster management.
- Monitors and implements the
National Policy for disaster
management.
- Coordinate response in the event of
any threatening disaster situaon or
disaster.
- Ensure compliance of the direcons
issued by the Central Government

5. National - Specially trained paramilitary - Assists relevant State Governments/

Disaster forces District Administrations during
Response Force (CAPF includes Assam Rifles, imminent hazard events or in the
(NDRF) BSF, CRPF, CISF, ITBP, SSB) aftermath of disasters.

6. National - Union Home Minister - Human resource development and

Institute of (Chairperson) capacity building for disaster
Disaster - Vice-Chairman, including management in accordance with
Management Secretaries of various ministries policies and guidelines set by NDMA.
(NIDM) of India and Members from land - Designs, develops, and implements
& disaster management bodies training programs.
in the Government - Conducts research and provides
training for disaster preparedness.
 Examples of the NDRF's success

● Nepal Earthquake, 2015: Following the powerful earthquake in Nepal, the NDRF
capitalized on the "golden hours" rule of disaster management and became the first
team on the ground. Their rescue operations resulted in the successful extraction of 11
out of 16 live victims, highlighting their agility, expertise, and ability to save lives in
challenging situations.
● CBRN Expertise: The NDRF has acquired significant expertise in handling Chemical,
Biological, Radiological, and Nuclear (CBRN) challenges. An exemplary instance was
their involvement in retrieving Cobalt-60 radiological material in Mayapuri, Delhi,
during April and May 2010. This operation demonstrated the NDRF's competence and
specialized CBRN capabilities.
● Chennai Floods, 2015: During the severe floods in Chennai, the NDRF played a
crucial role in rescue and relief operations. They rescued thousands of stranded
individuals from submerged areas, provided medical assistance, and distributed
essential supplies. Their efforts were instrumental in saving lives and mitigating the
impact of the disaster.
● Cyclone Fani, 2019: When Cyclone Fani, one of the strongest cyclones to hit the
Indian subcontinent, made landfall in Odisha, the NDRF teams were deployed in
advance to ensure preparedness. Their prompt actions in evacuating people from
vulnerable areas and providing immediate relief assistance helped in minimizing
casualties and ensuring timely support to affected communities.

Funds ● National Disaster Response Fund is a fund managed by the

Central Government for meeting the expenses for emergency
response, relief and rehabilitation. If the requirement of funds for
relief operations is beyond the funds available in the State
Disaster Response Fund account, additional Central assistance is
provided from National Disaster Response Fund.
● The National Calamity Contingency Fund (NCCF) introduced by
11th Finance Commission was merged with NDRF.

Issues With National Disaster Management Authority

Lack of Adequate ● Adequate funding is crucial for effective disaster

Resources preparedness, mitigation, and response, but the NDMA often
faces resource constraints that can impact its overall
effectiveness.

Coordination ● Coordination challenges and gaps in information sharing have

Issues been reported, leading to delays and inefficiencies in response
efforts.
● Improving coordination mechanisms and strengthening
inter-agency collaboration is essential for enhancing disaster
management outcomes

Limited ● While the NDMA has developed policies, guidelines, and

Implementation of frameworks for disaster management, their implementation at
Policies the ground level can be limited.
● Challenges in implementing and integrating these policies into
state and local disaster management systems can hinder the
effectiveness of the NDMA's efforts.

Capacity Building ● While the NDMA provides guidelines and support, the capacity
at the State and building of state and local agencies responsible for disaster
Local Levels management remains a challenge.

Public Awareness ● Public awareness and community participation are crucial for
and Engagement effective disaster management.
● However, there can be limitations in terms of public awareness
campaigns and community engagement initiatives.
● Strengthening efforts to raise awareness, educate
communities, and promote community participation is essential
for enhancing disaster resilience.

Top-Down ● This approach can sometimes limit the involvement and

Approach participation of local communities, organizations, and
stakeholders in decision-making processes, resulting in a lack
of local context and ownership.

Challenges in Local ● The command and control structure may sometimes hinder the
Adaptation adaptation of national policies and guidelines to suit local
needs and contexts.
● Local authorities and communities may face difficulties in
implementing standardized approaches that do not adequately
address their specific vulnerabilities, capacities, and local
dynamics.
 State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA)

Establishment ● Set up by State Government under Chapter-III of the DM Act.

● Chief Minister as Chairperson.
● In UTs, Lieutenant Governor/Administrator is Chairperson.
● In Delhi, Lieutenant Governor (Chairperson) and Chief
Minister (Vice-Chairperson).

Responsibilities ● Formulate policies and plans for disaster management in the

State.
● Approve disaster management plans of various departments.
● Coordinate State Plan implementation as per NDMA
guidelines.
● Recommend funds for mitigation and preparedness.
● Review developmental plans to integrate disaster prevention
and preparedness.
State Executive ● Headed by Chief Secretary.
Committee (SEC) ● Assists the SDMA in implementing National and State Plans.
● Monitors execution and provides updates to NDMA.

District Disaster Management Authority (DDMA)

Establishment ● Formed under Chapter-IV of the DM Act for each district.

● Headed by District Collector/Deputy Commissioner/District
Magistrate.
● Elected representative of local authority as Co-Chairperson.
● Chief Executive Officer: Officer not below rank of Additional
Collector/Additional District Magistrate.

Key ● Acts as the planning, coordinating, and implementing body for

Responsibilities DM at the district level.
● Prepares the District Disaster Management Plan.
● Monitors implementation of national, state, and district DM
policies and plans.
● Ensures adherence to NDMA and SDMA guidelines on
prevention, mitigation, preparedness, and response by all
district-level offices.
The National Disaster Management Plan, 2019

The National Disaster Management Plan (NDMP) provides a framework and direcon to the
government agencies for all phases of disaster management cycle. The NDMP is a “dynamic
document” in the sense that it will be periodically improved keeping up with the emerging global
best practices and knowledge base in disaster management. It is in accordance with the
provisions of the DM Act 2005, the guidance given in the National Policy on Disaster
Management (NPDM) 2009, and the established national practices.

Scope

As per the DM Act 2005, the NDMP shall include:

a. Measures to be taken for prevention of disasters or the mitigation of their effects

b. Measures to be taken for the integration of mitigation measures in the development
plans
c. Measures to be taken for preparedness and capacity building to effectively respond to
any threatening disaster situations or disaster
d. Roles and responsibilities of different Ministries or Departments of the Government of
India in respect of measures of the three aspects mentioned above

Legal Mandate (Section 11 & 37 of DM Act 2005)

National Disaster ● Mandated for the entire country under Section 11 of DM Act.
Management Plan ● Aligns with the National Policy on Disaster Management
(NDMP) (NPDM) of 2009.
● All central ministries and departments must prepare adequate
disaster management (DM) plans.
● Hazard-specific nodal ministries must create detailed DM plans
for their respective disasters.

Ministries & ● Every ministry/department must contribute to national disaster

Departments prevention, preparedness, response, and recovery. (Section 37
Responsibilities of the DM Act)
● NDMP assigns both specific and general responsibilities to all
ministries and departments.
● Responsibilities include those beyond normal functions;
disaster management requires additional efforts.

Complementary ● NDMP is supported by contingency plans, SOPs, manuals, and

Documents guidelines at multiple governance levels.

Three Post-2015 Global Frameworks—Disasters, Sustainable Development and Climate

Change: Mutual Reinforcement and Coherence

Three ● Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015).

Landmark ● Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (2015).
Agreements ● COP21 Paris Agreement on Climate Change (2015).

Common Aim ● Integration of disaster risk reduction (DRR), sustainable

development, and climate change response.
● Eradication of poverty as a central goal of SDGs.
● Importance of addressing loss and damage due to climate change
in the Paris Agreement.

Key Themes ● DRR and resilience as recurring themes across the agreements.
● Emphasis on disaster risk management (Sendai Framework) over
traditional disaster management.

Coherence ● DRR, sustainable development, and climate change are

Across interconnected social and economic processes.
Agendas ● Building resilience to disasters is crucial for sustainable
development.
● Disaster risk management supports sustainable development
outcomes.

Global ● Commitment to ambitious goals and accelerated implementation of

Priorities these agreements.
● Synchronizing actions in the three domains for better outcomes.
● Avoiding "policy risks" that may increase risk in development.

Mutual ● Political recognition, monitoring, reporting, and partnerships are

Reinforcement essential.
● NDMP addresses challenges of aligning national initiatives with the
three global frameworks (DRR, sustainable development, climate
change).
 Ten Point Agenda

The Prime Minister, Shri Narendra Modi Ji, enunciated a Ten-Point Agenda in his inaugural
speech at the Asian Ministerial Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction 2016, held in New Delhi
during November 2016 (AMCDRR), which has also been incorporated in the NDMP. The ten key
elements consist of the following:

1. All development sectors must imbibe the principles of disaster risk management.
2. Risk coverage must include all, starting from poor households to SMEs to multinational
corporations to nation states.
3. Women’s leadership and greater involvement should be central to disaster risk
management.
4. Invest in risk mapping globally to improve global understanding of Nature and disaster
risks.
5. Leverage technology to enhance the efficiency of disaster risk management efforts.
6. Develop a network of universities to work on disaster-related issues.
7. Utilize the opportunities provided by social media and mobile technologies for disaster
risk reduction.
8. Build on local capacity and initiative to enhance disaster risk reduction.
 9. Make use of every opportunity to learn from disasters and, to achieve that, there must be
studies on the lessons after every disaster.
10. Bring about greater cohesion in international response to disasters

Social Inclusion in Disaster Management

Social ● Ensures equality of rights and opportunities.

Inclusion ● Respects individual dignity and acknowledges diversity.
Principles ● Contributes to resilience for all, without excluding anyone based on
age, gender, disability, or other factors.

Vulnerability ● Existing socio-economic conditions lead to different disaster

in Disasters outcomes for similar communities.
● Vulnerable groups suffer disproportionately on multiple fronts.

NPDM 2009 ● Economically weaker and socially marginalized sections (e.g.,

Preamble women, Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, minorities) are more
affected during disasters.

DM Act 2005 ● Forbids all forms of discrimination based on sex, caste, community,
descent, or religion in disaster management.

Mainstreaming Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR)

Impact of Disasters on ● Disasters can significantly reverse development gains in

Development affected regions.
● Development without considering disaster risks can worsen
existing vulnerabilities and introduce new risks.

Definition of ● DRR should be integrated into all development initiatives to

Mainstreaming DRR enhance disaster resilience and reduce losses.
● Both development and DRR must be incorporated
concurrently in policies, planning, and implementation.

Role of Climate ● Climate change acts as a risk multiplier, worsening

Change uncertainties associated with hydro-meteorological
hazards.
● Effective DRR mainstreaming must consider how climate
change impacts alter risk scenarios.

Challenges in DRR ● DRR mainstreaming has been improperly understood or

Mainstreaming vaguely interpreted by decision-makers and practitioners.
● Addressing this gap is essential to strengthen DRR
integration in development.

Central Role in ● DRR mainstreaming is a key pillar of the National Disaster

Development and Management Plan (NDMP).
Disaster Management ● It plays a central role in aligning development with
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and climate
change responses.
● DRR mainstreaming emphasizes building disaster
resilience as an integral part of all development plans, not
just as a disaster-specific component.

Thematic Areas of National Disaster Management Plan, 2019

Thematic Sendai Sub-Themes Description

Areas Framework
Priority

Understanding Priority 1: - Observation Networks, Adequate systems for

Risk Understandin Information Systems, warnings, information
g Disaster Research, Forecasting dissemination, and hazard
Risk - Zoning/Mapping monitoring are critical for
- Monitoring and Warning reducing disaster risk and
Systems improving resilience.
- Hazard Risk, Vulnerability
and Capacity Assessment
(HRVCA)
- Dissemination of
Warnings, Data, and
Information

Inter-Agency Priority 2: - Overall Disaster Coordination between

Coordination Strengthening Governance agencies is key to improving
Disaster Risk - Response disaster risk governance
Governance - Providing Warnings, and is facilitated by specific
Information, and Data ministries and agencies.
- Non-structural Measures
Investing in Priority 3: - Physical Infrastructure Structural measures involve
DRR – Investing in - Facilities for Disaster building physical
Structural Disaster Risk Resilience infrastructure to help
Measures Reduction for communities cope with
Resilience disasters and enhance
Priority 4: preparedness.
Enhancing
Disaster
Preparedness

Investing in Priority 2: - Laws, Norms, Rules, Non-structural measures

DRR – Strengthening Guidelines include laws, regulations,
Non-Structural Disaster Risk - Techno-Legal Regimes and guidelines that
Measures Governance (e.g., Building Codes) mainstream DRR into
development activities and
empower authorities to
enforce compliance.

Capacity Priority 2: - Training Programs Capacity development

Development Strengthening - Curriculum Development involves training, awareness
Disaster Risk - Awareness Campaigns programs, and exercises to
Governance - Mock Drills and Exercises improve disaster mitigation
Priority 3: and governance capabilities
Investing in at all levels.
Disaster Risk
Reduction for
Resilience

Climate Priority 3: - Climate Change Impact Climate change affects

Change Risk Investing in Adaptation disaster risk through
Management Disaster Risk - Knowledge and Data changes in the frequency
Reduction for Gaps and intensity of extreme
Resilience events. DRR investments
help communities adapt to
these changing risks.
 Global Framework on Disaster Management

Evolution of Global Framework on Disaster Management

1960s ● United Nations General Assembly requested the member states to

inform the secretary- general of the type of emergency assistance
they are in a position to offer to the disaster struck state

1972 ● United Nations Disaster Relief Office was set up and a Disaster
Relief Coordinator was appointed.

1990-99 ● 1990-99 was announced as the International Decade for Natural

Disaster Reduction.

1994 ● The General Assembly convened in 1994 the World Conference

on Natural Disaster Reduction in Yokohama, Japan.
● A Yokohama Strategy and its Plan of Action was adopted at the
conference.

2005 ● The Second World Conference on Disaster Reduction

conference was held in Kobe. Japan in 2005.
● The World Conference adopted plans to put in place an
International Early Warning Programme (IEWP).
● The Hyogo Framework for Action ( 2005—2015): Building the
Resilience of Nations and Communities to Disasters was an
outcome of the 2005 conference.
○ The Hyogo Framework (HFA) was the first plan to
explain, describe and detail the work required from all
different sectors and actors to reduce disaster losses.

2015 ● Third UN United Nations World Conference on Disaster Risk

Reduction was held in Sendai, Japan in 2015
● The conference adopted the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk
Reduction 2015-2030.
 Hyogo Framework and Evolution of Sendai Framework: An Analysis

What was the global experience of the Hyogo Framework?

The Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA) 2005-2015 was a significant global effort aimed at
building the resilience of nations and communities to disasters. Over its ten-year
implementation period, it achieved notable progress in reducing disaster risk across local,
national, regional, and global levels. This progress led to a decrease in mortality for certain
hazards and emphasized the cost-effectiveness of disaster risk reduction as an investment. The
HFA successfully enhanced capacities for disaster risk management, raised public and
institutional awareness, and generated political commitment. International platforms, such as
the Global Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction, played a critical role in developing policies,
strategies, and fostering mutual learning. Despite these achievements, disasters continued to
exert a heavy toll globally, indicating ongoing challenges such as the rising exposure of persons
and assets, the creation of new risks, and the steady increase in disaster-related losses, both
economically and socially.

Why did a need arise to make the Sendai Framework?

● Despite the progress made under the Hyogo Framework, significant gaps and
challenges persisted. Disasters continued to undermine sustainable development
efforts, with increasing exposure and vulnerability leading to greater losses.
● The lessons learned from the HFA's implementation highlighted the need for a more
comprehensive and action-oriented framework that could better address the underlying
factors contributing to disaster risk.
● The rising frequency and intensity of disasters, many exacerbated by climate change,
underscored the urgency for a renewed and strengthened global approach. The Sendai
Framework was developed to address these gaps by focusing on preventing new risks,
reducing existing risks, and enhancing resilience at all levels.

Priority 1: Understanding disaster risk

Understanding disaster risk involves recognizing the various dimensions of risk, which include
vulnerability, capacity, exposure of persons and assets, hazard characteristics, and the
environment. This comprehensive understanding is crucial for effective disaster risk
management, as it informs pre-disaster risk assessments, prevention, mitigation strategies, and
the development of appropriate preparedness and response measures. By leveraging this
knowledge, stakeholders can better anticipate and mitigate the impacts of disasters.

Strategies for various levels for Understanding disaster risk

National and local levels Global and regional levels

 ● Promote the collection, analysis, ● Enhancing the development and
management, and dissemination of sharing of science-based
relevant data and information tailored methodologies and tools for recording
to different user needs. and assessing disaster risks.
● Encourage the use of baselines and ● Promoting comprehensive surveys
periodic assessments of disaster and regional disaster risk
risks, vulnerabilities, and exposures. assessments.
● Develop and update location-based ● Facilitating international cooperation
disaster risk information, including risk and access to geospatial and
maps, and share them with space-based technologies for disaster
decision-makers and communities. risk management.
● Systematically record, evaluate, and
share disaster losses, understanding
their broader impacts.
● Ensure that non-sensitive hazard and
risk information is freely accessible.
● Strengthen the technical and scientific
capacity to assess disaster risks and
vulnerabilities.
● Promote traditional, indigenous, and
local knowledge alongside scientific
knowledge for risk assessment and
policy development.

Priority 2: Strengthening disaster risk governance to manage disaster risk important

Strengthening disaster risk governance is crucial for ensuring the effective and efficient
management of disaster risks. It provides clear vision, guidance, and coordination within and
across sectors, and fosters collaboration among stakeholders. Robust governance mechanisms
are necessary to prevent and mitigate risks, prepare for disasters, and coordinate response and
recovery efforts. Additionally, strong governance enhances accountability, ensures the
integration of disaster risk reduction into sustainable development policies, and promotes the
coherence of various related frameworks and agendas.

Strategies for various levels for strengthening disaster risk governance

National and local levels Global and regional levels

● Disaster risk reduction should be ● Regional strategies and mechanisms

mainstreamed across all sectors, with for disaster risk reduction should be
coherent legal frameworks and developed and implemented.
 policies guiding public and private ● Collaboration across global and
actions. regional institutions is necessary to
● National and local disaster risk ensure coherence between disaster
reduction strategies should be risk reduction and other related
adopted with clear targets and agendas.
timelines. ● Participation in global platforms, like
● Technical, financial, and the Global Platform for Disaster Risk
administrative capacities for disaster Reduction, is essential for sharing
risk management need to be knowledge, assessing progress, and
assessed and strengthened. forging partnerships.
● Compliance with safety standards in
areas like land use, building codes,
and environmental management
should be enforced.
● Government coordination forums,
such as national platforms for disaster
risk reduction, should be established
and empowered.

Priority 3: Invest in disaster risk reduction for resilience

Investing in disaster risk reduction is essential for enhancing the resilience of individuals,
communities, countries, and their assets. Such investments, both structural and non-structural,
are cost-effective and critical for saving lives, reducing losses, and ensuring effective recovery.
These measures contribute to sustainable development by preventing and reducing the impact
of disasters and fostering economic, social, and environmental resilience. Investing in resilience
can also drive innovation, growth, and job creation, thereby benefiting societies as a whole.

Strategies for various levels to invest in disaster risk reduction for resilience

National and local levels Global and regional levels

● Allocate necessary resources, ● Promote coherence across systems,

including finance and logistics, for sectors, and organizations related to
disaster risk reduction strategies and sustainable development and disaster
plans. risk reduction.
● Promote disaster risk transfer ● Foster international cooperation and
mechanisms, insurance, and financial partnerships to develop and share
protection to mitigate the financial innovative solutions for disaster risk
impacts of disasters. reduction.
● Ensure that public and private ● Encourage global and regional
investments in critical facilities, like financial institutions to assess and
 schools and hospitals, are resilient to anticipate the potential impacts of
disasters. disasters.
● Integrate disaster risk assessments
into land-use policies, urban planning,
and rural development strategies.
● Strengthen the resilience of health
systems and social safety nets to
protect the most vulnerable
populations.

Priority 4: Enhancing disaster preparedness for effective response, and to "Build Back
Better" in recovery, rehabilitation, and reconstruction

Enhancing disaster preparedness involves strengthening the capacities needed for an effective
and timely response to disasters. This includes integrating disaster risk reduction into
preparedness efforts and ensuring that response mechanisms are in place to protect lives,
assets, and livelihoods. "Building Back Better" refers to the concept of using the post-disaster
recovery phase as an opportunity to enhance resilience by integrating disaster risk reduction
into reconstruction and rehabilitation efforts. This approach aims to prevent the creation of new
risks and reduce existing vulnerabilities, ultimately making communities and nations more
resilient to future disasters.

Strategies for various levels for enhancing disaster preparedness for effective
response

National and local levels Global and regional levels

● Regularly update disaster ● Develop coordinated regional

preparedness and contingency plans approaches for disaster response and
with the involvement of all relevant preparedness, especially in scenarios
stakeholders. that exceed national capacities.
● Develop and strengthen early warning ● Invest in and promote the
systems, disaster risk development of multi-hazard early
communications, and warning systems and disaster
hazard-monitoring systems. response mechanisms.
● Ensure the resilience of critical ● Strengthen international cooperation
infrastructure, such as hospitals, to share lessons learned, best
schools, and transport networks. practices, and standards for disaster
● Establish community centers for preparedness and response.
public awareness and stockpiling of
materials for rescue and relief
activities.
 ● Train and build the capacities of
response teams and voluntary
workers to ensure better emergency
response.

International Cooperation on Disaster Management

Global Platform for ● The Global Platform is the most important international forum
Disaster Risk dedicated to the disaster risk reduction agenda.
Reduction ● The summit reviews global progress in the implementation of
(GPDRR) Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (SFDRR)
2015-2030.
● Its core function is to enable governments, NGOs, scientists,
practitioners, and UN organizations to share experience and
formulate strategic guidance for the implementation of global
disaster risk reduction agreements.

Coalition for ● India announced the creation of a Coalition for Disaster

Disaster Resilient Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI) after the Asian Ministerial
Infrastructure Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction (2016), held in New
(CDRI) Delhi.
● The coalition will work towards developing common standards
in infrastructure building, financial and compliance
mechanisms and invest in R&D that will also determine funding
from multilateral banks onwards future investments by
countries.

Suva Expert ● It is an expert dialogue decided at COP23 in Bonn due to

Dialogue on Loss demands of developing nations for a separate agenda item on
And Damage loss and damage.
● The dialogue aims for facilitating the mobilization and securing
of expertise, and enhancement of support, including finance,
technology and capacity-building, for addressing loss and
damage associated with the adverse effects of climate change.

Warsaw ● It was established in COP 19 under UNFCCC in 2013. It deals

International with Climate Change Impacts (Loss and Damage Mechanism),
Mechanism on including extreme events and slow onset events, in vulnerable
Loss and Damage developing countries through-
○ Enhancing knowledge and understanding of
comprehensive risk management approaches to
address L&D;
○ Strengthening dialogue, coordination, coherence and
synergies among relevant stakeholders;
○ Enhancing action and support, including finance,
technology and capacity-building.
 Disasters in India

YEAR QUESTION MARKS

Drought has been recognised as a disaster in view of its party

2014 expense, temporal duration, slow onset and lasting effect on 12.5
various vulnerable sections. With a focus on the September
guidelines from the National disaster management authority,
discuss the mechanism for preparedness to deal with the El Nino
and La Nina fallouts in India.

The frequency of earthquakes appears to have increased in the

2015 Indian subcontinent. However, India’s preparedness for
mitigating their impact has significant gaps. Discuss various 12.5
aspects.

The frequency of urban floods due to high intensity rainfall is

2016 increasing over the years. Discussing the reasons for urban 12.5
floods. highlight the mechanisms for preparedness to reduce the
risk during such events.

With reference to National Disaster Management Authority

2016 (NDMA) guidelines, discuss the measures to be adopted to 12.5
mitigate the impact of the recent incidents of cloudbursts in many
places of Uttarakhand.

On December 2004, tsumani brought havoc on 14 countries

2017 including India. Discuss the factors responsible for occurrence of 15
Tsunami and its effects on life and economy. In the light of
guidelines of NDMA (2010) describe the mechanisms for
preparedness to reduce the risk during such events.

Disaster preparedness is the first step in any disaster

2019 management process. Explain how hazard zonation mapping will 15
help in disaster mitigation in the case of landslides.

Discuss about the vulnerability of India to earthquake-related

2021 hazards. Give examples including the salient features of major 10
disasters caused by earthquakes in different parts of India during
the last three decades

2021 Describe the various causes and the effects of landslides.

Mention the important components of the National Landslide 15
Risk Management Strategy.

2022 Explain the mechanism and occurrence of cloudburst in the 10

context of the Indian subcontinent. Discuss two recent examples.
 2023 Dam failures are always catastrophic, especially on the 10
downstream side, resulting in a colossal loss of life and property.
Analyse the various causes of dam failures. Give two examples
of large dam failures.

Family Main Event Short Description / Secondary Disaster

Geophysical Earthquake / - Landslides following earthquakes

Mass - Urban fires triggered by earthquakes
movement of - Liquefaction
earth materials

Volcano - Surface displacement of earth materials due to ground

shaking
- Opening or vent in Earth's surface with volcanic
eruptions (lava, ash, gas, pyroclastic material)
- Ashfall, lahar (hot or cold flow of earthen material on
slopes during/after eruptions)
- Pyroclastic flow: hot gases, ash, and materials > 1,000
degrees Celsius moving rapidly (up to 700 km/h) during
eruptions

Tsunami - Series of waves generated by displacement of large

volumes of water during underwater earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions, or landslides
- Tsunami waves travel at high speeds across the ocean
but slow down as they reach shallower waters, with
wave height increasing

Hydrological Flood / - Flood: Overflow of water from a stream, river, or

Landslides / coastal region, leading to inundation.
Wave Action - Landslides: Mass movement of earthen material down
slopes due to ground instability.
- Wave Action: Wind-generated surface waves on water
bodies that lead to flooding and coastal erosion.

Meteorological Weather-relate - Cyclones/Storms

d hazards - Extreme Temperatures: Heatwaves, cold waves, and
(cyclones, related temperature extremes.
storms, - Precipitation Extremes: Heavy rain, snow, hail, and
temperature related hazards such as blizzards.
extremes)
Climatological Long-term - Drought: Prolonged periods of water scarcity due to
climate-related lack of rainfall.
disasters - Extreme Hot/Cold Conditions: Persistent extreme
temperatures.
- Wildfires: Large-scale forest or wildfire outbreaks due
to dry conditions.

Biological Exposure to - Epidemics

pathogens, - Pest Infestations
toxins, and - Animal Attacks
biological
agents
 Landslides

Definition: A landslide defined as the movement of a mass of rock, debris, or earth down a
slope under the influence of gravity. Landslides are a form of "mass wasting," which refers to
any downward movement of soil and rock caused by gravity.

Data

Landslide ● About 0.42 Million km2 areas of the landmass (12.6%) are
Vulnerability landslide-prone which are spread over 19 odd numbers of
States/Union Territories and are spreading over more than
65,000 villages in hilly/ mountainous areas.

Monetary losses ● Based on the general experience with landslides, a rough

estimate of monetary loss is of the order of Rs. 100 crore to
Rs. 150 crore per annum at the 2011 prices.

Landslide Events ● Government data show that between 2015 and 2022, the eight
in past 7 years states in this region, including Sikkim, recorded 378 major
landslide events which resulted in loss of life or damage to
property. These events constituted 10% of all major landslides in
India during this period. In the country as a whole, Kerala saw the
largest number of landslides — 2,239 — most of which occurred
after the disastrous 2018 floods in the state.

Recent Landslides

North East ● Cyclone Remal triggered landslides and storms in Northeast

India, killing 14 people and injuring many others.

Wayanad ● On July 30, 2024, a massive landslide struck the Vellarimala hill
ranges in Wayanad district, Kerala, causing fatalities (suspected
to be more than 350) and widespread destruction.
● The study by World Weather Attribution (WWA), an
international group of researchers, found that the excessive
rainfal (140 mm)in the early hours of July 30 that triggered the
landslides was “once in a 50-year event”.
● WWA scientists analysed climate models with high enough
resolution to accurately reflect rainfall in the relatively small study
area, according to a press statement. These models indicated
that the intensity of rainfall has increased by 10 per cent due to
climate change, the group of scientists concluded.

Karnataka ● Landslide happened on National Highway 66 near Shirur in

Ankola taluk leading to death of 7 people

Sikkim ● Landslide in Sikkim in June, 2024 led to death of six people and
 left 1,500 tourists stranded.

Himachal ● Landslide on the Kalka-Shimla highway in Himachal Pradesh on

Pradesh July 29 led to the death of one person, leaving 4 injured.

About Landslides:
● Landslides are a significant natural hazard that affects a considerable portion of the land
area in many countries, including your country. In fact, you mentioned that landslides
affect at least 15 percent of the land area in your country.
● The geological processes associated with plate tectonics, such as subduction and
collision, play a significant role in shaping the landscape and causing natural hazards
like landslides and earthquakes in regions like the Himalayas.

Landslide Risk in India

Very High ● These areas include the Himalayas, Andaman and Nicobar Islands,
Vulnerability Western Ghats, Nilgiris, and the northeastern regions.
Zone ● These regions have steep slopes, high rainfall, and are prone to
ground-shaking due to earthquakes.
● Human activities such as road construction and dam building further
increase vulnerability in these areas.

High ● This zone includes areas with very high vulnerability, except for the
Vulnerability plains of Assam.
Zone ● The factors contributing to vulnerability are similar to the highly
unstable zones but may vary in intensity and frequency.

Moderate to ● This zone encompasses areas with moderate to low vulnerability.

Low ● Examples include the Trans-Himalayan areas of Ladakh and Spiti in
Vulnerability Himachal Pradesh, undulated yet stable relief areas in the Aravali,
Zone rain shadow areas in the Western and Eastern Ghats, and the
Deccan plateau.
● Landslides in these areas are often associated with mining and
subsidence activities, which are more common in states like
Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Goa, and Kerala.

Other Areas ● The remaining parts of India, including states like Rajasthan,
Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal (except the district of
Darjeeling), and coastal regions of the southern states are relatively
safe from landslides.
 Causes of Landslides

1. Geological a. Weak or sensitive materials

Causes
b. Weathered materials

c. Sheared, jointed, or fissured materials

d. Adversely oriented discontinuity

e. Contrast in permeability and/or stiffness of materials

2. Morphological a. Tectonic or volcanic uplift

Causes
b. Glacial rebound
 c. Fluvial, wave, or glacial erosion of slope toe or lateral margins

d. Subterranean erosion (solution, piping)

e. Deposition loading slope or its crest

f. Vegetation removal (by fire, drought)

g. Thawing

h. Freeze-and-thaw weathering

i. Shrink-and-swell weathering

3. Human Causes a. Excavation of slope or its toe

b. Loading of slope or its crest

c. Drawdown (of reservoirs)

d. Deforestation

e. Irrigation

f. Mining

g. Artificial vibration

h. Water leakage from utilities

How Himalayan and Western Ghats Landslides differently caused?

Natural ● Preconditions:
Causes (act as ○ Volatile Topography
preconditions) ○ Steep southern slopes
○ Faults and Lineaments
Himalayas ● Weathering and Erosion — Youth stage of rivers
● Triggering Event:
○ Snow Thawing
○ Tectonic Movement

Anthropogenic ● Construction of hydropower projects

Causes ● Illegal Mining
● Shifting Cultivation

Western Natural ● Weathering and Erosion — High rainfall

Ghats Causes ● Triggering Event:
 ○ Occasional cyclonic events
○ Southwest Monsoons
○ Mini Cloudbursts

Anthropogenic Preconditions:
Causes (act ● Loosened soil due to deforestation
as ● Extensive man made constructions
preconditions) ● Unregulated mining
● Deforestation
● Deposits of debris
● Extensive quarrying

Impacts of Landslides

Environmental Landscape Alteration, Soil Erosion. Loss of Biodiversity, River Blockage

Impacts and Flooding, Siltation of Water Bodies

Socio-Economic Loss of Life, Displacement of Communities, Poverty and Vulnerability,

Impacts Health Issues

Infrastructural Destruction of Roads and Railways, - Damage to Buildings, Disruption

Impacts of Utilities, Economic Losses, Impact on Tourism

Long-Term Reduced Land Use, Psychosocial Impact

Impacts

Landslide Risk Management Strategy

During the 11th Formation Day of the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) in 2015,
a technical session on "Landslides" was held, during which a presentation on the National
Landslide Risk Management Strategy (LRMS) was made. It was decided that NDMA would
establish a Task Force of experts to develop a comprehensive strategy. After extensive
discussions, NDMA constituted a Task Force in 2016, with six sub-groups assigned to formulate
key documents for the strategy.

In 2019, the National Landslide Risk Management Strategy document, released by NDMA,
underscored several critical issues, including inadequate urban planning and the absence of a
comprehensive land use policy, both of which contribute significantly to landslide vulnerability.
 Issues in Landslide Management

Landslide Hazard ● Most landslide zonation maps in India are LSZ (Landslide
Mapping Susceptibility Zonation) maps, but they are often referred to as
(LHZ/LSZ Maps) LHZ (Landslide Hazard Zonation) maps, despite not
accounting for magnitude or temporal predictions.
● Seamless state-wise or district-wise landslide zonation maps are
not widely available for highly vulnerable regions such as
northern and northeastern states, or for the Eastern and Western
Ghats.
● Existing LSZ maps often lack details of previous catastrophic
landslide events, making them less effective in planning.
● Drainage divides are rarely shown, and only limited drainage
networks are depicted, making it difficult to integrate landslide
mitigation with watershed development efforts.

Landslide ● While high-tech solutions exist for certain landslides, the

Monitoring & challenge lies in developing low-cost, high-impact methods that
Early Warning can be applied more broadly, particularly in developing countries
System (EWS) like India.
● Landslide triggers are complex, particularly in regions like
Uttarakhand and the northeast, where many slopes are located
in Zone V (high seismic hazard).
● The Indian Himalayas face challenges due to poor weather
station networks and a lack of high-altitude rain gauges, which
impedes the collection of critical data.
● Real-time monitoring and precise data on the timing of landslides
is often unavailable.
● Safe shelter and alternate route maps for hazard-prone
areas are scarce, particularly along key roads and settlements.
● Communication of risk and warnings to remote and isolated
populations is a significant challenge.
● There have been minimal successful attempts at real-time
landslide monitoring in India.

Awareness ● Heavy losses during landslides in India are largely due to a lack
Programs of awareness about first aid, safety routes, warning signs, and
appropriate responses during landslide emergencies.

Capacity Building ● There is no institutional framework for the collection and

& Training of preservation of basic landslide data.
Stakeholders ● Existing training programs on landslide disaster risk
reduction (DRR) are often too generalized, focusing on theory
rather than practical application.
● Local hazard scenarios, vulnerabilities, and risk elements are not
adequately addressed in training programs.
● There are no initiatives to catalogue traditional disaster
management practices, which could be valuable for mitigation.
● Locals are not sufficiently educated about landslide dam
 formation or Landslide Lake Outburst Flow (LLOF).
● Geologists and geomorphologists are not typically part of local
government departments like municipalities.

Mountain Zone ● India lacks a national, state, or local-level land-use policy for
Regulations & mountain regions.
Policies ● Complex administrative issues in areas like Darjeeling (e.g., dual
control between the West Bengal government and the Gorkha
Territorial Administration) lead to fragmented disaster
management efforts.

Stabilization & ● The Geological Survey of India (GSI) alone cannot bear the
Mitigation of entire responsibility for conducting geological and geotechnical
Landslides studies on landslides.
● There is a need for the creation of a Special Purpose Vehicle
(SPV) to manage landslide stabilization and mitigation efforts.

Initiatives for Landslide Risk Management

Landslide Monitoring & ● Real-time monitoring systems have been used

Early Warning System throughout the world to detect or forecast landslide
(EWS) activity. Since 1985, researchers from the U.S.
Geological Survey (USGS) have used real-time
monitoring systems.
Global Models:
● SAFELAND project, Norway: has developed a reliable
LEWS.
● Slovakia has produced a guideline about general
strategies to adopt.
● India: Recently, Geological Survey of India with British
Geological Survey is working on a project called
LANDSLIP (Landslide Multi-Hazard Risk Assessment,
Preparedness and Early Warning in South Asia:

Awareness ● The Government of India, with the support from UNDP

Programmes implemented the Gol-UNDP Disaster Risk Reduction
Programme (DRR) from 2009-2012 with $12 Million
support.
● A road map prepared by Natural Resource Data
Management System (NRDMS), for Landslide Risk
Management. Landslide education and training, and
Landslide Response, Rescue and Reconstruction are
also some of the other important steps included for risk
mitigation in the road map.
● “Comprehensive Landslides Risk Management”
course by NIDM- rigorous training course needed by
stakeholders at various levels
 ● Asian Disaster Preparedness Centre (ADPC) has
taken help of three different case studies of Baguio City
in Philippines, Patong City in Thailand and Kaluthara
District, Sri Lanka by using risk assessments to reduce
landslide risk.

Capacity Building & National Level

Training of Stakeholders
● National Programme for Capacity Building of
Architects in Earthquake Risk Management
(NPCBAERM) and the National Programme for
Capacity Building of Engineers in Earthquake Risk
Management (NPCBEERM) were launched by the
Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA), Govt. of India in the year
2004.
● NDMA has released a Guideline on “Management of
Landslides and Snow Avalanches” in June, 2009 to
adopt a holistic approach
● Disaster Management Committees at District,
Tehsil/Block and Village level
● Under MHA (GoI) - UNDP sponsored Disaster Risk
Management (DRM) Programme, the multi-hazard
prone districts were selected for Training and Capacity
Building in Disaster Management
● Disaster Management Action Plans (DMPs) at State
and District level
● National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM) also
conducts many programs on Landslide Risk Management

International Level

● National Landslide Mitigation Strategy of U.S. also

emphasizes on building resilient communities
● International Program on Landslides Risk Reduction by
UN.
● World Bank in 2013 introduced MoSSaiC (Management
of Slope Stability in Communities) vision for engaging
policy makers, project manager and vulnerable
communities in reducing urban landslide risk in
developing countries

Other Recent Initiatives for Landslides

Avalanche ● An AMR, the first of its kind in India, has been installed in North
Monitoring Sikkim.
Radar (AMR) ● It has the capability to detect avalanches (mass of snow, rock, etc,
that flows down a mountain) within three seconds of its trigger.
 ● It was made operational by the Army and Defence Geoinformatics
and Research Establishment (DGRE), a laboratory under the
Defence Research Development Organisation (DRDO).

Real-time ● The system currently in place in Sikkim has been customized for
landslide the tectonically active, earthquake-prone Himalayan belt.
warning system ● It comprises more than 200 sensors that can measure geophysical
and hydrological parameters such as rainfall, pore pressure and
seismic activity.
● The landslide prediction model processes the data and provides
two outputs. Using the rainfall measurements, it first projects a
long-term risk over a period of days. But as more data comes in, a
second output performs real-time adaptation of the model, giving
short-term projections.

Recommendations/ Way Forward

Landslide Hazard ● Landslide Hazard Zonation maps: It recommends Landslide

Maps: Hazard Zonation maps to be prepared at the following scales:
(i) at macro scale (1:50,000 / 25,000) ,
(ii) at meso level (1:10,000).

● It focuses on making use of advanced state-of-the-art tools such

as Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV), Terrestrial Laser
Scanner, and very high resolution Earth Observation (EO)
data.

● Pilot project on:

○ “Generation of Large Scale User Friendly Landslide
Hazard Zonation (LHZ) maps and landslide inventory of
Route corridor Uttarakhand”.
○ Pilot project on “Development and Evaluation of
Low-Cost Landslide Monitoring Solutions”

● Institutions: Creation of “Centre for Landslide Research

Studies and Management (CLRSM)” as per recommendation
made in the NDMA’s Guideline on Management of Landslide
and Snow Avalanches (2009)

● A strategy has to be developed by NDMA and MHA in

consultation with Survey of India to make available 1:10,000
scale Topographic base maps.

Implementation Strategy:
● Short Term Implementation Strategy:
○ Formation of LHZ Monitoring Committee (LHZMC)
under NDMA in consultation with nodal agency (GSI)
 and other agencies competent in carrying out LHZ
mapping work.

● Long Term Implementation Strategy:

○ Creation of meso level LHZ Maps on 1:10,000 scale in
order to cater to the requirements of Landslide Hazard
Management planning at District, Tehsil and Block
level.
○ Use of web-based and app-based dissemination tools for
preparation of maps for common use- administrators,
community, tourists.

Monitoring mechanism:

● LHZ Monitoring Committee (LHZMC) should be created under

National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) in consultation
with nodal agency (GSI)

Landslide ● Rainfall Threshold based Landslide Early warning System

Monitoring & (RT-LEWS): Database on rainfall derived from satellite and
Early Warning ground based observation need to be compiled and analysed to
System (EWS): understand variability in a region vis-à-vis landslides.
● Seismicity induced landslide EWS (SI-LEWS): Seismic
induced landslide (SIL) modeling, Preparation of surface
geological map, Compilation of seismic data
● Development of RT and I-D Based Models for LEWS: While
the Rainfall Threshold (RT) model provides information on
landslide day, the I-D model (intensity (I) and duration (D)) will
provide information after how many hours, the landside is going
to take place.
● Increase in the density of automatic rain gauges identifying the
gap locations in hilly regions
○ Wireless networking of all these rain gauge stations and
establishment of real time rainfall monitoring control
room
● Issue of Warning: ‘watch and alert’ phase and ‘warning’
phase
 Institutional Arrangements:
● Cluster Approach: In which, an agency with known expertise
and local presence can be the lead agency and others
organizations (GSI, CBRI, DTRL, Amrita University, IIRS, IITs)
could join as team members to provide technical guidance.
● Industry development: To involve industry and provide the
right kind of atmosphere for innovation and risk taking efforts.

Awareness ● Not only trickle down but also bottom to top approach will be
Programmes beneficial to achieve the success in making landslide Disaster
Risk Reduction (DRR) system in India
● Involvement of local masses: The response time is poor due
to difficult terrain and accessibility in mountainous regions of
India. Therefore, involvement of local community,, youth
clubs, NGOs in awareness programmes.
● Community Education Programme of 10 to 15 days may be
initiated by the governmental
● Organize village wise training cum workshops for youth /
elderly people on topic such as “Procedure to rescue oneself,
family and neighborhood in the time of landslide”.
● Promotion of latest technology and techniques; Geologist,
engineers and other disciplines related to the field of landslides
must be exposed to the latest development in the domain of
landslides

Implementation Strategy:
● Use of Global Disaster Preparedness Disaster Response
Apps: American Red Cross Apps, Disaster Alert App etc.
● An animated character ‘Sabu’ (a baby rhinoceros) can be
designed.
● Disaster management Apps: NDMA in collaboration with IIT
● Creation of village task force
● Use of traditional art forms/traditional knowledge
● Train National Cadet Corps (NCC), Scouts and Guides, and
National Service Scheme (NSS) volunteers
 ● National Data Centre on Landslides
● The Community Based Family Disaster- Preparedness and
mitigation (CBFDP)

Capacity Building ● The traditional knowledge needs to be documented

& Training of ● Capacity building programmes on GIS mapping of landslide
Stakeholders areas are also required to enable Departments of Geology in the
State Governments (DGM) to develop landslide hazard maps
● Inclusion of new technology: Remote Sensing techniques
combined with high resolution satellite data on GIS platform,
GPS, UAV etc. can be made available and proper training in
handling these data should be imparted.
○ The Unmanned Aircraft System (UAS) can be used for
hazardous site inspection

Financial incentives:
● Provisions shall be made under MGNREGA scheme for
undertaking small scale structural mitigation of landslides

Mountain Zone ● Best practices which are used to mitigate landslides at local
Regulations & level and activities which can be held responsible for the
Policies landslide hazard should be documented in the NLMP.
● Land use zoning regulations: The main purpose of the land
use zoning is to provide regulations for development of a
particular area to serve the desired purpose efficiently and to
preserve its character incentives for adopting landslide safe
construction.
● Government Infra projects should be landslide proof

Stabilization & ● Updation of Science-Technology-Innovation based holistic,

Mitigation of eco-friendly and sustainable approaches in addressing landslide
Landslides & mitigation and management
Creation of ● Creation of Special Purpose Vehicle (SPV) and Centre for
Special Purpose Landslide Research Studies and Management (CLRSM) to
Vehicle (SPV) for create a techno-scientific pool of expertise in the country.
Landslide ● A National Task Force of experts / committee of professionals
Management should be constituted to catalogue, study and decide
management strategies for all the known problematic landslides
in the country.
● Monitoring, inspections & audit of mitigation work: The
successful stabilization and mitigation of landslides will be duly
reviewed and evaluated in gap of 2 years

Key Concepts in Landslide Zoning

● Landslide Zoning is the division of hill or mountainous areas into homogeneous

spatial areas/ slope according to their degrees of actual or potential landslide
susceptibility, hazard or risk.
 ● Landslide Susceptibility Zoning uses an inventory of past landslide incidences
together with an assessment or prediction of the spatial areas/ slope with a likelihood
of landslides in the future.
○ This is dependent on the topography, geology, geotechnical properties,
climate, vegetation and anthropogenic factors such as development and
clearing of vegetation
● Landslide Hazard Zoning uses the landslide susceptibility maps and assigns an
estimated frequency (i.e. annual probability) to the potential landslides of certain
magnitude.
● Landslide Risk Zoning depends on the elements at risk, their temporal–spatial
probability (or exposure) and vulnerability and is the ultimate aim of any zoning
exercise.

Role and Responsibilities for Managing Landslides

Thematic Areas Sub-Themes

Understanding ● Hazard zoning, mapping, geological, and geotechnical

Risk investigations in regions prone to landslides,
● Research and development,
● Hazard risk vulnerability and capacity Assessment,
● Dissemination of warnings,
● Monitoring, warning systems, and dissemination
● Disaster data collection and management.

Inter-Agency ● Ensuring coherence and mutual reinforcement of DRR, CCA and

Coordination Development.
● Effective coordination and seamless communication among
central and state agencies to ensure quick, clear, effective
dissemination of warnings, information and data

Investing in DRR ● Protection of Human Settlements and other Infrastructures

– Structural ● Protection of Heritage Structures
Measures ● Multi-Hazard Shelters
● Public Private Partnerships in disaster management Facilities
● Implementation of Risk Transfer Arrangements including
● Mul-hazard insurance for life and property
Capacity ● Train professionals on how to handle slope failures and their
Development remediation and landslide emergencies
● Awareness Generation
● Curriculum Development
● Mock Drills/Exercises
● Empowering women, marginalized, and persons with disabilities
● Community- Based Disaster Management

Climate Change ● Research, Forecasting/Early Warning,

Risk Management ● Data Management
● Zoning
● Mapping
● Climate Change Adaptation (CCA)
 Heat Waves

Recent News

IMD Advisory ● The Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) issued

warnings for expected scorching temperatures in 2024
indicating severe heatwave conditions across various parts
of India including Rayalaseema, Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra, and South India.

2023 Lancet ● Heat-related deaths among the elderly are expected to

Countdown and increase by 370 per cent by mid-century.
Health and Climate
Change’

Heat Stress in ● Analysis by the Centre for Science and Environment (CSE)
Cities shows rising heat stress in Indian megacities, exacerbated
by increasing concrete surfaces and inadequate green
spaces.

The National ● The National Programme on Climate Change and Human

Programme on Health (NPCC-HH) under the Ministry of Health and Family
Climate Change Welfare reported 46 heat-related deaths and over 19,000
and Human Health cases of suspected heat stroke across the country in May
(NPCC-HH) 2024.

Heat-related Death ● National Heat-Related Illness (HRI) and Death Surveillance

Definition under the NPCC-HH defines “heat-related death” as a
death in which exposure to high ambient temperature
either caused the death or significantly contributed to it.

Climate Shift Index

2023
Definition
● The World Meteorological Organization defines a heat wave as “five or more
consecutive days during which the daily maximum temperature exceeds the average
maximum temperature by five degrees Celsius.”
● Different countries define heat waves differently in the context of their local conditions.
● In India, Heat wave conditions are considered when maximum temperature of a station
reaches atleast 40°C for plains and 30°C in hills.
Criteria for Declaring a Heat Wave:

1. Based on Departure from Normal:

○ Heat Wave: Departure from normal is 4.5°C to 6.4°C.
○ Severe Heat Wave: Departure from normal is >6.4°C.
2. Based on Actual Maximum Temperature (for plains only):
○ Heat Wave: When actual maximum temperature ≥ 45°C.
○ Severe Heat Wave: When actual maximum temperature ≥ 47°C.

Declaration: To declare a heat wave, the above criteria should be met for at least two stations
in a meteorological sub-division for at least two consecutive days. A heat wave will be declared
on the second day.
 Genesis of Heat Wave

Heat Risk and ● Climate change is driving temperatures higher and increasing
Climate Change the frequency and severity of heat waves in India. The year
2023 is the hottest year on record.
● Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) warns
that heat waves will intensify even if global warming is
stabilised at 1.5°C

Role of Built ● Construction of roads, buildings, and other structures replaces

Environment natural vegetation, alter the microclimate, leading to
development of Urban Heat Island (UHI) phenomenon.
● Local warming from the UHI intensifies the discomfort of urban
residents and increases their vulnerability to heat stress.
● Urban areas experience different UHI intensities as a result of
different physical and built characteristic properties.
● Building material, building height and density, population
density, and percentage of green cover are few of the factors
that affect the magnitude of UHIs between different cities.

Heat Index ● It is a measure of how hot it actually feels when relative

humidity is factored in with the actual air temperature. For
example, with an air temperature of 31°C and 100% relative
humidity, the heat index feels like 49°C.

Urban ● Delhi's built-up area increased from 31.4% (2003) to 38.2%

Expansion (2022)
● Bengaluru's built-up area grew from 37.5% to 71.5% (2023)

Green Space ● WHO recommends 50 sq m per capita, minimum 9 sq m per

Requirement capita
● Actual: Pune (1.4 sq m), Jaipur (6.67 sq m), Delhi (10.41 sq
m)

Waterbody Loss ● Between 1999-2021:

● Delhi lost 50% of its surface water
● Pune lost 31.8%
● Jaipur lost 21.5%

Water-Sensitive ● Can reduce ambient temperatures by 3-8°C in a microclimate

Urban Design
Additional Heat ● Vehicle tailpipes, industrial processes, air conditioning
Sources systems
● Lack of clear policies on addressing these heat generators

Occurrence in India:

● Heatwaves in India typically occur from March to June, occasionally extending into July.
● On average, five to six heat wave events occur annually, particularly in northern regions.
● Severe heatwave conditions affected multiple states in 2016, including Bihar, Jharkhand,
and West Bengal.

Impacts of Heat Wave in India

Direct Health ● Heat rash

Effects ● Heat Cramps
● Heat Exhaustion
● Heat Stroke (Sun Stroke)

Indirect Health ● Psychological: Heat can influence human behavior, disease

Effects transmission, health service delivery, air quality, and critical
infrastructure like energy, transport, and water.
● Socioeconomic impacts include lost work capacity and labor
productivity, as well as disruption of health services due to
power shortages.
● Public Health Emergencies: Heatwaves can acutely affect
large populations, triggering public health emergencies and
causing excess mortality.
● Casualties: In India, heat wave caused 24,223 deaths from
1992 to 2015 across various states.
● In “Rising Temperatures, Deadly Threat Report” the NRDC
and IIPH Gandhinagar identified several specific factors that
increase the vulnerability of slum residents to extreme heat
○ Higher Exposure to Heat: Slum residents face more
heat exposure due to outdoor work, unventilated living
conditions, and homes made of heat-retaining materials
like tin or tarpaulin, compounded by a lack of shade.
○ Greater Health Risks: Limited access to clean water,
poor sanitation, and overcrowding, coupled with
malnutrition and untreated chronic illnesses, increase
their health risks from extreme heat.
 ○ Limited Adaptation Options: They have restricted
access to electricity and affordable cooling methods, lack
cooling spaces, and have little health information, limiting
their ability to adapt to rising temperatures.

Heat Wave and Disaster Management

Not Notified ● Heat waves have not been notified under the definition of a
"Disaster" under section 2(d) of the Disaster Management Act,
2005

Not Listed ● They are not listed among the twelve disasters eligible for relief
under the National/State Disaster Response Funds.

Relief ● States may use up to 10% of the State Disaster Response Fund
Measures (SDRF) for immediate relief to victims of locally recognized natural
disasters, even if they are not on the official list of disasters.

Rationale for Heat Wave Action Plan

States ● Many states are significantly affected during the heat wave season,
Affected including Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Odisha, Gujarat, Rajasthan,
and others.

Underreport ● The actual numbers of deaths from heat waves are often higher
ed Deaths than reported, particularly in rural areas.

Vulnerable ● The booming service sector, including vegetable vendors, auto

Populations repair mechanics, and other outdoor workers, as well as the poor
population who cannot afford cooling solutions, are particularly
vulnerable.

Preventive ● Evidence-based action plans are essential to prevent heat

Measures wave-related deaths, requiring effective implementation and updates
based on scientific developments.

Vulnerability Assessment

Purpose ● Identifying vulnerable populations helps in planning targeted

interventions.
Physical ● due to factors like age, pregnancy, chronic disease, housing,
Vulnerability occupation etc

Assessment ● Conduct household surveys to gather data on socio-demographics,

Method health, and summer adaptation practices.

Case study ● Bhubaneswar: Vulnerability assessment done in Bhubaneshwar

identified people with chronic illness and poor housing conditions
are more vulnerable to heat wave.

Heat Wave Action Plan

Objective ● The Heat Wave Action plan aims to provide a structured

framework for developing plans for implementation, inter-agency
coordination and impact evaluation of heat wave response
activities in cities/towns to reduce the negative impact of extreme
heat.

Alertness ● Notifies high-risk individuals of imminent or present extreme heat

conditions to take safety measures.

Preparedness ● Implements strategies to proactively address the challenges

posed by heat waves.

Livestock ● Measures to alleviate stress and protect livestock and animals

Protection during extreme heat.

Community ● Encourages community and government cooperation to safeguard

Mobilization everyone from heat-related health risks.

Forecast and Issuance of Heat Warning

Nodal ● India Meteorological Department (IMD) is responsible for providing
Agency current and forecast weather information, including heat wave
warning, extreme temperatures, and heat alerts for vulnerable
cities/rural areas.
New ● Introduced in 2017, warnings are issued daily at 1600 hours IST,
Heat-Related valid for four days, and disseminated to relevant authorities for
Warning proactive measures.
System
Climate ● Provides forecasts of daily maximum temperatures for the next 21
Forecast days and all-India weather forecasts for the next three months.
System
Operational
System ● The operational system of weather forecasts and warnings is
summarized in chart below.

Communicati ● Information Dissemination : Information on forecasts and alerts is

on and publicly available daily on the IMD website.
Outreach ● Press Releases : are also distributed through the Chief Secretaries,
Disaster Managers, and the health sector via the Indian Medical
Association (IMA).
 Colour Code Signals for Heat Alert
● Current System: The India Meteorological Department (IMD) utilizes a single system of
issuing warnings for the entire country through a color-coded system based on regional
variability.
● Recommendation: States, districts, and cities are encouraged to conduct their own
threshold assessments for mortality and provide this data to IMD. This would allow
IMD to issue more region-specific warning alerts.
 Role and Responsibilities for Managing Heat Wave

Thematic Sub-Themes Description

Areas

Understandin ● Formulation of ● Preparation of Heat Action Plan in

g Risk Policy, plan and coordination with all stakeholders
guideline ● Revision of National Guidelines for
Preparation of Action Plan –
Prevention and Management of Heat
wave.

Inter-Agency ● Establish Early ● Strengthening of early warning system

Coordination Warning System with accurate and timely alert systems
● Response and ● Issue Heat wave alerts , warnings and
Relief weather forecasts of Short/ Medium/
● Monitoring of Long range duration.
medical ● Real time surveillance and evaluation
Preparedness of weather station
● To disseminate the information
received from IMD to the public at large
● Prepare SOP for heat wave response

Investing in ● Preparedness ● Develop strategy for preparedness

DRR – measure measure
Structural ● Short and ● Issue directives to state police
Measures Medium term department for distributions of Cool
mitigation jacket for traffic police personnel
measures ● Identify “heat hot-spots” using
framework for tracking and modeling
based on IMD data.
● Heat wave should be included in
annual disaster event/ calendar
● Formulation of schemes and programs
for heat-health safety
● Ensure 24*7 heat health facilities with
adequate provision of basic medicine
like ORS, glucose etc
 ● Long term ● Long term planning for heat resilient
mitigation infrastructure
measures ● Directives to states to promote cool
roofs technology
● Mixed land use planning may be
adopted to address UHI
● Heat appropriate planning of new
buildings in urban and rural areas.
● Ensure construction of green buildings,
environment and building code related
to heat wave risk mitigation

Capacity ● Capacity Building ● Develop training module for different

Development ● Public qualification at different level
Awareness and ● Preparation of Capacity Building Plan
community ● Heat wave management should be
outreach added in school curriculum to sensitize
● Data collection children and local people
and ● IEC campaign to create awareness
Documentation ● Display Board of Colour coding for
heat wave alert
● Display Do’s and Dont’s in the public
areas etc

Climate ● Climate Change ● Climate change affects disaster risk

Change Risk Impact through changes in the frequency and
Management Adaptation intensity of extreme events. DRR
● Knowledge and investments help communities adapt to
Data Gaps these changing risks.