UPDATED VALUE ADDITION MATERIAL 2024

DISASTER MANAGEMENT
Contents
1. Introduction to Disaster Management.......................................................................................2
1.1. Disasters...............................................................................................................................2
1.2. Hazards, Vulnerabilities and Risks........................................................................................2
1.3. Classification of Disasters.....................................................................................................3
2. Disaster Management Cycle........................................................................................................4
2.1. Introduction to the Disaster Management Cycle.................................................................4
2.2. Disaster Preparedness..........................................................................................................5
2.3. Disaster Risk Reduction and Planning..................................................................................6
2.4. Relief and Rehabilitation......................................................................................................9
2.5. Post-Disaster Recovery and Reconstruction........................................................................9
3. Disaster Management in India....................................................................................................9
3.1. Legal and Institutional Framework in India..........................................................................9
3.2. Vulnerability Profile of India..............................................................................................16
3.3. Natural Hazards..................................................................................................................17
3.3.1. Earthquake..................................................................................................................17
3.3.2. Tsunami.......................................................................................................................21
3.3.3. Volcano........................................................................................................................23
3.3.4. Floods..........................................................................................................................24
3.3.5. Urban Floods...............................................................................................................27
3.3.6. Landslides....................................................................................................................29
3.3.7. Cloudburst...................................................................................................................32
3.3.8. Cyclone........................................................................................................................33
3.3.9. Drought.......................................................................................................................36
3.3.10. Heat Wave.................................................................................................................40
3.3.11. Cold Wave.................................................................................................................42
3.3.12. Wild Fire....................................................................................................................45
3.4. Anthropogenic Disasters....................................................................................................48
3.4.1. Biological Disasters......................................................................................................48
3.4.2. Industrial Chemical Disasters......................................................................................50
3.4.3. Nuclear Disasters.........................................................................................................52
3.4.4. Oil Spills.......................................................................................................................54
3.4.5. Stampedes...................................................................................................................55
3.5. Evolution of Global Framework on Disaster Management................................................58
3.6. International Cooperation on Disaster Management........................................................61
3.7. Miscellaneous.....................................................................................................................63
4. UPSC Previous Years' Questions Years......................................................................................65
5. Vision IAS Previous Years' Questions........................................................................................66
Student Notes:

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1. Introduction to Disaster Management Student Notes:
Disaster Management can be defined as the organization and management of resourcesand
responsibilities for dealing with all humanitarian aspects of emergencies in order to lessen the
impact of disasters.

1.1. Disasters
According to the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR), a disaster is a
serious disruption to the functioning of a community, which causes human, material,
economic and environmental losses beyond a community's ability to cope. It results from the
combination of hazards, conditions of vulnerability and insufficient capacity or measures to
reduce the potential negative consequences of risk.
Disaster damage is usually measured in physical units (e.g., square meters of housing,
kilometers of roads, etc.), and describes the total or partial destruction of physical assets.

1.2. Hazards, Vulnerabilities and Risks

Hazards
A Hazard may be defined as “a dangerous condition or event, that threat or have the potential
for causing injury to life or damage to property or the environment.” A hazard is any source of
potential damage, harm or adverse health effects on something or someone.
Natural hazards are naturally occurring physical phenomena caused either by rapid or slow
onset events which can be geophysical (earthquakes, landslides, tsunamis and volcanic
activity) hydrological (avalanches and floods), climatological (extreme temperatures, drought
and wildfires), meteorological (cyclones and storms/wave surges) or biological (disease
epidemics and insect/animal plagues).
Anthropogenic hazards are hazards caused by human action or inaction. Examples of
such hazards include: pollution, deforestation, use of herbicides and pesticides and chemical
spillages.
Vulnerability
Vulnerability may be defined as “conditions determined by physical, social, economic, and
environmental factors or processes, which increase the susceptibility of a community to the
impact of hazards.”
Vulnerability may be of different forms, such as:
 Economic Vulnerability: Economic vulnerability of a community is the potential impacts of
hazards on economic assets and processes. It can be assessed by determining how varied
its sources of income are, the ease of access and control over means of production (e.g.
farmland, livestock, irrigation, capital etc.), adequacy of economic fall back mechanisms
and the availability of natural resources in the area. Poorer families with less access to
resources, for example, may live in squatter settlements in flood prone areas because they
cannot afford to live in safer (more expensive) areas which makes them more vulnerable.
 Physical Vulnerability: It is the potential for physical impact on the physical environment.
The physical vulnerability of an area depends on its geographic proximity to the source
and origin of the disasters. Wooden homes which are less likely to collapse in an
earthquake are more vulnerable to fire.
 Social Vulnerability: It represents the potential impact of events on certain groups such as
the poor, pregnant or lactating women, disabled, children, and elderly. When flooding
occurs some citizens, such as the elderly and differently abled, may be unable to protect
themselves or evacuate if necessary.

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 Environmental Vulnerability: It represents the potential impact of events on account of Student Notes:
the environmental conditions (flora, fauna, ecosystems, biodiversity).Wetlands, for
example, are sensitive to increasing salinity from sea water, and pollution from storm
water runoff containing agricultural chemicals, eroded soils, etc.
 Attitudinal Vulnerability: It refers to the attitude of a community in response to an event
or disaster. Communities which have negative attitude towards change and lack initiative
in life resultantly become more and more dependent on external support. Risk
Risk is a measure of the expected losses due to a hazard event occurring in a given area over a
specific time period. Disaster risk arises when hazards interact with physical, social, economic
and environmental vulnerabilities.
It considers the probability of harmful consequences, or expected losses (deaths, injuries,
property, livelihoods, economic activity disrupted or environmentally damaged) resulting from
interactions between natural or human induced hazards and vulnerable conditions.
Risk = Probability of Hazard x Degree of Vulnerability

There are different ways of dealing with risk, such as:

 Risk Acceptance: It is an informed decision to accept the possible consequences and
likelihood of a particular risk.
 Risk Avoidance: It is an informed decision to avoid involvement in activities leading to risk
realization.
 Risk Reduction: It refers to the application of appropriate techniques to reduce the
likelihood of risk occurrence and its consequences.
 Risk Transfer: It involves shifting of the burden of risk to another party. One of the most
common forms of risk transfer is Insurance.

1.3. Classification of Disasters

On the basis of Source:
 Natural disasters are disasgters which are caused because of natural phenomena
(meteorological, geological or even biological origin). Examples of natural disasters are
cyclones, tsunamis, earthquake and volcanic eruption which are exclusively of natural
origin. Landslides, floods, drought, fires are socio-natural disasters since their causes are
both natural and manmade. For example flooding may be caused because of heavy rains,
landslide or blocking of drains with human waste.
 Anthropogenic disasters are disasters which occur due to human intervention or
negligence. These are associated with industries or energy generation facilities and include
explosions, leakage of toxic waste, pollution, dam failure, wars or civil strife etc.

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On the basis of Duration: Student Notes:
Disasters can also be classified as ‘slow onset’ disasters and ‘rapid onset’ disasters
 Rapid Onset Disasters: They are characterized by the sudden and acute intensity of the
impact during a short period. Earthquakes, cyclones, floods, tsunamis would fall under the
category of rapid onset disasters.
 Slow Onset Disasters: Slow onset disasters, also termed as ‘Creeping Emergencies’, can be
predicted much further in advance and unfold over months or even years. Climate change
(global warming), desertification, soil degradation, and droughts, would fall under the
category of slow onset disasters.
Slow onset disasters like global warming and desertification must find adequate reflection in
disaster preparedness. Unlike the rapid onset disasters, their impact is not felt immediately;
however societies lose their ability to derive sustenance from their surroundings, over a period
of time.

2. Disaster Management Cycle

2.1. Introduction to the Disaster Management Cycle
Disaster Management includes sum total of all activities, programs and measures which can be
taken up before, during and after a disaster.
A typical disaster management continuum consists of:
 A pre-disaster Risk Management Phase which
includes prevention, mitigation and
preparedness.
 Post-disaster Crisis Management Phase which
includes relief, response, rehabilitation,
reconstruction and recovery.
The three key stages of activities that are taken up
within disaster risk management are:
 Before a disaster (pre-disaster)
This is the period when the potential hazard risk and vulnerabilities can be assessed and
steps taken for preventing and mitigating the crisis. These include long-term prevention
measures such as construction of embankments and earthquake resistant structures,
afforestation, adoption of watershed management etc. Short term measures such as
carrying out awareness campaigns, ensuring enforcement of building codes etc. can also
assist in mitigation. Risk reduction measures taken under this stage are termed as
mitigation and preparedness activities.
 During a disaster (disaster occurrence)
When a crisis actually occurs, those affected by it require a speedy response to alleviate
and minimize suffering and losses. In this phase, certain ‘primary activities’ become
indispensable. These are evacuation, search and rescue, followed by provision of basic
needs such as food, clothing, shelter, medicines and other relief material.
 After a disaster (post-disaster)
Recovery involves a set of policies, tools and procedures to enable the recovery or
continuation of vital technology infrastructure and systems following a disaster.
Rehabilitation: Rehabilitation consists of actions taken in the aftermath of a disaster to
enable basic services to resume functioning, assist victims’ self-help efforts to repair
dwellings and community facilities, and to facilitate the revival of economic activities.

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 Reconstruction: Includes construction of damaged infrastructure and habitats and enabling Student Notes:
sustainable livelihoods. It must be fully integrated into ongoing long-term development.
plans, taking account of future disaster risks.

In the following sections, we will assess each of the three stages of the disaster management
cycle in detail.

2.2. Disaster Preparedness

Disaster preparedness refers to measures taken to prepare for and reduce the effects
of disasters. That is, to predict and, where possible, prevent disasters, mitigate their impact on
vulnerable populations, and respond to and effectively cope with their consequences.

Preparedness efforts range from individual-level

Preparedness is defined by the
activities (such as first aid training), to household
United Nations International
actions (e.g. stockpiling of equipment and supplies), Strategy for Disaster Reduction
community efforts (like training and field exercises), (UNISDR) as knowledge, capabilities,
and governmental strategies (including early warning and actions of governments,
systems, contingency plans, evacuation routes, and organizations, community groups, and
public information dissemination). The traditional 3 individuals “to effectively anticipate,
Rs (Rescue, Relief & Restoration) are now being respond to, and recover from, the
replaced by 3 Ps (Prevention, Preparedness & impacts of likely, imminent or current
Proofing).

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2.3. Disaster Risk Reduction and Planning Student Notes:
Disaster risk reduction is the concept and practice of reducing disaster risks through reduced
exposure to hazards, lessened vulnerability of people and property, wise management of
land and the environment, and improved preparedness for adverse events.

It covers activities which support preparedness, prevention and mitigation from a local to an
international level. The disaster risk reduction framework is composed of the following fields of
action:
 A policy framework backed by legal and institutional mechanism that focuses on risk
management must be outlined.
 Risk assessment based on hazards and community resilience must be done.
 Risk Awareness: Having assessed the risk the next step is to make the stakeholders and
the decision makers aware of the risk enabling government and civil society to take
decisions.
 Implementation of the plan: The plan must be implemented taking all stakeholders into
account including measures like environment management, urban planning etc.
 Early Warning Systems are a key part of risk reduction through provision of timely and
reliable information through identified institutions.
 Use of Knowledge: Effective disaster risk management depends on the informed
participation of all stakeholders. The exchange of information and easily accessible
communication practices play key roles.
The Prime Minister has enunciated ten-point agenda on Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) during
the Asian Ministerial Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction (AMCDRR) held in New Delhi in
November 2016. The all-inclusive agenda presents a holistic approach to disaster risk reduction
and addresses a whole range of issues, from community preparedness to use of technology and
international cooperation. Each of the ten points on the Prime Minister’s ten-point agenda is
aligned with one or more priorities of action of Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction
2015-2030.

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 Student Notes:

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 Student Notes:

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2.4. Relief and Rehabilitation Student Notes:
When an emergency or a disaster affects a city or a region, efforts are conducted initially to
care for the wounded, to restore lifelines and basic services, and subsequently to restore
livelihoods and to reconstruct communities. Such efforts can be structured in the following
phases:
 The Relief phase: In
the immediate
aftermath of the
disaster, activities
such as search &
rescue, rapid damage
and needs
assessments, and the
provision of relief and
first aid are
conducted. Temporary
shelters are opened
for those left
homeless as well as
humanitarian
assistance is provided
to those affected.
 The Rehabilitation phase: Rehabilitation refers to the actions taken in the aftermath of a
disaster to enable basic services to resume functioning, revive economic activities and
provide support for the psychological and social well-being of the survivors.
In this phase basic services and lifelines are restored, even on a temporary basis, including
the road network and other essential facilities including bridges, airports, ports and
helicopter landing sites. It focuses on enabling the affected population to resume more-or-
less normal (pre-disaster) patterns of life. It may be considered as transitional phase
between immediate relief and more major, long-term development.

2.5. Post-Disaster Recovery and Reconstruction

Reconstruction refers to the full restoration of all services, and local infrastructure,
replacement of damaged physical structures, the revitalization of economy and the
restoration of social and cultural life. Reconstruction must be fully integrated into long-term
development plans, taking into account future disaster risks and possibilities to reduce such
risks by incorporating appropriate measures.
The long-term recovery plans are related with Recovery and Reconstruction activities on the
one side and institutionalizing disaster management in district administration on the other.
The Incident Command System is now deactivated as the rehabilitation phase is over.
Thereafter the normal administration shall take up the remaining reconstruction works in the
disaster-affected areas.

Incident Command System (2003)- The Incident Command System or ICS broadly refers to a
management system to be used for incidents of various kinds. The system provides scope to
organize various functions, tasks and staffs within the overall response process while emphasizing
greater coordination and communication among different organizations involved

3. Disaster Management in India

3.1. Legal and Institutional Framework in India
Disaster management in India has evolved from an activity-based reactive setup to a proactive
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institutionalized structure with a holistic approach for reducing risk. In 1990s a ‘Disaster

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Management Cell’ was set up under the Ministry of Agriculture following the declaration of Student Notes:
the decade of 1990 as the ‘International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction’ (IDNDR) by the
UN General Assembly.
The Government of India enacted the Disaster Management Act, 2005, which envisaged the
creation of a three-tier structure comprising of the National Disaster Management Authority
(NDMA), State Disaster Management Authorities (SDMAs) and District Disaster Management
Authorities (DDMAs).
Institutional framework at the National Level
At the national level, overall coordination of disaster management vests with the Ministry of
Home Affairs (MHA). It coordinates with disaster affected states, line ministries, National
Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), National Disaster Response Force (NDRF), National
Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM), Home Guards and Civil Defence, and Armed Forces
etc.
National Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction (NPDRR)
It is a multi-stakeholder and multi- decision making body on disaster management. It is chaired
by the Union Home Minister with other ministers as its members. The minister of state in-
charge of disaster management in the home ministry and the vice-chairman of the National
Disaster Management Authority are the NPDRR's vice chairpersons.
The minister of each state government and UT dealing with disaster management and mayors
of Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Bangalore and Hyderabad are its members too. Four Lok
Sabha members (nominated by speaker) and two Rajya Sabha members (nominated by
Chairman) are also its members along with ten chairpersons of urban local bodies (nominated
by the Urban Development ministry).
Its functions include to review the progress made in the field of disaster management from
time to time, appraise the extent and manner in which the disaster management policy has
been implemented by the central and state governments, and other agencies concerned. It
also advises on coordination between central and state governments.

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National Executive Committee Student Notes:
Constituted under the DM Act, 2005 and chaired by the Union Home Secretary it acts as the
coordinating and monitoring body for disaster management in India. It also comprises of
Secretary level officers from the Ministries and departments having control of agriculture,
atomic energy, defence, drinking water supply, environment and forests, finance
(expenditure), health, power, rural development, science and technology, space,
telecommunications, urban development and water resources. The Chief of Integrated
Defence Staff of the Chiefs of Staff Committee is also its member.
The NEC may give directions to the relevant Ministries/Departments of the GoI, the State
Governments, and the State Authorities regarding measures to be taken by them in response
to any specific threatening disaster situation or disaster as per needs of the State.
The Cabinet Committee on Security (CCS) is involved in decision making if the disaster has
serious security implications. The National Crisis Management Committee (NCMC) deals with
major crises that have serious or national ramifications such as terrorism, hijacking which
require involvement of security forces.
National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA)
It is the apex body for disaster management, constituted under the DM Act, 2005 and headed
by the Prime Minister of India. It is responsible for laying down the policies, plans, and
guidelines for disaster management. The guidelines of NDMA assist the Central Ministries,
Departments, and States to formulate their respective Disaster Management (DM) plans.
 It approves the National Disaster Management Plans and plans of the Central Ministries /
Departments.
 The general superintendence, direction, and control of the National Disaster Response
Force (NDRF) are vested in and are exercised by the NDMA.
 The National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM) works within the framework of
broad policies and guidelines laid down by the NDMA.
 NDMA has the power to authorize the Departments or authorities, to make emergency
procurement of materials for rescue and relief in a threatening disaster situation or
disaster.
 It oversees the provision and application of funds for mitigation and preparedness
measures.
National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM)
The National Institute of Disaster Management is the nodal agency responsible for human
resource development, capacity building, training, research, documentation and policy
advocacy in the field of disaster management. It provides technical support to the state
governments through the Disaster Management Centres (DMCs).
National Disaster Response Force (NDRF)
The NDRF is a specialist response force that can be deployed in a threatening disaster situation
or disaster. The general superintendence, direction and control of this force is vested in and
exercised by the NDMA and the command and supervision of the Force vests in the Director
General of National Disaster Response Force. At present, NDRF has strength of 12 Battalions
with each Battalion consisting of 1149 personnel including from ITBP, BSF, CRPF and CISF.
It also has specialist search and rescue teams comprising of engineers, technicians, paramedics
and dog squads. The “proactive availability” of this Force to the States and its “pre-
positioning” in threatening disaster situations has immensely helped minimise damage, caused
due to calamities in the country.

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Institutional Framework at State activities
Level State Disaster Management
Authority
The DM Act, 2005 mandates the creation of a State Disaster Management Authority with Chief
Minister as the ex-officio Chairperson. It is responsible for laying down the State Disaster
Management Policy and approve the State DM Plans in accordance with the guidelines laid
down by the Union. It is also responsible for coordinating the implementation of the plan and
review the measures being taken for mitigation, capacity building and preparedness by the
various state departments.
State Executive Committee
It is responsible for coordinating and monitoring of DM related activities in the state. The Chief
Secretary of the state is its ex-officio chairperson. It lays down the guidelines for preparation
and implementation of national and state DM plans. It coordinates response in the event of a
disaster and gives directions to departments. It is also responsible for promotion of general
awareness and community training.
Institutional Framework at the District Level
At the district level, District Disaster Management Authority (DDMA), headed by the District
Collector/District Magistrate, is responsible for overall coordination of the disaster
management efforts and planning.
 As per provisions of the Act, each State Government establishes a District Disaster
Management Authority for every district in the State.
 The DDMA is headed by the District Collector with the elected representative of the local
authority as the Co-Chairperson.
 The DDMA prepares the Disaster Management plan for the District and monitors its
implementation. It also ensures that the guidelines laid down by the NDMA and the SDMA
are followed by all the district-level offices. Other roles and responsibilities of the District
Administration and mentioned in the adjoining infographic.

Local Authorities
Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRI), Municipalities, District and Cantonment Boards, and Town
Planning Authorities, which control and manage civic services, ensure capacity building of their
employees for managing disasters, carrying out relief, rehabilitation and reconstruction
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Student Notes:

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in the affected areas. They also prepare their disaster management plans as per the national Student Notes:
and state guidelines.
Financial Arrangements under National Disaster Management Act, 2005
National Disaster Response Fundis a fund managed by the Central Government for meeting
the expenses for emergency response, relief and rehabilitation. If the requirement of funds
for relief operations is beyond the funds available in the State Disaster Response Fund account,
additional Central assistance is provided from National Disaster Response Fund. The National
Calamity Contingency Fund (NCCF) introduced by 11th Finance Commission was merged with
NDRF.
The State Disaster Response Fund is used only for meeting the expenditure for providing
immediate relief to the victims of disasters.
Recently the Standing Committee on Finance (Chairperson: Dr. M. VeerappaMoily) submitted
its report on ‘Central Assistance for Disaster Management and Relief’ in 2019. Key
observations made by the committee are:
 Scale of relief: Rates and scale of assistance under SDRF and NDRF should be enhanced to
cover major heads of expenditure such as restoration of government buildings,
transmission power station etc.
 Disaster Mitigation Fund: The Committee recommended that a separate Disaster
Mitigation Fund should be operationalised for undertaking permanent mitigation
measures in disaster- prone states.
 The NDRF is funded through the National Calamity Contingency Duty (NCCD) imposed on
specified goods under central excise and customs. with the introduction of GST, the scope
of NCCD is shrinking. The revenue collected from NCCD has decreased significantly from Rs
5,690 crore in 2015-16 to Rs 2,500 crore in 2018-19.
 Funding Mechanism: It recommended that an additional 10% of the allocation of the
centrally sponsored schemes may be specially earmarked for permanent restoration of
damaged structures.
 Increase in Funding: Given the wide gap between the funds sought by affected states and
those released by the central government, the Committee recommended an annual
increase of 15% (from the current 5%) in the total corpus of SDRF, for the period 2020-25.
Other Plans and Policies
NDMA came up with a ‘National Policy on Disaster Management’ (NPDM) in 2009. It is
prepared with the vision “To build a safe and disaster resilient India by developing a holistic,
proactive, multi-disaster oriented and technology driven strategy through a culture of
prevention, mitigation, preparedness and response”.
Objectives of the National Policy on Disaster Management, 2009
• Promoting a culture of prevention, preparedness and resilience at all levels through
knowledge, innovation and education.
• Encouraging mitigation measures based on technology, traditional wisdom and
environmental sustainability.
• Mainstreaming disaster management into the developmental planning process.
• Establishing institutional and techno-legal frameworks to create an enabling regulatory
environment and a compliance regime.
• Ensuring efficient mechanism for identification, assessment and monitoring of disaster risks.
• Developing contemporary forecasting and early warning systems backed by responsive and
fail- safe communication with information technology support.
• Ensuring efficient response and relief with a caring approach towards the needs of the
vulnerable sections of the society.
• Undertaking reconstruction as an opportunity to build disaster resilient structures and habitat
for ensuring safer living.
• Promoting a productive and proactive partnership with the media for disaster management.

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The National Disaster Management Plan, 2016 Student Notes:
The Government of India, for the first time, released its first National Disaster Management
Plan in 2016. It has been aligned broadly with the goals and priorities set out in the Sendai
Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction, the Sustainable Development Goals 2015-2030 and
the Paris Agreement on Climate Change at COP-21.
It provides a framework and direction to the government agencies for all phases of disaster
management cycle. It, therefore, specifies who is responsible for what at different stages of
managing disasters.
The plan covers all phases of disaster management: prevention, mitigation, response and
recovery. For each hazard, the approach used in this national plan incorporates the four
priorities enunciated in the Sendai Framework into the planning framework for Disaster Risk
Reduction under the five Thematic Areas for Actions:
 Understanding Risk – This thematic area focuses on understanding disaster risk, the
Priority- 1 in the Sendai framework. Major action themes a) Observation Networks,
Information Systems, Research, Forecasting, b) Zoning / Mapping, c) Monitoring and
Warning Systems,
d) Hazard Risk and Vulnerability Assessment (HRVA), and e) Dissemination of Warnings,
Data, and Information.
 Inter-Agency Coordination - Inter-agency coordination is a key component of
strengthening the disaster risk governance - Priority-2 of the Sendai Framework. The major
themes for action required for improving the top level interagency coordination are a)
Overall disaster governance b) Response c) Providing warnings, information, and data and
d) Non-structural measures.
 Investing in DRR – Structural Measures- Undertaking necessary structural measures is one
of the major thematic areas for action for disaster risk reduction and enhancing resilience.
These consist of various physical infrastructure and facilities required to help communities
cope with disasters.
 Investing in DRR – Non-Structural Measures - Sets of appropriate laws, mechanisms, and
techno-legal regimes are crucial components in strengthening the disaster risk governance
to manage disaster risk, which is Priority-2 of the Sendai Framework. These non-structural
measures comprising of laws, norms, rules, guidelines, and techno-legal regime (e.g.,
building codes) framework and empowers the authorities to mainstream disaster risk
reduction and disaster resilience into development activities.
 Capacity Development - Capacity development is a theme in all the thematic areas for
action. The Sendai Priority-2 (Strengthening DRR governance to manage DR) and Priority-3
(Investing in DRR for resilience) are central to capacity development. The capacity
development includes training programs, curriculum development, large-scale awareness
creation efforts, and carrying out regular mock drills and disaster response exercises.
The Response part of the Plan has identified eighteen broad activities which have been
arranged into a matrix to be served as a ready reckoner. Some of the activities include Early
Warning Systems and information dissemination, Search and rescue, housing and temporary
shelter, media etc.
The plan also spells out the roles and responsibilities of all levels of Government right up to
Panchayat and Urban Local Body level in a matrix format. It is designed in such a way that it
can be implemented in a scalable manner in all phases of disaster management.

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 Student Notes:

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Shortcomings of National Disaster Management Plan, 2016 Student Notes:
 It is too generic in its identification of the activities to be undertaken by the central and
states governments.
 The plan refrains from providing a precise time frame for undertaking these activities.
 It does not project the requirement of funds needed or how funds shall be mobilized.
 The plan is aligned with the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction and Sustainable
Development Goals, but unlike in the Sendai Framework or the SDGs, the plan does not
set any goals or targets, nor does it spell out how the Sendai goals and targets shall be
achieved.
 The activities mentioned in the NDMP are not new and they have already been mentioned
in the Act and the guidelines issued by the NDMA.

3.2. Vulnerability Profile of India

India is one of the ten worst disaster prone countries of the world. Disasters occur in India with
grim regularity causing enormous loss of life and property. According to an UN Office for
Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR) report 2017, India has been ranked as the world's most
disaster-prone country for displacement of residents.
India is vulnerable to a large number of natural, as well as, human-made disasters on account
of its unique geo-climatic and socio-economic conditions.
 Out of the 36 states and union territories in the country, 28 of them are disaster prone.
 Almost 85% of the country is vulnerable to single or multiple disasters
 About 57% of its area lies in high seismic zones.
 Approximately 40 million hectares of the country’s land area is prone to flood
 About 8% of the total land mass is vulnerable to cyclone
 68% of the area is susceptible to drought.
The five distinctive regions of the country:
 Himalayan region: earthquakes and landslides
 The plain: Floods.
 The desert: Droughts and famine
 The coastal zone: Cyclones and storms.
Anthropogenic vulnerability:
 Deforestation
 Unscientific construction and development activity
 Faulty agricultural practices
The Building Materials and Technology Promotion Council (BMPTC) has recently released the
third edition of the Vulnerability Atlas of India in 2019. It contains maps and tables for each
State and Union Territory of India for the following hazards: Earthquakes, Wind, Floods,
Landslide, Cyclone and frequency of thunderstorms. It also contains housing stock vulnerability
indicating the risk for each type of house.

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 Student Notes:

3.3. Natural Hazards

3.3.1. Earthquake
An earthquake is the sudden shaking of the earth crust. The impact of an earthquake is sudden
and there is hardly any warning, making it impossible to predict.
What causes an earthquake?
Earthquakes occur due to movements along the plates’
boundaries. When these plates contact each other,
stress arises in the crust. The movement along the
plate’s boundaries can be classified as:
 Divergent: Pulling away from each other
 Convergent: Pushing against one another
 Transform: Sliding sideways relative to each other
The areas of stress at plate boundaries which release accumulated energy by slipping or
rupturing are known as 'faults'. A rupture then occurs along the fault and the rock rebounds
under its own elastic stresses until the strain is relieved. The fault rupture generates vibration
called seismic waves. Earthquakes can be measures by the use of two distinctively different
scales of measurement demonstrating magnitude (by Richter scale) and intensity (by Mercalli
Scale).

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Earthquake Risk in India Student Notes:
India falls prominently on the 'Alpine - Himalayan Belt'. This belt is the line along which the
Indian plate meets the Eurasian plate. Being a convergent plate, the Indian plate is thrusting
underneath the Eurasian plate at a speed of 5 cm per year. This makes the entire region
covering fourteen states (located in western and central Himalayas, northeast, and parts of
Indo-Gangetic basin) highly prone to earthquakes.
The other seismically active regions of the country include the Gulf of Khambhat and Rann of
Kutch in Western Gujarat, parts of peninsular India, the islands of Lakshadweep and Andaman
and Nicobar Islands
India has been divided into four seismic zones according to the maximum intensity of
earthquake expected. Of these, zone V is the most active which comprises of whole of
Northeast India, the northern portion of Bihar, Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, J&K, Gujarat
and Andaman & Nicobar Islands. Much of India lies in zone II and zone III.
Earthquakes can neither be prevented nor predicted in terms of their magnitude, or place and
time of occurrence. Therefore, the most effective measures of risk reduction are pre-disaster
mitigation, preparedness and preventive measures for reducing the vulnerability.

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 Measures to prevent and mitigate earthquake loss Student Notes:
National Centre for office of the Ministry of Earth Sciences
Seismology submits earthquake surveillance and hazard reports to governmental
agencies
National Earthquake Strengthening the structural and non-structural dimensions of earthquake
Risk Mitigation Project mitigation efforts
reducing the vulnerability in the high-risk districts
National Building Code Comprehensive building code and a national instrument providing guidelines
for regulating the building construction activities across the country
Building Material & mandated to promote resource-efficient, climate resilient, disaster resistant
Technology Promotion construction practices
Council undertakes projects for retrofitting of life-line structures to generate
awareness
NDMA Guidelines on Earthquake Management
Guidelines issued by NDMA rest on six pillars of seismic safety for improving the effectiveness of
earthquake management in India:

1. Earthquake Resistant Construction of New Structures: All central ministries and

departments and state governments will facilitate the implementation of relevant
standards for seismically safe design and construction of buildings and other lifeline and
commercially important structures falling within their administrative control such as
bridges, flyovers, ports, harbours etc.
2. Selective Seismic strengthening & retrofitting of The National Building Code of India
(NBC) provides guidelines for
existing Priority structures and Lifeline
regulating the building
Structures:
construction activities on different
All central ministries and state governments are materials, planning, design and
required to draw up programs for seismic construction practices of buildings.
strengthening of priority structures through ULBs It lays down provisions designed to
and PRIs. Buildings of national importance such as protect the safety of the public
Raj Bhavans, Legislatures, Courts, critical buildings with regard to structural
like academic institutions, public utility structures sufficiency, fire hazards and health
like reservoirs, dams and multi-storeyed buildings
with five or more floors. The responsibility to identify these structures rests with the State
Governments.
3. Regulation and Enforcement: State Governments are responsible for establishing
mechanisms to implement Building Codes and other safety codes to ensure that all
stakeholders like builders, architects, engineers, government departments adhere to
seismic safety in all design and construction activities. The Home Ministry had constituted
a national level expert group which recommended modifications to the town and

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 country planning

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 Acts, land use and zoning regulations, DCRs and building bye-laws which are technically Student Notes:
rigorous and conform to globally accepted norms.
4. Awareness & Preparedness: Sensitization of all stakeholders is one of the most challenging
tasks in earthquake preparedness and mitigation. It recommends preparation of
handbooks on earthquake safety, homeowner's seismic safety manuals, a manual on
structural safety audit and video films for the general public. It also highlights the need to
create vulnerability maps of land areas and streamlining of NGOs and Volunteer Groups.
National Centre for Seismology, New Delhi developed a mobile app named ‘India Quake’
for automatic dissemination of earthquake parameter (location, time and magnitude)
after the occurrence of earthquakes. The App will make information broadcasting faster
with no restrictions on the number of recipients.
5. Capacity Development (Education, Training, R&D, Capacity Building and Documentation):
The target groups for capacity development include elected representatives and
government, officials, professionals in visual and print media, urban planners, engineers,
architects and builders, NGOs, Community Based Organizations (CBOs), social activists,
social scientists, schoolteachers, and school children. Emergency Response: All response
activities are undertaken through Incident Command System coordinated by the local
administration through the Emergency Operations Centre network. It includes
involvement of community, corporate sector and specialized teams.
Critical Existing Challenges for Earthquake Mitigation in India
 Inadequate enforcement of earthquake-resistant building codes and town planning bye-
laws;
 Absence of earthquake-resistant features in constructions in urban and rural areas.
 Lack of formal training among professionals in earthquake-resistant construction
practices.
 Lack of adequate preparedness and poor response capacity of various stakeholder groups.
 Lack of awareness among various stakeholders about the seismic risk;
 Absence of systems of licensing of engineers and masons.

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3.3.2. Tsunami Student Notes:
Tsunami is a Japanese word meaning 'harbour' wave. A tsunami is a series of large waves of
extremely long wavelength and period usually generated by an undersea disturbance or
activity near the coast or in the ocean.
What causes a Tsunami?
Tsunamis are generated by a large, impulsive displacement of the sea bed level. Earthquakes
generate tsunamis by vertical movement of the sea floor. Tsunamis can also be triggered by
landslides into or under the water surface, volcanic activity and meteorite impacts. Landslide
triggered tsunamis can be a possible scenario in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea due to
the huge sediment deposition by the Ganges and Indus Rivers.

The effects of a tsunami depend on the following factors:

• Characteristics of the seismic event that generated the tsunami.
• Distance from its point of origin, its size (magnitude)
• Configuration of the bathymetry (that is the depth of water in oceans).
Indian Ocean tsunami of December 2004 along the Indian coast highlighted that the maximum
damage had occurred in low-lying areas near the coast and high casualties were found in
thickly populated areas. Mangroves, forests, sand dunes and coastal cliffs provided the best
natural barriers to reduce the impact of the tsunami and heavy damage was reported in areas
where sand dunes were heavily mined.
Tsunami Risks in India
Both East and West Indian shorelines are vulnerable to tsunami wave action. It has more than
2200 km shoreline which is heavily populated.
Even though tsunamis occur very rarely in the Indian Ocean region, in the last 300 years, this
region recorded 13 tsunamis and 3 of them occurred in the Andaman and Nicobar region. The
Indian Ocean Tsunami of 26th December 2004 is one of the most destructive Tsunamis known
to have hit India.
Mangroves, forests, sand dunes and coastal cliffs provided the best natural barriers to reduce
the impact of the tsunami and heavy damage was reported in areas where sand dunes were
heavily mined.
NDMA Guidelines on Management of Tsunamis in India
1. Tsunami Risk Assessment and Vulnerability Analysis: NDMA recommends assessment of
vulnerability and risk mapping in the tsunami hazard based on coastal land use maps and
coastal bathymetry. It suggests development of models to estimate the arrival and wave
run up height of tsunami waves. In India, the Indian Naval Hydrographic Department
(INHD) functions under the Chief Hydrographer to the Government of India. It regularly
provides bathymetry information to authorized agencies for drawing the inundation maps.

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2. Tsunami Preparedness: A 17-station Real Time Seismic Monitoring Network (RTSMN) is Student Notes:
envisaged to be established by IMD and Bottom Pressure Recorders (BPRs) are used to
detect the propagation of Tsunami waves in the Open Ocean. A major concern is that the
unattended ocean observation platforms in sea are being vandalized either accidentally.
The National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT) has implemented the National Data
Buoy Programme for the protection of surface buoys. Tsunami Bulletins and warning
systems are an important part of preparedness. "Tsunami Escape" direction sign boards
must be set up in coastal areas. Visual and radio media also play an important role in alert
and warning and Public awareness campaigns must be held more frequently.
3. Structural Mitigation Measures: Following are the various structural measures
recommended:
 Construction of cyclone shelters, submerged sand barriers/dykes, sand dunes with
sea weeds and plantation of mangroves and coastal forests along the coast line.
 Development of a network of local knowledge centres (rural/urban) along the coast
lines to provide necessary training and emergency communication during crisis time
(e.g. centres developed by M.S. Swaminathan Foundation in Pondicherry).
 Construction of location specific sea walls and coral reefs in consultation with experts.
 Development of break waters along the coast to provide necessary cushion,
 Development of a “Bio-Shield” - a narrow strip of land along coastline. It can be
developed as coastal zone disaster management sanctuary, which must have thick
plantation and public spaces for public awareness, dissemination and demonstration.
 Identification of vulnerable structures and appropriate retrofitting for tsunami/cyclone
resistance of all such buildings along with identification of Tsunami shelters.
4. Regulation and Enforcement of Techno-Legal Regime: Following measures can be taken:
 Strict implementation of the coastal zone regulations (within 500 m of the high tide
line with elevation of less than 10 m above mean sea level)
 Adoption the model techno-legal framework, developed by MHA, for ensuring
compliance of tsunami-safe zoning, planning, design and construction practices and
encourage optimum land use.
5. Emergency Tsunami Response: As community is the first responder, launching a series of
public awareness campaign throughout the coastal area by various means can be
undertaken. SHGs, NGOs, CBOs can be involved in search and rescue operations. Inflatable
motorized boats, helicopters and search & rescue equipment are required immediately
after a tsunami to carry out search and rescue of people trapped in inundated areas, on
tree tops and hanging on to structures.

The Indian Naval Hydrographic Department plays a crucial role in disasters affecting coastal
areas. During the Indian Ocean Tsunami of 26th December 2004, seven survey ships were
deployed to open the sea lines of communication apart from providing the medical aid. They
were engaged to urgently re-chart the area and bring out the latest bathymetry information.
6. Ensuring Implementation: Aggressive capacity building requirements for the local people
and the administration for facing the disasters in wake of tsunami and cyclone, ‘based on
cutting edge level’.
 Awareness generation and training among the fishermen, coast guards, officials from
fisheries department and port authorities and local district officials etc., in connection
with evacuation and post tsunami storm surge management activities. Regular drills
should be conducted to test the efficacy of the DM plans.

The Indian Tsunami Early Warning System has been established in collaboration with the
Department of Space (DOS), Department of Science and Technology (DST) and the Council of
Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).

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 It comprises a real-time network of seismic stations, Bottom Pressure Recorders (BPPRs) and tike Student Notes:
gauges to detect tsunamigenic earthquakes and to monitor tsunamis and to provide timely
advisories to vulnerable community by means of latest communication methods with back-end
support of scenario database, vulnerability modeling and Decision Support System.
The seismic subsystem receives real-time seismic data from the national seismic network of the
Indian Meteorogical Department (IMD) and other International seismic networks and is capable of
detecting all earthquake events occurring in the Indian Ocean in less than 10 minutes of
occurrence.
Tsunami N2 model has been customized by Integrated Coastal and Marine Area Management
(ICMAM) and Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS) for the purpose of
predicting surges for different scenarios of earthquakes and to indicate the extent of inundation of
seawater into the land. This information has been used for taking precautionary and mitigation
measures such as evacuation of people, Avoiding human settlements, large investment, designing
Existing Challenges
The critical areas of concern, with respect to Tsunami Risk management in India are:
 Lack of easily accessible tsunami documentation and paleo-tsunami studies for better
understanding of past tsunami events for improved risk assessment;
 Lack of high resolution near-shore bathymetric and topographic data will prove to be a
limiting factor for inundation models;
 Inadequate community awareness on tsunami risk and vulnerability.
 Lack of people's participation in strengthening disaster preparedness, mitigation and
emergency response in the coastal areas.
 Lack of documentation of traditional knowledge for tsunami risk management.
3.3.3. Volcano
A volcano is a vent or chimney which transfers molten rock known as magma from depth to the
Earth's surface. Magma erupting from a volcano is called lava and is the material which builds
up the cone surrounding the vent.
A volcano is active if it is erupting lava, releasing gas or generates seismic activity. A volcano is
dormant if it has not erupted for a long time, but could erupt again in the future. Once a
volcano has been dormant for more than 10 000 years, it is termed extinct. The explosiveness
of a volcanic eruption depends on how easily magma can flow and the amount of gas trapped
within the magma.
Causes of Volcano
Volcanic eruptions predominantly occur in areas with vibration activities or weak zones.
Magma can rise when tectonic plates slowly move away from each other. Magma also rises
when these tectonic plates move toward each other. The high heat and pressure cause the
crust to melt and rise as magma.
Hot Spot: Magma also rises over hot spots.
A hot spot is an area on Earth that exists
over a mantle plume. Hot spot volcanoes
occur far from plate boundaries.
Volcano Risks in India
India's only live volcano is the Barren Island
volcano in the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands,
which had started showing activity in the year 1991 after being dormant for over 150 years. It
has once again started spewing ash in January 2017. The volcanic island is uninhabited and the
northern part of the island is barren and devoid of vegetation.

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3.3.4. Floods 85% of which
is
What is Flood?
concentrated
Flood is a state of high water level along a river channel or on the coast that leads to in 3-4 months
inundation of land. India is highly vulnerable to floods. Out of the total geographical area, the i.e. June to
RashtriyaBarhAyog (RBA) has assessed that more than 40 million hectare area is flood prone. September.
Causes of Floods Due to the
intense and
Inadequate capacity of the rivers to contain within their banks the high flows brought down periodic
from the upper catchment areas following heavy rainfall, leads to flooding.
Indiscriminate deforestation, unscientific agricultural practices, disturbances along the
natural drainage channels and colonization of flood-plains and river-beds are some of the
human activities that play an important role in increasing the intensity, magnitude and gravity
of floods. Some of the causes of flood are as follows:
Snowmelt and glacial melt are gradual processes
Natural causes
and usuallydoes not cause major floods. But
 Heavy rainfall: Heavy rain in the sometimes glaciers hold largequantity of
catchment area of a river causes water bounded water, which may be suddenlyreleased
to over flow its banks, which results in with melting of ice block resulting intoGlacial Lake
the flooding of nearby areas.
 Sediment deposition: River beds become shallow due to sedimentation. The water
carrying capacity of such river is reduced. As a result the heavy rainwater over flow the
river banks.
 Cyclone: Cyclone generated sea waves of abnormal height spreads the water in the
adjoining coastal areas. In October 1994 Orissa cyclone generated severe floods and
caused unprecedented loss of life and property.
 Change in the course of the river: Meanders, erosion of river beds and banks, and
obstruction of flow due to landslides also lead to changes in river courses.
 Tsunami: Large coastal areas are flooded by rising sea water, when a tsunami strikes the
coast.
 Lack of Lakes - Lakes can store the excess water and regulate the flow of water. When
lakes become smaller, their ability to regulate the flow become less and hence flooding.
Anthropogenic causes
 Deforestation: Vegetation facilitates percolation of water in the ground. As a result of
deforestation, the land becomes obstruction free and water flows with greater speed into
the rivers and causes flood.
 Interference in drainage system: Drainage congestion caused by badly planned
construction of bridges, roads, railway tracks, canals etc. hampers the flow of water and
results in floods.
 International dimension - The rivers originating in China, Nepal and Bhutan cause severe
floods in the states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Arunachal Pradesh and Assam.
For flood management, cooperation with the neighboring countries is essential.
 Population pressure - Because of large amount of people, more materials are needed, like
wood, land, food, etc. This aggravates overgrazing, land encroachment, over cultivation
and soil erosion which increases the risk of flooding.
 Poor Water and Sewage Management - Old drainage and sewerage systems in urban
areas have not been overhauled. During the rainy season every year, the drainage and
sewer system collapse, resulting in urban flooding.
Flood Risks in India
Floods occur in almost all the river basins of the country. Around 12 per cent (40 million
hectare) of land in India is prone to floods. Our country receives an annual rainfall of 1200 mm,

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Student Notes:

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rain, most of the rivers of the country are fed with huge quantity of water, much beyond their Student Notes:
carrying capacity leading to mild to severe flood situations in the region.
Distribution Pattern of Flood Areas in India
The Brahmaputra River Region
This region consists of the rivers Brahmaputra and Barak and their tributaries, and covers the
states of Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Manipur, Tripura, Nagaland, Sikkim
and the northern parts of West Bengal.
 The catchments of these rivers receive heavy rainfall during monsoons.
 These rivers originate in fragile hills susceptible to erosion leading to high silt discharge.
 The region is subject to severe and frequent earthquakes, which cause numerous
landslides and upset river regime.
 Cloud bursts followed by flash floods and heavy soil erosion are also prevalent.
The Ganga River Region
The river Ganga has many tributaries, the important ones being Yamuna, Sone, Ghaghra,
Raphti, Gandak, BurhiGandak, Bagmati, Kamla Balan, Adhwara group of rivers, Kosi and the
Mahananda. It covers the states of Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Jharkand, Bihar, south and
central parts of West Bengal, Punjab, parts of Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya
Pradesh and Delhi.
 The flood problem is mostly confined to the areas on the northern bank of the river Ganga
as most of the damage is caused by the northern tributaries of the Ganga.
 In general, the flood problem increases from the west to the east and from south to north.
 In recent years, the states of Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh have also experienced some
incidents of heavy floods.
 Large-scale encroachment of flood plains of the rivers for habitation and various
developmental activities is one of the main causes in this region.
The North-West River Region
The main rivers in this region are the Indus, Sutlej, Beas, Ravi, Chenab and Jhelum. This region
covers the states of Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab and parts of Himachal Pradesh, Haryana and
Rajasthan. Compared to the Ganga and the Brahmaputra river regions, the flood problem is
relatively less in this region.
 The major problem is that of inadequate surface drainage which causes inundation and
water-logging over vast areas.
 Indiscriminate use of water for irrigation and development of low-lying areas and
depressions has created problem of drainage congestion and water logging.
 These rivers change their courses frequently and leave behind vast tracts of sandy waste.
The Central and Deccan India
Important rivers in this region are the Narmada, Tapi, Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and
Cauvery. These rivers have mostly well-defined and stable courses. They have adequate
capacities within the natural banks to carry the flood discharge except in the delta area. The
region does not have serious flood problem except that some of the rivers in Orissa State
namely Mahanadi, Brahmini, Baitarni, and Subarnarekha are prone to floods every year. The
delta and coastal areas of the states on the east coast periodically face flood and drainage
problems in the wake of monsoon depression and cyclonic storms.
Consequences of Floods
 Frequent inundation of agricultural land and human settlement has serious
consequences on the national economy and society.

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 Floods destroy valuable crops and also damage physical infrastructure such as roads, rails, Student Notes:
bridges and human settlements.
 Millions of people are rendered homeless and are also washed down along with their
cattle in the floods.
 Spread of diseases like cholera, gastro-enteritis, hepatitis and other water-borne diseases
spread in the flood-affected areas.
 Floods also make a few positive contributions. Every year, flood deposit fertile silt over
agricultural fields which restores fertility of the soil.
NDMA Guidelines on Flood Management
The main thrust of the flood protection programme undertaken in India so far has been on
structural measures.
Flood Prevention, Preparedness and Mitigation
Structural Measures
 Reservoirs, Dams, Other Water Storages: By constructing reservoirs in the courses of
rivers could stores extra water at the time of flood. Such measures adopted till now
however, have not been successful. Dams built to control floods of Damodar could not
control the flood.
 Embankments/Flood Levees/Flood Walls: By building flood protection embankments,
floods water can be controlled from overflowing the banks and spreading in nearby areas.
Building of embankments on Yamuna, near Delhi, has been successful in controlling the
flood.
 Drainage improvement: Drainage system is generally choked by the construction of roads,
canals railway tracks etc. Floods could be checked if the original form of drainage system is
restored.
 Channel Improvement/Desilting/Dredging of Rivers: A channel can be made to carry flood
discharge at levels lower than its prevailing high flood level by improving its discharge
carrying capacity. It aims at increasing the area of flow or the velocity of flow (or both) to
increase its carrying capacity. Selective desilting/dredging at outfalls/confluences or local
reaches can, however, be adopted as a measure to tackle the problem locally.
 Diversion of Flood Water: Diverting all or a part of the discharge into a natural or
artificially constructed channel, lying within or in some cases outside the flood plains is a
useful means of lowering water levels in the river.
 Catchment Area Treatment/Afforestation: The flood spill channel skirting
Watershed management measures such as Srinagar city and the supplementary
drain in Delhi are examples of
developing the vegetative cover i.e.
diverting excess water to prevent
afforestation and conservation of soil cover in
conjunction with structural works like check dams, detention basins etc. serve as an
effective measure in reducing flood peaks and controlling the suddenness of the runoff.
Non-Structural Measures
 Flood Plain Zoning: It is to regulate land use in the flood plains in order to restrict the
damage due to floods, while deriving
maximum benefits from the same. The
vulnerable areas in the districts can be
identified and mapped as per past analysis
of floods into extremely (red) and partially
(blue) affected zones.
 Flood Proofing:. It is a combination of
structural change and emergency action,
not involving any evacuation. It includes
providing raised platforms for flood
shelter
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 for men and cattle, raising the public utility installation especially the platforms for Student Notes:
drinking water hand pumps and bore wells above flood level, promoting construction of
double- storey buildings wherein the first floor can be used for taking shelter during floods.
 Flood Management Plans: All government departments and agencies must prepare their
own FMPs.
 Integrated Water Resources Management aiming at integrating management of water
resources at the basin or watershed scale must be undertaken.
 Flood Forecasting and Warning in India: Real time discharge and rainfall data is the basic
requirements for the formulation of a flood forecast. Most of the hydro-meteorological
data are observed and collected by the field formations of Central Water Commission; IMD
supplies the daily rainfall data.

Aapada Mitra Scheme

The NDMA has approved a Centrally Sponsored Scheme focusing on training community volunteers
in disaster response in the 30 most flood-prone districts of 25 states in India. It aims to train
community volunteers with the skills that they would need to respond to their community’s
immediate needs and to undertake basic relief and rescue tasks from emergency situations such as
floods, flash floods, and urban flooding, when emergency services are not readily available.
3.3.5. Urban Floods
What is Urban Flood?
There has been an increasing trend of urban flood disasters in India over the past several
years. Urban flooding is not just flooding that happens in an urban area. It is caused by
excessive runoff in urban areas due to overburdened drainage and unregulated construction.
How urban flooding is different from riverine flooding?
 Urban flooding is significantly different from rural flooding as urbanization leads to
developed catchments, which increases the flood peaks from 1.8 to 8 times and flood
volumes by up to 6 times. Consequently, flooding occurs very quickly due to faster flow
times (in a matter of minutes).
 As urban areas are densely populated, people are more vulnerable to flooding and
secondary effect of exposure to infection.
 Urban areas being centers of economic activities have key infrastructure that has a
bearing on national and global economy.
Causes of Urban Floods
Factors contributing to urban flooding can be categorized as follows:
Meteorological Factors: Rainfall, Cyclonic Storms, Small-scale storms, snowfall and snow melt
are some of the meteorological factors that contribute to urban flooding. In the Indian context,
the following weather systems cause heavy rainfall in India:
 Southwest Monsoon: Localized and concentrated rainfall in 3-4 months. E.g., Mumbai
floods 2005, Ahmadabad floods, 2022
 Northeast Monsoon: Along with frequent cyclones covering middle of October to end of
December. E.g.,. Chennai floods, 2015
 Depressions and Cyclones: These are associated with hazards like very strong winds, very
heavy rainfall and storm surges causing urban flooding in coastal areas. E.g., Hyderabad
floods in 2020
 Western disturbances are extra-tropical weather systems (low pressure areas) which
move from west to east, regularly, causing widespread rainfall over the extra-tropical
areas.
 Thunderstorms and Cloudbursts are experienced in hilly areas due to localized weather
events where rainfall occurs at a fast rate.

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Anthropological Factors: Most of the urban areas have been built with little to no regard to Student Notes:
the natural topography.
 Land use changes :surface sealing due to urbanization, deforestation increase runoff and
sedimentation owing to the urban canyon topography.
 Occupation of the flood plains causes obstruction of flows due to unregulated growth of
infrastructure.
 Sudden release of water from dams located upstream of cities/towns and efficient
drainage system is upstream areas increases flood peak.
 Urban Heat Island Effect: Due to urban heat island effect highly localized rainfall occurs
which may sometimes be of high intensity.
 Improper disposal of solid waste: including domestic, commercial and industrial waste
and dumping of construction debris into the drains Inefficient management of religious
gatherings like Kumbh Mela also results in unwanted concretization of rivers, which
narrows down their channels.
 Climate Change: As the incidence of climate variability and extreme weather events
increases and urban flooding becomes more and more common.
Hydrological Factors:
 Synchronization of runoffs from various parts of watershed
 Natural surface infiltration rate and Presence of impervious cover
 Soil moisture level and Groundwater level prior to storm
 Presence or absence of over bank flow, channel network; Channel cross-sectional shape
and roughness
 High tide impeding drainage
Urban Flood Risks in India
There has been an increasing trend of urban flood disasters in India over the past several
years. Floods of Delhi (2023), Chennai (December 2015), the Kashmir Floods (2014), the Surat
Floods (2006) and the Mumbai Floods (2005 & 2017) reflect the vulnerability of our Cities.
NDMA Guidelines on Urban Flood
 Early Warning System and Communication: National Hydro-meteorological Network and
Doppler Weather Radars should be integrated
with the urban area planning. They provide and a ‘Nowcasting’ is a technique for
lead time of 3 to 6 hours for monitoring rainfall. very short-range forecasting that
maps the current weather and
Automated rain gauges also communicate rainfall
then uses an estimate of its speed
on a real time basis. and direction of movement to
Once flood forecast is generated, these can be forecast the weather a short period
used to characterize the flood severityand ahead. It can even generate ultra-
implement the associated flood management short term forecasts at 5 to 30
plan. For e.g. A severe flood forecast may lead to
large scale
inundation and thus require complete evacuation of houses and businesses
 Vulnerability Analysis and Risk Assessment: Identification of areas at risk, classification of
structures according to function and estimation of risk for each structure and function
using Hazard Risk Zoning.
 Strengthening Disaster Risk Governance to Manage Disaster Risk:
 A Decision Support System is set in place to generate a flood warning and map the hazard
accordingly. This is usually done by the Urban Local Bodies. Warning must be issued to
general public only through government officials.
 Design and Management of Urban Drainage: Rapid urbanisation has resulted in increased
impermeable surfaces in the form of pavements, roads and built-up areas, thereby
reducing the infiltration and natural storage.

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 o Drainage System: A proper inventory of water supply system with details of all Student Notes:
pumping, storage etc. must be maintained, particularly of the minor drainage systems.
o Catchment as a basis of design: As run off processes are independent of states and
city administrative boundaries outlines of drainage divides must be depend on
watershed delineation.
o Contour Data: Accurate contours are necessary for determining the boundaries of a
watershed/ catchment and for computing directions of flow.
o Design Flow: Estimation of peak flow rates
for adequate sizing and quantity control Rain gardens consist of a porous soil
facilities. covered with a thin layer of mulch.
o Removal of Solid Waste: Most towns and Storm water runoff is directed into the
facility, allowed to pond and infiltrates
cities have open surface drains besides the
through the plant/mulch/soil
road, into which there is unauthorized public
disposal of waste. Solid waste increases
hydraulic roughness, causes blockage and generally reduces flow capacity.
o Drain Inlet Connectivity: It is seen that the inlets to drain the water from the roads
into the roadside drains are either not properly aligned or non-existent leading to
severe waterlogging on the roads.
 Urban Flooding Cells: A separate Urban Flooding Cell (UFC) will be constituted within
MoUD which will coordinate all UFDM activities at the national level. ULBs will be
responsible for the management of urban flooding at the local level.
 Response: Emergency Operation Centres, Incident Response System, flood shelters, search
and rescue operations, emergency logistics are some key action areas of flood response
mechanism.
 Sanitation: Diseases like malaria, dengue and cholera can spread if adequate sanitation
and disinfection are not carried out.
 Investing in disaster reduction for resilience and enhancing disaster preparedness:
o Capacity Development, Awareness Generation and Documentation: Participatory
urban flood planning and management involving both local government and the
community.
Existing Challenges
 Less importance to comprehensive risk assessment of urban flooding. It includes
understanding, analysis and assessment of urban flood risks, before flood mitigation
measures are planned and implemented.
 Ignorance of mapping of different factors and risks in different cities and non-inclusion of
the same in development planning
 Unsatisfactory coordination among different institutions for experience sharing for the
purpose of public awareness and imparting professional training of disaster managers.
 Lack of information sharing,
 Disintegrated investment decisions, and
 Lack of consultation with stakeholders.
3.3.6. Landslides
What is a Landslide?
A landslide is defined as the movement of a mass of rock, debris, or earth down a slope.
Landslides are a type of "mass wasting," which denotes any down-slope movement of soil and
rock under the direct influence of gravity.
Landslides are one of the natural hazards that affect at least 15 per cent of the land area of our
country. The Himalayas are formed due to collision of Indian and Eurasian plate. The
northward movement of the Indian plate (@5cm/year) towards Eurasian plate causes
continuous stress on the rocks rendering them friable, weak and prone to landslides and
earthquakes.

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Causes of Landslides Student Notes:
Natural Causes
 Heavy rain: Heavy rain is the main cause of landslides.
 Earthquakes and volcanic explosions:
Earthquake is a common feature in the
Himalaya. Tremors destabilize the mountains
and the rocks tumble downwards. Volcanic
explosions also trigger landslides in the
mountainous areas.
Anthropogenic Causes
 Deforestation: Deforestation is another
major cause of landslides. Tree, brushes and
grasses keep the soil particles compact.
Mountain slope looses their protective cover
by felling of trees. The rain water flows on
such slopes with unimpeded speed.
 Building of roads: In mountainous regions, heavy construction activities dislodges rock
structure and change the angle of slope leaving them vulnerable for landslide.
 Shifting agriculture: In the North Eastern part of India, the number and frequency of
landslides has increased due to the practice of shifting agriculture.
 Construction of houses and other buildings: For giving shelter to the ever-increasing
population and promotion of tourism more and more house and hotels are being built. In
building processes large amount of debris created. This causes the landslides.
Landslide Risk in India
On the basis of frequency and other controlling factors like geology, geomorphic agents, slope,
land-use, vegetation cover and human activities, India has been divided into a number of
vulnerability zones as shown in table below:
Very High  Highly unstable, relatively young mountainous areas in the Himalayas and
Vulnerability Andaman and Nicobar,
Zone  High rainfall regions with steep slopes in the Western Ghats and Nilgiris, the
north- eastern regions,
 Areas that experience frequent ground-shaking due to earthquakes, etc. and
 Areas of intense human activities, particularly those related to construction of
roads, dams, etc.
High  Very high vulnerability zone are included in this category. (except the plains of
Vulnerability Assam)
Zone  The only difference between these two is the combination, intensity and
frequency of the controlling factors.
Moderate to  Areas that receive less precipitation such as-
Low - Trans-Himalayan areas of Ladakh and Spiti (Himachal Pradesh),
Vulnerability - undulated yet stable relief and low precipitation areas in the Aravali,
Zone - rain shadow areas in the Western and Eastern Ghats and
- Deccan plateau
 Landslides due to mining and subsidence are most common in states like
Jharkhand, Orissa, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Goa and Kerala.
Other Areas The remaining parts of India, particularly states like Rajasthan, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh,
Bihar, West Bengal (except district Darjiling), Assam (except district KarbiAnglong) and
Coastal regions of the southern States are safe as far as landslides are concerned.
Landslide Hazard Mitigation NDMA guidelines
 Hazard zones have to be identified and specific slides to be stabilized and managed in
addition to monitoring and early warning systems to be placed at selected sites.

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 It is always advisable to adopt area-specific measures to deal with landslides. Student Notes:
 Hazard mapping should be done to locate areas commonly prone to landslides.
 Restriction on the construction and other developmental activities such as roads and
dams, limiting agriculture to valleys and areas with moderate slopes, and control on the
development of large settlements in the high vulnerability zones, should be enforced.
 Large-scale afforestation programmes and construction of bunds to reduce the flow of
water should be encouraged.
 Terrace farming should be promoted in the north-eastern hill states replacing Jhumming
or shifting cultivation.
 Retaining walls can be built of mountain slopes to stop land from slipping.Vulnerable
slopes and existing hazardous landslides should be treated accordingly.
 Codes for excavation, construction and grading must be prepared.
 Arrangements for landslide insurance and compensation for losses must be put in place.
Existing Challenges
 Integrating landslide concerns in the development of disaster management plans at
different levels i.e., national, state, district, municipal/panchayat is required.
 Switch-over from piecemeal remediation of landslides to simultaneous and holistic
implementation of control measures is the need of the hour.
 Techno-legal regime for introduction of sound slope protection, planned urbanisation,
regulated land use and environment friendly land management practices must be done.
 Zero tolerance against deliberate environmental violence and unhealthy construction
practices must be enforced. Laws governing new constructions and alteration of existing
land use on problematic slopes and in landslide prone areas must be enacted.
 Establishment of a disaster knowledge network and a mechanism for dissemination of
information at the national level, mechanism for international linkages, cooperation and
joint initiatives must be undertaken.

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3.3.7. Cloudburst d
i
Cloudburst is a disastrous weather event in which heavy rainfall occurs over a localized area at
f
a very fast rate. If rainfall of about 10 cm or above per hour is recorded over a place that is
f
roughly 20-30 sq km in area, it is classified as a cloudburst event.
e
How are cloudbursts formed? r
Cloudbursts happen when saturated clouds are unable to produce rain because of the upward e
movement of very warm current of air. Raindrops, instead of dropping down, are carried n
upwards by the air current. New drops are formed and existing raindrops gain in size. After a t
point, the raindrops become too heavy for the cloud to hold on to, and they drop down
together in a quick flash. Hilly terrains aid in heated air currents rising vertically upwards,
thereby, increasing the probability of a cloudburst
situation.
In India, they are likely to
occur when monsoon clouds
associated with low pressure
area travel northward from
the Bay of Bengal across the
Ganges plains onto the
Himalayas and ‘burst’ in
heavy downpours. There can
be individual or multiple
cloudburst events in each
instance. The Uttarakhand
disaster of 2013, for example,
had several cloudburst
events, two of them big ones.
Cloudburst risks in India
Cloudburst in India occurs during the monsoon season over the orographically dominant
regions like Himalayan region, north-eastern states and Western Ghats. Cloudbursts do happen
in plains as well, but there is a greater probability of them occurring in mountainous zones. For
example- like steep hills favour the formation of these
Five worst cloudburst events in India:
clouds.
 Great Musi flood of 1908 near Hyderabad
While NDMA has not released guidelines  Mumbai Cloudburst 2005
specifically on Cloudbursts, guidelines on floods  Jammu and Kashmir cloudburst 2010
and landslides are also applicable to  Uttarakhand cloudbursts 1998 and 2013
cloudbursts
because it is the consequences of heavy rain, especially in the hilly terrain, that causes death
and destruction.
Impact and Mitigation
Cloudbursts are known to frequently trigger flash floods and landslides. They can be especially
dangerous in compact and enclosed spaces on slopes due to their suddenness. Rescue and
relief and evacuations cannot be enough due to the
sudden nature of the disaster. A useful model in cloudburst mitigation is
Copenhagen, whose municipal
Increasing anthropogenic activities, venturing in department has organized a cloudburst
unsafe areas due to limited land availability and master plan. It aims to decouple 30 to 40
heavy localized precipitation are continuously per cent of the excess storm water from
increasing the landslide vulnerability. the combined sewer system. The plan
incorporates concretization as well as
While IMD provides real time rainfall situation
creation of canals and the greening of
and intensity as well as rainfall forecast for
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Student Notes:

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temporal and spatial scales, it is very difficult to predict the cloud bursts due to its very small Student Notes:
scale in space and time.
Some important measures that can be undertaken to mitigate the risk of cloudbursts are:
 People should inhabit areas on hard rock and firm ground of slopes instead if valleys and
abandoned channels.
 At locations where ground fissures have developed and subsidence taken place appropriate
measures for checking infiltration of water must be taken.
 People living around should be trained to remain vigilant and any physical change in the
slope must be brought to the immediate notice of the authorities.
 Indiscriminate and unscientific construction should be banned especially in landslide
affected areas.
 Safe disposal of rainwater needs to be given due importance, therefore, surface and
subsurface drainage measures should be planned and executed. Drain pipes may be
provided on debris slope.
 The bioengineering technology can be successfully implemented by using specific and local
vegetation along with engineering measures to reduce instability and soil erosion.
 A dense network of rain gauges particularly in the areas identified as being vulnerable to
cloudburst may be put in place.
3.3.8. Cyclone
What is Cyclone?
Cyclone is a region of low atmospheric pressure
surrounded by high atmospheric pressure resulting in
swirling atmospheric disturbance accompanied by
powerful winds. They occur mainly in the tropical and
temperate regions of the world.
Within the cyclone field, strong winds blow around
the low pressure center in an anti-clockwise direction
in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in
Southern Hemisphere, though the wind at the center
(known as eye of the cyclone) is very little and
generally free from cloud and rain. Winds increase
rapidly to its peak (often exceeding 150 km/h) at
about 20 to 30 km from the center and thereafter
decrease gradually.
Causes of Cyclones
Cyclones are centered on areas of low atmospheric pressure, usually over warm ocean
waters near the equator.
How cyclones are formed? The warm moist air over the ocean rises from the surface in the
upward direction, resulting in the formation of the low-pressure zone over the surface. Air
from the surrounding region, with higher pressure, pushes into the low-pressure area. The cool
air becomes warm and moist and rises again, thus the cycle continues. As the warm air rises,
the moisture in the air cools thus leading to the formation of cloud. The whole system grows
gradually and becomes fast with time. As a result of this, an eye is created in the centre, which
is the low-pressure center into which the high-pressure air flows from above, thus creating a
cyclone.
There are six main requirements for tropical cyclogenesis:
 sufficiently warm sea surface temperatures
 atmospheric instability

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 high humidity in the lower to Student Notes:
middle levels of
the troposphere
 enough Coriolis force to
sustain a low pressure center
 a preexisting low level focus
or disturbance, and low
vertical wind shear.
Cyclone Risks in India
More than 8000 km of coastline in
the east and the west face the
hazards of tropical cyclones, and
associated storm surges and heavy
rainfall, before and after the
monsoon. Post monsoon cyclones
are usually more intense both in
numbers and intensity. It has been
estimated that over 58 per cent of
the cyclonic storms that develop in
the Bay of Bengal approach or
cross the east coast in October and
November. Only 25 per cent of the
storms that develop over the
Arabian Sea hit the west coast.
Thirteen coastal states and Union
Territories (UTs) in the country,
encompassing 84 coastal districts, are affected by tropical cyclones and most coastal cities have
high population density.
NDMA guidelines on cyclones
The NDMA had come up with its National Guidelines of Management of Cyclones in 2008. The
basic premise of these guidelines is that the mitigation has to be multi-sectoral.
 Early Warning System: IMD in India has operationalized a satellite based communication
system called Cyclone Warning Dissemination System for direct dissemination of cyclone
warnings to the cyclone prone coastal areas. Cyclone warnings are provided by IMD from
the Area Cyclone Warning Centers (ACWCs) at Calcutta, Chennai and Mumbai and Cyclone
Warning Centers (CWCs) at Bhubaneswar, Visakhapatnam and Ahmedabad. Use of
Doppler radars is also extensive.
 Aircraft Probing of Cyclone (APC) facility: Aircraft probing and surveillance enables the
observation of upper air phenomena, especially cloud aerosol interaction. The guidelines
recommend the establishment of aircraft probing for cyclone (APC) facilities to understand
the cyclone core environment.
 National Disaster Communication Infrastructure: The guidelines recommend the
commissioning of the National Disaster Communication Infrastructure (NDCI) at the
NDMA/MHA, State Disaster Management Authorities (SDMAs) of coastal states/UTs.
 Structural safety of lifeline infrastructure in coastal areas must be ensured and multi-
purpose cyclone shelters and cattle mounds must be constructed and identified. All
weather roads linking habitations to these shelters must be constructed.
 Coastal flood zoning, flood plain development and flood inundation management and
regulatory plans must be implemented.

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 Saline embankments and coastal bio-shields to prevent ingress of saline water associated Student Notes:
with cyclonic storm surge must be constructed and capacity of drains and canals must be
maintained.

The IMD’s four colour codes are:

Green: This code means that “all is well” and there is no likelihood of any adverse weather-
related incident, and there are no advisories issued.
Yellow: The colour yellow signals authorities to “be aware” or on their guard, with the
likelihood of severely bad weather that could last several days at a stretch, while also
suggesting that the weather could take a turn for the worse and upset daily activities.
Orange: Meaning “be prepared”, the orange alert is a warning for extremely bad weather,
electricity blackouts, and the possibility of communication disruptions, including road and rail
closures.
Red: The IMD issues the highest level of warning—indicating authorities should “take action”—only
when it is guaranteed that bad weather is going to upend travel and power and pose a
significant risks to life.
Mitigation and Challenges
The Government of India has initiated the National Cyclone Risk Mitigation Project (NCRMP)
with a view to address cyclone risks in the country. The overall objective of the Project is to
undertake suitable structural and non-structural measures to mitigate the effects of cyclones
in the coastal states and UTs of India. It aims to reduce vulnerability of coastal communities to
cyclone and other hydro meteorological hazards through:
 improved early warning dissemination systems
 enhanced capacity of local communities to respond to disasters
 improved access to emergency shelter, evacuation, and protection against wind storms,
flooding and storm surge in high areas
 Strengthening DRM capacity at central, state and local levels in order to enable
mainstreaming of risk mitigation measures into the overall development agenda.
The Project has identified 13 cyclone prone States and Union Territories (UTs) classified into
two categories, based on the frequency of occurrence of cyclone, size of population and the
existing institutional mechanism for disaster management. These categories are:
 Category I: Higher vulnerability States i.e. Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Odisha, Tamil Nadu
and West Bengal.
 Category II: Lower vulnerability States i.e., Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala, Goa,
Pondicherry, Lakshadweep, Daman and Diu, Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) under the aegis of Ministry of Home
Affairs(MHA) will implement the Project in coordination with participating State Governments
and the National Institute for Disaster Management (NIDM). The project is partially funded by
the World Bank.
Challenges
 The failure to adequately respond to warnings stemming from lack of planning and
coordination at the national and local levels, as well as a lack of understanding by people
of their risks.
 There is a lack of grass root level participation in disaster management to build up
effective resilience to disasters.
 There is a lack of a fully automated and state-of-the-art operation centre at NDMA and
MHA with all terminal-end facilities and communication connectivity both for routine
activities and also during disasters.

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 There is a need for integration of networks set up by various agencies to establish various v
types of networks in the country for disaster management. a
 A comprehensive Cyclone Disaster Management Information System (CDMIS) covering all r
phases of DM to provide on-line services to the departments of Disaster Management in i
the states must be set up. a
t
3.3.9. Drought
i
Droughts refer to a serious shortfall in availability of o
water, mainly, but not exclusively, due to deficiency of n
rains, affecting agriculture, drinking water supply and .
industry. It is a slow onset disaster which evolves over
months or even years and affects a large spatial extent.
Drought is a complex phenomenon as it involves
elements like precipitation, evaporation,
evapotranspiration, agricultural elements like ground
water, soil moisture, storage and surface run-off,
agricultural practices, particularly the types of crops
grown and social elements like socio-economic practices
and ecological conditions.
Types of Droughts
Meteorological  When there is a prolonged period of inadequate rainfall marked with mal-
Drought distribution of the same over time and space.
 Rainfall less than 90 per cent of average is categorized as meteorological
drought.
Agricultural  It is characterized by low soil moisture that is necessary to support the crops,
Drought thereby resulting in crop failures
 If an area has more than 30 per cent of its gross cropped area under irrigation,
the area is excluded from the drought-prone category.
 An extreme agricultural drought can lead to a famine, which is a prolonged
shortage of food in a restricted region causing widespread disease and death
from starvation. This is why some times in Hindi language famine Akal and
Anavrishty are also used for drought.
 The government also declares on area affected by drought, if more than 50
percent crop loss happens in an area due to meteorological condition.
Hydrological  When the availability of water in different storages and reservoirs like aquifers,
Drought lakes, reservoirs, etc. falls below what the precipitation can replenish.
Ecological  When the productivity of a natural ecosystem fails due to shortage of water
Drought and as a consequence of ecological distress, damages are induced in the
ecosystem.
Causes of Drought
Drought results from a long continued dry weather
and/or insufficient rain, which causes loss of soil
moisture, depletion of underground water supply
and reduction of stream flow.
The causative factors are both natural and man-
made. The causes for droughts are increasingly
attributable to the mismatch between supply and
demand. Droughts in India have their own
peculiarities requiring appreciation of some basic
facts. These are:
 India has an average annual rainfall of around
1150 mm, however, there is considerable annual
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Student Notes:

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 More than 80% of rainfall is received in less than 100 days during the South-west monsoon Student Notes:
and the geographic spread is uneven.
 21% area receives less than 700 mm rains annually making such areas the hot spots of
drought.
 Inadequacy of rains coupled with adverse land-man ratio compels the farmers to practice
rain-fed agriculture in large parts of the country.
 Per capita water availability in the
The IMD recognizes five drought situations:
country is steadily declining.
 ‘Drought Week’ when the weekly rainfall
 The traditional water harvesting systems is less than half of the normal.
have been largely abandoned.  ‘Agricultural Drought’ when four drought
 Production of ill-suited, water intensive weeks occur consecutively during mid-
cash crops by farmers. One stark June to September.
example of such practice is production of  ‘Seasonal Drought’ when seasonal
‘Mentha’ crop in Bundelkhand region of rainfall is deficient by more than the
Uttar Pradesh, an area known to face standard deviation from the normal.
droughts frequently.  ‘Drought Year’ when annual rainfall is
 EL Nino effect which has occurred deficient by 20 per cent of normal or
more.
frequently in recent years.
 ‘Severe Drought Year’ when annual
 Activities like deforestation and the rainfall is deficient by 25 to 40 per cent of
encroachment of wetlands reduce the
natural ability of the land to retain
water.
 Global warming and changes in climate
patterns lead to fluctuations in
monsoon patterns and exacerbate
drought conditions
Risk of Drought in India
In India, around 68% of the country is
prone to drought in varying degrees. Over
500 of India’s 718 districts monitored by
the India Meteorological Department
(IMD) are currently reporting
meteorological drought conditions, ranging
from mildly dry to extremely dry. Most of
India — 53 per cent
of the districts — was found to be in the ‘mildly dry’ category. Almost the whole of Northeast
India, pockets of eastern India, Jammu and Kashmir and large parts of the Southern Peninsula,
stretching from Maharashtra, Karnataka to Andhra Pradesh in the eastern coast were in the
‘moderately dry’ or ‘extremely dry’ categories.
Recently the NITI Aayog, under the Composite Water Management Index report highlighted
that about two lakh people die in India every year due to inadequate water and sanitation. It
states that the 6% of GDP will be lost by 2050 due to water crisis.
While declining per capita water availability contributes towards India’s water crisis, failure to
manage its water resources effectively is also a major reason. The Composite Water
Management Index (CWMI), to evaluate States, has been developed by the NITI Aayog and
comprises 9 broad sectors with 28 different indicators covering various aspects of
groundwater, restoration of water bodies, irrigation, farm practices, drinking water, policy and
governance. The adjoining figure highlights the performance of the states in the index.
Approximately, 820 million people of India - living in twelve river basins across the country
have per capita water availability close to or lower than 1000m 3 – the official threshold for
water scarcity as per the Falkenmark Index.

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On the basis of severity of droughts, India can be divided into the 3 regions: Student Notes:
Extreme Drought  Most parts of Rajasthan, particularly areas to the west of the Aravali hills,
Affected Areas i.e. Marusthali and Kachchh regions of Gujarat fall in this category.
 The districts like Jaisalmer and Barmer from the Indian desert that
receive less that 90 mm average annual rainfall.
Severe Drought  Parts of eastern Rajasthan, most parts of Madhya Pradesh, eastern parts
Affected Areas of Maharashtra, interior parts of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka Plateau,
northern parts of interior Tamil Nadu and southern parts of Jharkhand
and interior Odisha.
Moderate Drought  Northern parts of Rajasthan, Haryana, southern districts of Uttar
Affected Areas Pradesh, the remaining parts of Gujarat, Maharashtra except Konkan,
Jharkhand and Coimbatore plateau of Tamil Nadu and interior
Karnataka.
NDMA Guidelines on Management ofDrought
The NDMA guidelines on management of drought were issued in 2010. It is observed in the
guidelines that state intervention in drought management has a significant positive impact.
Some of the recommendations in the guidelines are as follows:
 Separate Drought Monitoring Cells (DMCs) should be created at the state level under the
control of State Disaster Management Authorities which will prepare vulnerability maps in
collaboration with National Remote Sensing Centre.
 A control room should be established for drought management and specific guidelines
should be issued for the use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) for real-
time information related to droughts.
 Government of India should undertake the watershed development approach through
various programs.
 Automatic weather stations set up by IMD to Cloud seeding also known as a
include moisture sensors for obtaining information weather modification technique is
an artificial way to induce moisture
about soil moisture levels. The Village Resources
in the clouds so as to cause a
Centers established by ISRO may be used towards rainfall. In this process silver iodide,
drought management. A cloud seeding policy may potassium iodide or dry ice (solid
be considered as the national level. carbon dioxide) is dumped onto the
 Assessment of damage must be done in terms of clouds causing rainfall.
agricultural production, depletion of water resources, livestock population, land
degradation and deforestation as well as human health.
 To support income credit should be provided promptly including consumption loan.
Insurance products will be developed for different agro-climatic zones providing coverage
against drought.
 Afforestation with subabul, seemaruba, casurina, eucalyptus and bio diesel plantation like
jetropha and pongomia will be encouraged.
 A realistic national training and capacity building programme for drought management
should be formulated and implemented. PRIs and ULBs will ensure capacity building of
their officers and employees in DM to carry out relief, rehabilitation and reconstruction
activities. They will be encouraged to take up awareness programmes.
 In case of late monsoons or dry spells, seeds with short duration varieties should be made
available on subsidy. Inter-cropping, mulching, weeding should be promoted.
 For animals, creation of fodder banks, use of tank bunds, undertaking market intervention
to keep fodder prices stable must be done.
Impact and Mitigation
Drought has direct and negative impacts on agricultural production. Drought-prone districts
account for 42 per cent of the country’s cultivable lands. Rainfed crops account for 48 per
cent of the total area under food crops and 68 per cent of the area under non-food crops,
according

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to the National Rainfed Areas Authority. Severe droughts in rainfed areas have reduced Student Notes:
agricultural production by 20 to 40 per cent.
Drought in rainfed areas hits small and marginal farmers hard, threatening their food and
livelihood security. Around 78 per cent of the farmers who committed suicide in the last one
decade were small farmers and 76 per cent of them were dependent on rain-fed agriculture.
To tackle the complex water challenge facing India, it is imperative to take a holistic view of
water, starting with the hydrological system, the interactions of this system with climate
change on the one hand, and with human factors across agriculture, industrial, and energy
production activity on the other.
In the early 1970s, the Drought Prone Areas Programme (DPAP) and the Desert Development
Programme (DDP) were implemented to revive the ecology in hot and cold deserts. The
drought in 1987 forced to shift the focus of government to long-term measures such as water
shed development. The DPAP and DDP programmes were redrafted to make watershed
development a unit of drought proofing. Other watershed-based programmes were also
launched, including the National Watershed Development Programme for Rain-fed Areas
(NWDPRA) and the Watershed Development Programme for Shifting Cultivation (WDPSC).
Now rainwater harvesting – specifically revival of traditional systems – has been given priority
in drought management, particularly under the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment
Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGA). In 2013, the Government of India announced the setting up of
50,000 groundwater monitoring wells and “embarked upon the ambitious national aquifer
mapping programme towards Sustainable Water Management”
Drought mitigation efforts should be complemented with better monsoon forecast and
promotion of other drought-proofing mechanisms such as saving on seeds and grains and easy
loans to tide over the rough weather. Adoption of soil conservation measures, water
harvesting practices, optimum use of water resources, transfer of water from surplus to deficit
areas, plantation of drought resistant vegetation are some measures to reduce the vulnerability
of drought prone areas.
Irrigation has proved to be the most effective drought proofing mechanism and single biggest
factor in bringing about the large measure of stability in agriculture production. Construction of
storage dam facilitated irrigation by making use of water at proper time of need. The drought
prone areas coming under the command of irrigation project is thus provided with assured
irrigation water supply throughout the year.
Institutional Framework: Ministry of Agriculture is the nodal ministry for management of
drought crisis in India. Ministry of Jal Shakti is involved in drought management mainly on
policy guidelines, monitoring and technical & financial assistance to schemes which are drought
proofing. Crop Weather Watch Group (CWWG), an inter-Ministerial mechanism of Central
Govt. meets once a week during rainy season (June-September). IMD and the National Centre
for Medium Range Weather Forecasting offer meteorological information support for drought
preparedness and early warning.
Existing Challenges
Some of the key challenges with water and drought management in India are as follows:
 Lack of proper, reliable data on water: Data in the water sector exists in silos, with very
little horizontal and vertical data sharing across the value chain of water thereby reducing
efficiencies. For example, estimates on groundwater are mostly based on observation data
from 15,640 wells, while there are 30 million groundwater structures in the country.
 Remote sensing and geographic information system can enable real time data on water
and catalyse communities to conserve water resources. Every single water asset including
borewell can be geo-tagged and groundwater levels monitored on an online platform.
These need to be used extensively.

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 India needs to radically improve its farm water efficiency which is presently amongst the Student Notes:
lowest in the world. Our farmers use 3-5 times more water than Chinese, Israeli and
American farmers for producing the same crop. States also need to segregate agricultural
power feeders so that electricity consumption, particularly for water extraction, can be
measured and monitored.
 Adoption of both short and Successful Initiatives in Drought Management
long term measures would Jalyukt Shivar in Maharashtra, Mukhya Mantri Jal
remain sub-optimal unless Swavalamban Abhiyan in Rajasthan, Mission Kakatiya in
larger issues like the Telangana, SujalamSufalam in Gujarat are making a difference.
National Water Budget Under Jalyukt Shivar water harvesting structures made nearly
and a policy regime that 11,000 villages drought free. It also resulted in groundwater
takes cognizance of the table rise by 1.5-2m.
mismatch between supply Jabalpur, Indore and Gwalior corporations have granted
and demand are properly rebate on property tax for rainwater harvesting facility.
addressed. In Telangana nearly 17,000 minor irrigation tanks were
 A major cause for India’s restored, supplying collected rainwater to 19 lakh acres of
groundwater crisis is the legal framework that ties up water rights with land rights and
allows landowners to extract unlimited groundwater. Maharashtra, which has controlled
extraction of groundwater through legislation. Permission for digging new wells necessitate
building a groundwater recharge structure alongside.
 There is an imperative for a rational and pragmatic policy for pricing water. There is great
willingness to pay for regular supply of water. Pricing of water will ensure adequate
investment in water infrastructure.
How do heat waves occur?
3.3.10. Heat Wave
Heat waves occur when a ridge of high
What is a Heat Wave? pressure sits over a region for an extended
A Heat Wave is a period of abnormally high period of time, bringing down dry, hot air to
the ground. As the air sinks, it warms and
temperatures that leads to physiological stress,
compresses and it becomes very hot by the
which may sometimes cause death. The World time it reaches the surface.
Meteorological Organization defines a heat
This hot air quickly heats up the ground,
wave as five or more consecutive days during
which raises the air temperature. Since the
which the daily maximum temperature exceeds centre of high pressure areas are usually
the average maximum temperature by five cloud free, the direct sunlight further raises
degree celsius. In India heat wave conditions the day time temperature creating a heat
are considered if maximum temperature of a
station
reaches at least 40oC or more for plains, 37oC or more for coastal areas and at least 30oC or
more for hilly regions.
Heat Wave Risks in India
Higher daily peak temperatures and longer, more intense heat waves are becomingly
increasingly frequent globally due to climate change. Heat waves have also increased in
frequency, from about 75 events averaged over 1979-1983 to about 98 over 2016-2020.
In India, April to June is a typical heat wave season. Most of the states across northwest India,
Gangetic Plains, Central India and east coast India are affected during the heat wave season.
According, to NDMA, heatwave caused 24223 deaths since 1992 to 2015 in various states.
However, it is likely that the death figure is much higher as heat related illness is often recorded
inaccurately and figures from rural areas are hard to attain. Cities are hotter than rural areas
due to population density, pollution from industrial activities and presence of buildings. Mostly
weaker sections of the society have to work in the extreme heat to make their ends meet and
are extremely vulnerable to the adverse impacts of heat waves such as dehydration, heat and
sun strokes.

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NDMA Guidelines Student Notes:
The National Disaster Management Criteria for Heat Wave in India
The Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) has
Authority (NDMA) released National
given the following criteria for Heat Waves:
Guidelines for Preparation of Action
Heat wave need not be considered till maximum
Plan - Prevention and Management temperature of a station reaches at least 40°C for
of Heat Wave. Heat Waves has not Plains and at least 30°C for Hilly regions.
been notified as a Disaster as defined  When normal maximum temperature of a station
under the Disaster Management Act, is less than or equal to 40°C
2005 by the Government yet. Heat  Heat Wave Departure from normal is 5°C to 6° C
wave is not even notified in the list of  Severe Heat Wave Departure from normal is
12 disasters eligible for relief under 7°C or more
National/ State Disaster Response  When normal maximum temperature of a station
is more than 40° C
Fund norms.
 Heat Wave Departure from normal is 4° C to 5°
• Government Engagement: C
Mandating participation from  Severe Heat Wave Departure from normal is
State and district government 6° C or more
leaders, municipal health  When actual maximum temperature remains 45°C
or more irrespective of normal maximum
agencies, disaster management
authorities and local partners.
• Appointing State Nodal Agency and Officer to conduct table-top exercises, simulations and
drills before the heat season as well as to ensure coordination among various stakeholders.
• Vulnerability assessment and establishing Heat-Health threshold temperatures: It is
important in order to establish priorities and minimum threshold for heat alerts and
activities. The state should coordinate with IMD to develop threshold temperatures.
• Drafting and developing Heat Action plan: The State Nodal Officer can coordinate with
local IMD office to start receiving summer season forecasts and release early warning and
daily alert system with colour codes.
• Team Preparation and Coordination: Government should ensure that state officials and
agencies are well trained and well informed regarding pre, during and post heat season
activities. This will ensure clearly defined inter agency emergency response plan with roles
and information flows clearly marked out.
• Implementation and monitoring: Information, Education and Communication plays an
important role in widely disseminating key messages to communities in advance.
o Do’s and Don’ts during a heat wave should be available in local language and
disseminated through media including social media.
• Evaluating and Updating the plan: After every heat season, the city or state must assess
the efficacy of the heat action plan, including processes, outcomes and impacts.
• Strategies for reducing extreme heat exposures and adapting to climate change (Long
Term): States should consider mitigation strategies, such as increasing green cover in a city
to reduce UHI effect or implementing cool roofs.
Heat Wave Hazard Mitigation
 Four criteria are important for prevention and mitigation of heat waves:
 forecasting heat waves and enabling an early warning system;
 building capacity of healthcare professionals to deal with heat wave-related
emergencies;
 community outreach through various media; and
 inter-agency cooperation as well as engagement with other civil society organizations
in the region
 Create a list of the high-risk areas of the city vulnerable to heat waves for more focused
activities on heat prevention. For example- Adoption of a ‘Heat Action Plan’ (HAP)

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 Build on the “Green Cover” activity to establish tree-plantation campaign in hotspot areas Student Notes:
such as roadsides and during plantation festival in June.
 Discuss establishing cooling centre facilities in high-risk areas around city.
 Public awareness- Conduct training workshops and outreach sessions with community
groups and mobilizers such as Mahila Arogya Samiti, Self-Employed Women's Association
(SEWA), ASHA workers, aanganwadis, and municipal councils to help inform and get
vulnerable communities more actively involved, including women. Incorporate other
sectors such as higher education, non-profits, and community leaders to increase reach to
communities.
 Protect environment. Adopt sustainable environment practices.

Heat action plans (HAPs)

The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) has initiated heat action plans (HAPs) — with
the first HAP for Ahmedabad. NDMA is encouraging the preparation of local HAPs to address
specific needs at the district, city, and town levels. Appointing dedicated heat officers could
enhance the coordination and implementation of these plans. These HAPs require the participation
of local governments, civic groups, and communities, promoting behavioral change, adaptation, and
urban planning. There are three key strands of support that HAPs must offer.
 One, it is crucial to improve temperature monitoring across cities and towns through a dense
network of weather stations. This network should provide granular data on microclimates,
enabling the identification of high-risk areas.
 Two, preparedness measures are essential to mitigate the immediate effects of extreme heat.
Regulating working and school hours can help protect vulnerable populations. Ensuring
adequate water availability through public drinking water facilities and awareness campaigns is
vital. Enhancing health system preparedness by training healthcare workers to recognise and
treat heat- related illnesses will improve community resilience.
 Three, implementing solutions such as improving and restoring water bodies, increasing
vegetation cover, and promoting cool roofs and better ventilation in buildings will enhance
thermal comfort.
In the next few years, cities will require significant knowledge support to prepare and monitor heat
action plans. Further, financial support for HAPs needs to be evolved based on a pooling
arrangement, with governments at different levels and the private sector contributing to the cause.
While heat waves are currently considered local disasters, their increasing severity will necessitate
Existing Challenges in Heat Wave Management
 Lack of research using sub-district level data to provide separate indices for urban and
rural areas to enable more targeted geographical interventions.
 Narrow analysis of urban ward-level data to provide intra-city vulnerability patterns.
 Less active usage of available provisions of public messaging (radio, TV), mobile phone-
based text messages, automated phone calls and alerts.
 Lack of Public awareness like promotion of traditional adaptation practices, such as staying
indoors and wearing comfortable clothes.
 Half-hearted attempts for popularization of simple design features such as shaded
windows, underground water storage tanks and insulating housing materials.
 Unavailability of provision of drinking water within housing premises and indoor toilets.
3.3.11. Cold Wave
What is a Cold Wave?
A cold wave is a weather phenomenon that is distinguished by marked cooling of air, or the
invasion of very cold air, over a large area. It can also be a prolonged period of the excessively
cold weather, which may be accompanied by high winds that cause excessive wind chills. Cold
waves can be preceded or accompanied by significant winter weather events, such as blizzards
or ice storms.

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Causes of Cold Waves Student Notes:
Cold waves over India are primarily due to transport of cold air from higher latitudes. It is
usually associated with La-Nina, cyclonic activities and Jet streams (western disturbances).
Western disturbances manifest as eastward moving well marked troughs in the upper
tropospheric westerlies north of 20° N and often extend to the lower troposphere. It
transports cold air from northern latitudes into India. There are also few instances of
occurrence of cold waves due to a low pressure system over the North Arabian Sea. In these
cases, the easterlies to the north of the low pressure system transport cold air from higher
latitudes.

Cold waves Risks in India

Cold waves that occur during winter months from November to February exert considerable
stress to the people of northern India. During cold wave episodes, a drop of more than 4°C is
observed in minimum temperatures, and these episodes generally persist for 3–5 days and
their occurrence peaks in the month of January.
Distribution pattern for Cold waves in India
Northern India:
December and January are the coldest months
in the northern plain. The night temperature
may go below freezing point in Punjab and
Rajasthan. Reasons for the excessive cold in
north India can be:
 States like Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan
being far away from the moderating
influence of sea experience continental
climate.
 The snowfall in the nearby Himalayan
ranges creates cold wave situation; and
 Around February, the cold winds coming
from the Caspian Sea and Turkmenistan
bring cold wave along with frost and fog over the north western parts of India.
The peninsular region:
The Peninsular region of India does not have any well-defined cold weather season. There is
hardly any seasonal change in the distribution pattern of the temperature in coastal areas
because of moderating influence of the sea, and proximity to the equator.

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 Student Notes:

Cold Wave Hazard Mitigation

 In case of cold wave/frost situation, States needs to initiate location specific measures as
outlined in District Crop Contingency Plans and in consultation with respective State
Agricultural Universities to minimise its impact.
 Farmers are to provide light irrigation as per need, immediately prune damaged tips of
branches or shoot, burn
leave/waste material in the
orchard to create smoke and
manage rejuvenation of
damaged crops through
pruning of dead material,
application of extra doses of
fertilizer through foliar sprays.
 Plan for the potential to
convert schools and other
public buildings into shelters to
keep vulnerable citizens out of
the cold.
 Remain aware of the effects
that exposure to extreme cold
has on children, the elderly, as
well as those already ill, and
promote outreach and
preparedness efforts.
 Insulate any water lines running
along exterior walls so your
water supply will be less likely
to freeze.
 Adequate preparedness of the community and local governments can prevent deaths due
to cold waves.
Existing Challenges in Cold Wave Hazard Management
 As Cold Wave/Frost is a localised disaster event, location specific mitigation plans should
be drawn up by the concerned State Governments instead of a National level plan.
 Lack of participation at community level like SHGs, PRIs.
 Lack of preparedness in advance.

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3.3.12. Wild Fire Student Notes:
What is Wild fire?
Fires in forests are not unnatural and are usually considered good for natural forest
development and regeneration. A wildfire is simply an uncontrolled combustion that consumes
large fields and areas of land.
Factors of Heat Supply in a Forest
Causes of Wild fires Natural Factors: Lightning, Friction of rolling stone,
While wild fires are caused by both Rubbing of dry bamboo clumps, volcanic explosion etc.
natural as well as manmade factors, Anthropogenic Factors may be further be categorized
into:
more than ninety five percent
 Deliberate Causes: Shifting Cultivation, Fires
forest fires are caused either by induced for flush growth of tendu leaves, good
negligence or unknowingly by the growth of grass and fodder, to encroach upon the
human beings. forest land, to conceal illicit felling.
Out of three essential components  Accidental Causes: Burning farm residues, Camp
fires by picnickers, sparks from vehicle exhaust,
of fire triangle, two components i.e.
fuel and oxygen are naturally available in forest. It is the third component i.e. heat that really
initiates fire in the forest. Heat may be supplied by either natural or artificial reasons.
Topography also has a role to play in the spread of wild fires. On hill slopes, for example, if the
fire starts downhill, it spreads up fast as heated air adjacent to a slope tends to flow up the
slope spreading flames along with it. If the fire starts uphill, there is less likelihood of it
spreading downwards.
Types of Forest Fire
There are two types of forest fire:
 Surface Fire- A forest fire may burn primarily as a surface fire, spreading along the ground
as the surface litter (senescent leaves and twigs and dry grasses etc.) on the forest floor
and is engulfed by the spreading flames.
 Crown Fire- The other type of forest fire is a crown fire in which the crown of trees and
shrubs burn, often sustained by a surface fire. A crown fire is particularly very dangerous in
a coniferous forest because resinous material given off burning logs burn furiously.
Wild fires Risks in India
Forest fires are a regular phenomenon in our country often observed during the fire season.
54.40% of forests in India are exposed to occasional fires, 7.49% to moderately frequent fires
and 2.405 to high incidence levels.
Distribution pattern for Wild fires in India
According to a report “Strengthening Forest Fire Management in India”, jointly released by the
MoEF&CC and the World Bank, forest fires in India are both widespread and concentrated.
Every year, forest fires occur in around half of the country’s 647 districts and in nearly all the
states. Yet, though fires are spread throughout the country, they occur much more frequently
and affect forest more in some districts than in others. Just 20 districts, representing 3 percent
of the India’s land area accounted for 44 percent of all forest fire detections from 2003 to
2016.
The vulnerability of the Indian forests to fire varies from place to place depending upon the
type of vegetation and the climate. The coniferous forest in the Himalayan region comprising
of fir, spruce, Deodar, Pine arevery prone to fire. The other affected area to fire in the country
happens to be in the Ganga-Yamuna watershed. The other parts of the country dominated by
deciduous forests are also damaged by fire.
Impact of Wild fires
 Huge investment by the government to suppress wildfires. Increase the potential for
flooding, debris flows, and landslides.
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 Smoke and other emissions contain pollutants that can cause significant health problems. Student Notes:
 Losses in productivity of the land, impacts on regeneration of species, and deleterious
impacts on water shed
 Global warming, soil erosion, loss of fuel, wood and fodder, damage to water
 Short-term effects: destruction of
timber, forage, wildlife habitats, Forest Fire Prevention & Management Scheme
scenic vistas, and watersheds It's a centrally sponsored scheme with an aim to
 Long-term effects: reduced access focus solely on the issue of forest fire prevention &
to recreational areas; destruction management and related activities. It aims to
prevent forest fires through awareness campaigns,
of community infrastructure and
improving traditional practices, encouraging
cultural and economic resources community participation and imparting training.
Forest Fires hazard mitigation in India In the long term, it seeks to institutionalize
partnership with forest communities and prepare a
During the British period, fire was
forest fire forecasting system.
prevented in the summer through
removal of forest litter all along the forest boundary. This was called Forest Fire Line, and was
used to prevent fire breaking into the forest from one compartment to another.
In 2016, Forest Survey of India developed an indigenous “Pre Warning Alert System” based on
parameters like Forest Cover, Forest Type, Climatic Variables (Temperature and Rainfall) and
recent fire incidences over the area. In 2017, the analysis was shifted to a grid based system
(5km x 5km).
In 2019, Forest Survey of India launched the beta-version of the Large Forest Fire Monitoring
Programme using near real time SNPP-VIIRS (Suomi-National Polar-orbiting Partnership -
Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite) data. This programme is a part of the FAST 3.0 (FSI
Fire Alerts System). It will monitor continuous, large forest fires using near-real time basis.
The FAST 3.0 is a collaborative effort between the US National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA), Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) and FSI.
Working: The NASA’s active fire data is sent to ISRO’s National Remote Sensing Centre in
Hyderabad and from there, it is sent to FSI. Then, based on naming convention centred around
forest ranges, the fire is labeled, like Dehradun I etc. Then, this update of Dehradun I fires is
sent to all the 40,000 registered users–both governmental and public–of the forest alert
system and gets updated in real time
Burnt Scar Assessment
It assesses forest area affected by the forest fires to assess damage. In the year 2015 and 2016,
high temporal data from Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) AWiFS (Advanced Wide Field Sensor) was
used to delineate burnt scars.
Presently, FSI is working on developing a semi-automated methodology for burnt area
assessment and severity class classification using modern technologies A full spectrum of
strategies that can be used to reduce wild fire risks in the unincorporated area are as follows:
 The fire spreads only if there is continuous supply of fuel (Dry vegetation) along its path.
The best way to control a forest fire is therefore, to prevent it from spreading, which can
be done by creating firebreaks in the shape of small clearings of ditches in the forests.
 Participation of the volunteers not only for firefighting but also to keep watch on the start
of forest fire and sound an alert.
 Arrange firefighting drills frequently.
 Proper utilization of media and available technologies for dissemination of exact
information to the people and the government.

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Existing Challenges in Wild fires Hazard Management Student Notes:
The incidence of forest fires in the country is on the increase and more area is burned each
year. The major cause of this failure is the piecemeal approach to the problem. Both the
national focus and the technical resources required for sustaining a systematic forest fire
management programme are lacking in the country.
 Inadequate research on previous wildfires, including ignition sources, burn severity
patterns, season of burning, and fire size
 Half-hearted attempts to study the effects of post fire runoff and erosion on aquatic
ecosystems and species
 Narrow spatial reach to monitor and provide early warnings using new technology, sensor
webs, and satellite technology
 Need to develop tools and methods to minimize impacts on human life and property,
especially in the wild land urban interface
 We never ask village communities to participate in managing forest resources, but expect
their support at times of crisis. Such attitude and approach should be changed by making
them aware of the situation and teach them what to do in case of such emergencies.
 There is a need to establish a National Institute of Forest Fire Management with satellite
centres in different parts of the country.
 Important forest fire management elements like strategic fire centres, coordination among
Ministries, funding, human resource development, fire research, fire management, and
extension programmes are missing.

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3.4. Anthropogenic Disasters Student Notes:
3.4.1. Biological Disasters
What is Biological Disaster?
Biological disasters are scenarios
Types of Biological Disasters
involving disease, disability or death
 Natural: An epidemic affects a disproportionately
on a large scale among humans, large number of individuals. It is an epidemic that is
animals and plants due to toxins or spread across a continent or worldwide.
disease caused by live organisms or  Man-Made: Biological Warfare and Bioterrorism
their products. are man-made biological disasters.
Such disasters may be natural in the form of epidemics or pandemics or man-made by the
intentional use of disease causing agents in Biological Warfare (BW) operations or incidents of
Bioterrorism (BT).
Causes of Epidemics
 Poor sanitary conditions leading to contamination of food and water or
 due to inadequate disposal of human or animal carcasses in post disaster situations
 They become real dangers during floods and earthquakes.
 Poor solid waste management may create epidemics like plague.
Incidence of plague is quite uncommon now but it can still occur claiming many human lives
and disrupting normal life as it did in Surat in 1994.
Major sources of Epidemics in India
In India, the major sources of epidemics can be broadly categorized as follows:
 Water-borne diseases like cholera (and forms of gastroenteritis), typhoid, Hepatitis A,
Hepatitis B etc. - major epidemics of such diseases have been recorded in the past and
continue to occur;
 Vector-borne (often mosquito-borne) epidemics like dengue fever, chikungunya fever,
Japanese encephalitis, malaria, kala-azar etc., which usually occur in certain regions of the
country;
 Person to person transmission of diseases e.g. AIDS and other venereal diseases; and
 Air-borne diseases like influenza and measles that can also be transmitted through fomites
(used clothes etc.).
In addition to the above, there are certain types of emerging infectious diseases such as
epidemic of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS), which had occurred in China or the
recent outbreak of avian flu in poultry in certain parts of the country and which has the
potential of being transmitted to human beings. Epidemics due to the Dengue virus have
occurred in many metropolitan cities of India and outbreak of various other types of viral
diseases is also a recurring phenomenon.
Trends Favouring Biological Disaster
 Low cost and wide spread availability
 More efficient in terms of coverage per kilogram of payload
 Advances in biotechnology has made production easy
 Used agents are largely natural pathogens to simulate existing diseases
 Have unmatched destructive potential
 Lethal biological agents can be produced easily and cheaply
 The lag time between infection and appearance of symptoms are longer than with
chemical exposure.

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Consequences of Biological Disaster Student Notes:
 It can result into heavy mortalities in the short term leading to a depletion of population
with a corresponding drop in economic activity
 It leads to diversion of substantial resources of an economy to contain the disaster.
 Bio weapons of mass destruction
Prevention and Mitigation Measures
 The general population should be educated and made aware of the threats and risks
associated with it.
 Only cooked food and boiled/chlorinated/filtered water should be consumed.
 Insects and rodent control measures must be initiated immediately.
 Clinical isolation of suspected and confirmed cases is essential.
 A network of laboratories should be established for proper laboratory diagnosis.
 Existing diseases surveillance system as well as vector control measures have to be
pursued more rigorously.
 Mass immunization programs in suspected areas have to be followed more rigorously.
 More focus should be given on the research of the vaccines which are not available.
Nodal Agencies for dealing with Biological Disasters in India
 The nodal agency for handling epidemics – Ministry of Health and Family Welfare. It is the
chief decision-making, advisory body.
 As Health is a State Subject under Schedule VII of the Indian Constitution, the primary
responsibility of dealing with biological disasters is with the State Governments.
 The nodal agency for investigating outbreaks – National Institute of Communicable
Diseases (NICD)
 Nodal ministry for Biological Warfare – Ministry of Home Affairs (Biological warfare is the
use of biological agents as an act of war)
Steps Required for Biological Disaster Management in India
 Legal framework - The Epidemic Diseases Act was enacted in 1897 and needs to be
repealed. This Act does not provide any power to the centre to intervene in biological
emergencies. It has to be substituted by an Act which takes care of the prevailing and
foreseeable public health needs including emergencies such as BT attacks and use of
biological weapons by an adversary, cross-border issues, and international spread of
diseases
 Operational framework - At the national level, there is no policy on biological disasters.
The existing contingency plan of MoH&FW is about 10 years old and needs extensive
revision. All components related to public health, namely apex institutions, field
epidemiology, surveillance, teaching, training, research, etc., need to be strengthened.
 Command, control and coordination - One of the lessons learned during the plague
outbreak in Surat in 1994 and avian influenza in 2006 is the need to strengthen
coordination with other sectors like animal health, home department, communication,
media, etc., on a continuous basis for the management of outbreaks of this nature
 Augmentation in human resource - There is a shortage of medical and paramedical staff at
the district and sub-district levels. There is also an acute shortage of public health
specialists, epidemiologists, clinical microbiologists and virologists. There have been
limited efforts in the past to establish teaching/training institutions for these purposes.
 Basic infrastructural setup – Biosafety laboratories for prompt diagnosis, network of sub
centres, PHCs and CHCs, dispensaries with stockpile of essential vaccines and medicines
need to be expanded to handle epidemic.
COVID-19 was the first pan India biological disaster being handled by the legal and
constitutional institutions of the country. The lockdown had been imposed under the
Disaster
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Management Act, 2005 (DM Act) for the first time. The National Disaster Management Student Notes:
Authority (NDMA) directed the ministries and departments of Government of India and State
Governments along with State Disaster Management Authorities to take measures for
"ensuring social distancing so as to prevent the spread of COVID-19 in the country. Though the
Constitution of India is silent on the subject ‘disaster’, the legal basis of the DM Act, is Entry 23,
Concurrent List of the Constitution “Social security and social insurance”. Entry 29, Concurrent
List “Prevention of the extension from one State to another of infectious or contagious diseases
or pests affecting men, animals or plants,” can also be used for specific law making.
(Details on the challenges presented by COVID-19 and the issues thereunder can be accessed
under the Vision IAS Resources tab on the website.)
3.4.2. Industrial Chemical Disasters
What are Industrial Chemical Disasters?
Industrial hazards are threats to people and life-support systems that arise from the mass
production of goods and services. Increased industrial activities and the risks associated with
hazardous chemicals and enhanced vulnerability lead to industrial and chemical accidents.
When these threats exceed human coping capabilities or the absorptive capacities of
environmental systems they give rise to industrial disasters.
Sources and Initiators of Industrial Disasters
Industrial hazards can occur at any stage in the production process, including extraction,
processing, manufacture, transportation, storage, use, and disposal. Chemical disasters in
general may result from Fire, Explosion, Toxic release, Poisoning and various such
combinations. Factors that may spark off chemical accidents may be categorized as follows:
1. Process and System Failures: Design defects, fatigue, corrosion may cause technical failure
in the equipment. Human errors may include neglecting safety instructions or deviating
from specified procedures. Lack of information or organizational errors such as poor
emergency planning or coordination, non-compliance with mock drills are also initiators of
chemical disasters.
2. Natural Calamities: Natural calamities may trigger chemical reactions. Release of
acrylonitrile during 2001 earthquake in Kandla and damage to phosphoric acid sludge
containment during 1999 Odisha cyclones are some such examples.
3. Sabotage or Terrorist Attack: Vulnerability to chemical disasters is further compounded by
likely terrorist and warfare activities.
Institutional Framework and Statutory Laws
 The regulatory framework on chemical safety can be traced to the Factories Act, 1948 and
chemical class-specific regulations like the Explosives Act, 1884; the Insecticide Act, 1968;
and The Petroleum Act, 1934. Later, an umbrella Act, the Environment (Protection) Act,
1986, was enacted, which also deals with chemical management and safety.
 The Ministry of Labour and Employment along with its technical organ - the Directorate
General Factory Advice Service and Labour Institutes (DGFASLI) - amended the Factories
Act, 1948 notifying activities as hazardous processes. Various Central and state ministries
are responsible for the enforcement of these guidelines.
 In the aftermath of the Bhopal disaster, the environment ministry came up with the
Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous Substances Rules, 1989. In addition, the
Hazardous Wastes (Management, Handling and Trans boundary Movement) Rules, 2008,
provide for means of safe storage and disposal of “hazardous waste" (which is listed in its
schedules) with the help of central and state pollution control boards.
 The Chemical Accidents (Emergency Planning, Preparedness, and Response) Rules, 1996,
seek to address gas leaks and similar events. These rules define both “chemical accident"

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 and a “major chemical accident". They set up a Central Crisis Committee with the Student Notes:
secretary of the environment ministry as chairman “to deal with major chemical accidents
and to provide expert guidance for handling major chemical accidents". It has provisions
for state-, district- and even local-level crisis groups. The central crisis group is required to
constantly monitor post-accident situations, conduct analyses of these accidents and
suggest preventive steps to avoid recurrence.
 The Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991 provides for immediate and interim relief to
disaster victims till their claims of compensation are finally decided. The National Green
Tribunal (NGT) was set up by an Act of Parliament in 2010 for this purpose. The Act also
provides for the “principle of no fault liability", which means that the company can be
held liable even if it had done everything in its power to prevent the accident. The
compensation that is ordered to be paid by the NGT is credited to the Environmental
Relief Fund scheme, 2008, established under Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991.
Industrial Disaster Risk in India
There are about 1861 Major Accident Hazard (MAH) units, spread across 301 districts and 25
states & 3 Union Territories, in all zones of country. Besides, there are thousands of registered
and hazardous factories (below MAH criteria) and un-organized sectors dealing with numerous
range of hazardous material posing serious and complex levels of disaster risks. With rapid
industrialization, the threat of industrial disasters has increased.
Industrial Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Strategies
 Design and Pre-modification review: this involves proper layout, facilities and material
selection. Research should be done try to substitute extremely toxic chemicals with safer
ones. Less chemicals should be stored; a reduction in inventory will automatically mean
less damage if an accident is to occur.
 Chemical Risk Assessment: Chemicals are assessed based on compatibility, flammability,
toxicity, explosion hazards and storage.
 Process Safety Management: reliability assessment of process equipment, incorporating
safety trips and interlocks, scrubbing system, etc. should be done before effecting major
process changes. Management should try to develop a culture of safety in industrial
organizations
 Safety Audits: Periodical assessment of safety procedures and practices, performance of
safety systems and gadgets along with follow up measures should be carried out.
 Emergency Planning: A comprehensive risk analysis indicating the impact of consequences
and specific written down and practiced emergency procedures along with suitable
facilities should be done. This can be done by communities as well as national or regional
corporation authorities
 Training: Proper training of employees and protective services should be done.
 Special times and escorts for dangerous vehicles
 Public Cooperation on the road: the public should cooperate with the police and any
tankers and heavy duty vehicles to avoid accidents and allow for the shortest possible on
road time for dangerous vehicles.
 Public awareness: Everyone should be aware of potential disasters and informed of
protective and safety measures. Cautions must be placed to standout on dangerous
household and car care products.
 Proper storage of hazardous Materials: All chemicals and hazardous materials should be
kept at proper storage temperature and in locked cupboards away from children and
animals. Also, if reactive substances are stored, it should be stored is a watertight
container.
 Proper and safe disposal of hazardous waste to be ensured as per existing regulations.
 Transition towards the use of safer alternatives and adoption of safer, affordable and
sustainable technologies and processes.

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 Strict implementation of land use policy should be there. A legislation on the buffer zone Student Notes:
(or to be referred as ‘no man’s’ zone) should be introduced so that residential/ slum
colonies are not established in proximity to industries. The already settled residential
colonies need to be relocated.
 A scheme for giving good performance awards to industries for achieving exemplary safety
standards and statutory compliance shall be developed and implemented.
Existing Challenges
 In spite of the existence of a large number of laws, their enforcement has left much to be
desired.
 There is a lack of understanding and research towards devising a sustainable solution to
the issue of industrial disasters.
 No adequate separation of parameters, awareness and preparedness for such disasters.
Absence of national regulations on occupational safety and health and medical emergency
management.
 Harmonization of classification and definitions in existing regulations including petroleum
and petroleum products.
 Absence of regulations on storage and transportation of cryogenics. Lack of legislation on
risk assessment requirements and classification, labeling and packaging for industrial
chemicals.
 Non-availability of statutes for grant of compensation to chemical accident victims.
Harmonisation and incorporation of international laws in chemical management.
3.4.3. Nuclear Disasters
What is a Nuclear Hazard?
Risk or danger to human health or the environment exposed by the radiation emanating from
the atomic nuclei is called as nuclear hazard.
Sources of Nuclear Hazard
 Natural Resources: Cosmic rays from the outer space, emissions from the radioactive
materials from the earth’s crust.
 Man-Made Sources: Nuclear power plants, X-Rays, nuclear bombs, nuclear accidents,
nuclear weapons, mining and processing of radioactive ores.
Nuclear emergencies can also arise due to factors beyond the control of the operating
agencies; e.g., human error, system failure, sabotage, earthquake, cyclone, flood, etc.
Nuclear Hazard risk in India
India has traditionally been vulnerable to natural disasters on account of its unique geo
climatic conditions.
India has a flourishing and largely indigenous nuclear power programme. It aims to supply 25%
of electricity from nuclear power by 2050. Nuclear and Radiological Emergency can arise in a
nuclear facility at plant level leading to plant/ site or offsite emergency depending upon the
extent of its impact on the surroundings.

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 Student Notes:

Nuclear Hazard Mitigation Strategies

 There are four ways in which people are protected from identified radiation sources:
 Limiting time: In occupational situations, dose is reduced by limiting exposure time.
 Distance: The intensity of radiation decreases with distance from its source.
 Shielding: Barriers of lead, concrete or water give good protection from high levels of
penetrating radiation such as gamma rays. Intensely radioactive materials are
therefore often stored or handled under water, or by remote control in rooms
constructed of thick concrete or lined with lead.
 Containment: Highly radioactive materials are confined and kept out of the workplace
and environment. Nuclear reactors operate within closed systems with multiple
barriers which keep the radioactive materials contained.
Institutional and Legislative Framework in India
 The Atomic Energy Act, 1962 is the main Nuclear Legislation in India. With increased
emphasis on power generation through nuclear technology, the threat of nuclear hazards
has also increased.
 The Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) has been identified as the nodal agency in the
country in respect of manmade radiological emergencies in the public domain. A Crisis
Management Group (CMG) chaired by the Additional Secretary, DAE has been set up. In
the event of any nuclear/radiological emergency in the public domain, CMG is immediately
activated and it coordinates with the local authority in the affected area and all the
concerning authorities at the centre (NCMC/ NEC/NDMA) to ensure that the necessary
technical inputs are available to respond to the nuclear/radiological emergency.
 The Atomic Energy Regulatory Board is the nuclear regulatory authority in India which, as
per the legal framework of Atomic Energy Act, 1962, has the mandate for issuance of
licenses to nuclear and radiation facilities upon ensuring compliance with the applicable
standards and codes.

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 o It develops safety policies in nuclear, radiological and industrial safety areas. Student Notes:
o It grants consent for siting, constructing, commissioning and decommissioning after
appropriate safety review and assessment, for the nuclear and radiological facilities.
o It develops safety codes, guides and standards for siting, designing, construction,
commissioning, operation and decommissioning of different types of nuclear and
radiological facilities.
o It reviews the emergency preparedness plans for nuclear and radiological facilities and
transportation of large radioactive sources, irradiated fuel and fissile material.
o It takes such steps as necessary to keep the public informed of major issues of
radiological safety significance.
o It reviews the training programs, qualifications and licensing policies for personnel of
nuclear and radiological facilities.
3.4.4. Oil Spills
Oil is an ancient fossil fuel that we use to heat our homes, generate electricity, and power large
sectors of our economy. But when oil accidentally spills into the ocean, it can cause big
problems. Oil spills can harm sea creatures, ruin a day at the beach, and make seafood unsafe
to eat.
Oil spills can happen any place where oil is being extracted, transported, or stored. The
magnitude of harm from a spill is determined by many factors, including the amount and type
of oil, location, season, weather, and actions taken to clean up the spill.
How do oil spills happen?
Oil spills into rivers, bays, and the ocean most often are caused by accidents involving tankers,
barges, pipelines, refineries, drilling rigs, and storage facilities. Spills can be caused by: people
making mistakes or being careless.
There are many types of oil spills and most are minor, for example when oil spills from a ship
when it is being refueled. But serious incidents, like the 2020 oil spill in Mauritius, bring
consequences that can be felt for decades. Most of the major oil spills happen when a pipeline
breaks, a tanker sinks or runs aground or when a drilling operation goes wrong.
In December 2023, an oil spill originated from the Chennai Petroleum Corporation Ltd (CPCL)
refinery. It reached at least 20 square kilometers into the sea. The aftermath of the spill, which
had been ongoing for a week, continues to exacerbate damage to Chennai's ecologically
sensitive Ennore creek. The impact was visible along the river Kosasthalaiyar, where tar balls
and substantial oil layers mar the coastline, leaving a trail of deposits on shores and fishing
boats.
Deepwater Horizon oil spill
The Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico is one of the most notorious examples. It
resulted in the release of approximately 4.9 million barrels of oil over 87 days. This disaster had
catastrophic impacts on marine and wildlife habitats, local fishing and tourism industries, and posed
serious health risks to cleanup workers and residents. The economic cost ran into billions of dollars,
and the environmental recovery is ongoing even years later.
Impact of oil spills:
 Injuries to animals: Animals can suffer due to internal exposure (by ingesting or inhaling
oil) and external exposure. Since most oils float, the animals most affected by oil are often
those that live on or near the sea surface or in shoreline habitats. Fish and shellfish can be
harmed if oil gets mixed into the water column or sinks below the surface.
 Loss of habitat: Oil discharged into the environment can harm habitats such as wetlands
and oyster reefs. Habitat losses may alter migration patterns and disrupt life cycles of
animals and result in erosion of shorelines.
 Impacts to local economies and recreation: can result in closures of beaches, parks,
waterways, and recreational and commercial fisheries. There may also be restrictions on
hunting and boating. As a result, local economies may be severely impacted, both in the

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 short and long term.

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 Disruption of Food Chain: Oil spills affects the availability of food sources for marine Student Notes:
organisms. Phytoplankton, the primary producers in the marine food chain, can be killed or
inhibited from photosynthesizing due to oil contamination affecting the entire food web.
Mitigation measures to oil spill
Mitigating the impact of oil spills involves several strategies and measures designed to contain,
control, and clean up the spill as efficiently as possible. Key mitigation measures include:
 Containment: Floating barriers used to stop the spread of oil on the water surface.
 Chemical Dispersants:These are chemicals sprayed on the oil to break it down into smaller
droplets, enhancing natural degradation processes.The most common surfactants used are
non-ionic (fatty acid esters and ethoxylated fatty acid esters) and anionic (sodium alkyl
sulphosuccinate).
 In Situ Burning:Controlled burning of the oil on the water surface to reduce the amount of
oil and its potential impact.
 Bioremediation:Use of microorganisms to degrade the oil naturally. This method can be
enhanced by adding nutrients to stimulate microbial growth.
o Oilzapper is used to get rid of oil from a surface. Oil Zapping is a bio-remediation
technique involving the use of 'oil zapping' bacteria. It developed by The Energy and
Resources Institute (TERI).Oil zapper feeds on hydrocarbon compounds present in
crude oil and the hazardous hydrocarbon waste generated by oil refineries. It converts
oil sludges into harmless CO2 and water.
o Oilivorous-S is an innovative technology designed to mitigate the environmental
impact of oil spills. It has an additional bacterial strain that makes it more effective
against sludge and crude oil with high sulphur content.It was jointly developed by –
TERI and Indian Oil Corporation Ltd.
Steps taken to prevent Oil Spills
 India
o National Oil Spill Disaster Contingency Plan by Indian Coast Guard: The Indian Coast
Guard conducted the 25th National Oil SpillDisaster Contingency Plan (NOSDCP) and
preparedness meeting at Vadinar, Gujarat on23 Nov 2023.The NOSDCP outlines a
coordinated response strategy involving various government agencies, ports, and oil
handling companies.
o Merchant Shipping Act, 1958: It has provision of Prevention andContainment of
Pollution of sea by oil.
 Global
o International Convention for Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS), and
o Prevention of Pollution of marine environment from Ships (MARPOL).
o International Convention on Civil Liability for Bunker Oil Pollution Damage, 2001
(Bunker Convention)
o India is a party to all these conventions

3.4.5. Stampedes
A stampede is a deadly and dangerous situation that occurs when a crowd surges beyond the
capacity of a space, moving in the same direction at the same time. During a stampede, people
collide and pile up against or on top of one another.
When crowd density is critical at any place, people’s movement is governed by involuntary
forces which include pushing each other in a tightly packed situation. Such uncoordinated rush
or push of people, may result in crowd disaster or stampede.
Incident of Stampede/Crowd Disaster
The majority of the crowd disasters in India and developing countries have occurred at
religious places while stadia, venues of music concerts, nightclubs, & shopping malls have been
the typical
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places of disasters in the developed countries. With population explosion and rapid Student Notes:
urbanization, Indian cities are likely to be susceptible to crowd disasters at such venues in the
days to come.
A global database of deaths from crowd accidents shows more than 1,477 people have lost
their lives since 2000 in over 50 disastrous mass gatherings in India (excluding the very recent
incident). India remains one of the biggest hotspots for deadly crowd accidents in the world,
particularly over the past two decades. Other major hotspots include Saudi Arabia, mainly due
to incidents during the annual Hajj pilgrimage, and some parts of West Africa.

In recent history, India has witnessed several tragic crowd-related catastrophes.

 On July 02, 2024, A stampede at a religious congregation in Hathras, Uttar Pradesh, killed
121 people, mostly women, as devotees suffocated to death and bodies piled atop each
other. The incident occurred as the 'Satsang' ended, and some accounts say people slipped
in the slush as they ran after the preacher's car, triggering the stampede.
 On November 25, 2023, a crowd incident at a university concert in Kerala in India’s south
caused four deaths and numerous injuries.
 On January 1, 2022, a disaster at the Mata Vaishno Devi shrine in Jammu and Kashmir
resulted in 12 deaths and 15 injuries. The incident was triggered by an argument among
pilgrims during New Year celebrations.
 On December 28, 2022, a stampede at a political rally in Andhra Pradesh state in India’s
south led to eight deaths as supporters surged towards the stage.

Major Incident:
 In 1954, millions gathered for a religious pilgrimage at the Prayag Kumbh Mela in northern
India, resulting in a crowd disaster that claimed around 800 lives. This incident remains the
deadliest crowd disaster in India’s history.
 In 29 October 2022, a crowd surge occurred during Halloween festivities in the Itaewon
neighborhood of Seoul, South Korea. According to the South Korean government, 159 people
were killed and 196 others were injured.
 The worst stampede in recorded history took place in Chongqing (China) during World War II
when the Japanese Bombed the city in June 1941, which triggered mass panic at an air raid shelter,
killing approximately 4,000 people.
Causes
Stampedes can occur due to various reasons. Factors that may prompt crowd disasters are as
follows
 Structural: Disaster caused by collapse of structures. Example, Morbi Bridge Collapse
across Machchhu River in Gujarat.

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 Fire/Electricity: Fire in the habitation or a shop, non-availability of fire extinguisher, short Student Notes:
circuit from electrical generator, etc. Example, Uphaar Cinema Fire in 1997 that happened
due to fire code violations.
 Administrative or Managerial Measures: Underestimation of audience/staffing/ services,
closed/locked exit, sudden opening of entry door, etc.
 Crowd Behaviour: Mad rush to exit/parking space, last minute change in platform for train
arrival/departure, etc. Example, stampede at the Mahakumbh Mela in 1954.
 Security: Security agency firing/teargas/using force leading to panic, weapon brandished in
the crowd, Ineptitude of the police in effectively enforcing prohibitory orders, etc.
o Example Seoul crowd tragedy (2022) happened primarily due to lack of safety
precautions and other police errors.
 Lack of coordination among stakeholders: Such as lack of understanding of range of duties
entrusted, communication delays, coordination gap between agencies, etc.
 Other reasons:
o Overcapacity
o Poor crowd control
o Poorly planned event spaces with no clear exits
o Narrow spaces
Impact
 While many people may fall and get trampled on during a stampede, the most common
cause of death is compressive asphyxia, a dangerous condition that happens when
breathing is prevented by external pressure on the body.
 During a stampede, people stuck in the crowd crush against one another. This means there
is no room to move. This limits the diaphragm, a major muscle responsible for respiration,
from contracting (tightening) and flattening (relaxing), which means air cannot enter or
leave the lungs.
 When this happens, it can quickly lead to compressive asphyxia with a build-up of carbon
dioxide and lack of oxygen. The human body cannot function without oxygen for long as it
can quickly lead to organ failure and brain death.
 Women generally have smaller frames and more body mass in their upper chest. If
pressure is exerted there during a stampede, the impact can be detrimental for women.
Crowd Management
 Risk management planning
o The first aim of any Crowd Management process is to prevent a serious situation from
developing.
o Fruin, a renowned theorist in crowd behaviour, suggested FIST model to better
understand the crowd behaviour and the causes of Stampede. FIST refers to
 F: Crowd Force
 I: Information upon which the crowd acts;
 S: Physical Space involved, both in terms of individual density and larger-scale
architectural features;
 T: Time the duration of the incident.
o This model is useful for venue operators and event organisers when developing
proactive strategies to address the four elements of the model during event risk
management planning.
 Governance: As crowd disasters are local events, its management is primarily the
responsibility of the organizers and local/district administration with support, guidelines
from the state and the national authorities.

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 Student Notes:

3.5. Evolution of Global Framework on Disaster Management

As an increasing number of people are being affected by natural hazards, there is growing
recognition by governments and organizations that building resilient communities and
reducing disaster risk is a core initiative. The United Nations International Strategy for Disaster
Reduction was established to support and coordinate this movement. Over the decades,
disaster risk reduction has moved from a narrowly perceived technical discipline, to a broad-
based global movement focused on sustainable development.
During 1960s the General Assembly requested the member states to inform the secretary-
general of the type of emergency assistance they are in a position to offer to the disaster
struck state. In 1972, the United Nations Disaster Relief Office was set up and a Disaster Relief
Coordinator was appointed.

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1990-1999 was announced as the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction. The Student Notes:
General Assembly convened in 1994 the World Conference on Natural Disaster Reduction in
Yokohama, Japan. A Yokohama Strategy and its Plan of Action was adopted at the conference.
The World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction is a series of United Nations conferences
focusing on disaster and climate risk management in the context of sustainable development.
The World Conference has been convened three times, with each edition to date having been
hosted by Japan: in Yokohama in 1994, in Kobe in 2005 and in Sendai in 2015.
Yokohama Strategy for a Safer World: Guidelines for Natural Disaster Prevention,
Preparedness and Mitigation and its Plan of Action were the main outcome of the mid-term
review of the International Decade of Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR) and established 10
principles for its strategy.
The ten principles of the Yokohama Strategy for a Safer World have been outlined in the
adjoining box.
YOKOHAMA STRATEGY FOR A SAFER WORLD
1. Risk assessment is a required step for the adoption of adequate and successful disaster
reduction policies and measures.
2. Disaster prevention and preparedness are of primary importance in reducing the need for
disaster relief.
3. Disaster prevention and preparedness should be considered integral aspects of development
policy and planning at national, regional, bilateral, multilateral and international levels.
4. The development and strengthening of capacities to prevent, reduce and mitigate disasters is a
top priority area to be addressed during the Decade so as to provide a strong basis for follow-up
activities to the Decade.
5. Early warnings of impending disasters and their effective dissemination using
telecommunications, including broadcast services, are key factors to successful disaster
prevention and preparedness.
6. Preventive measures are most effective when they involve participation at all levels, from the
local community through the national government to the regional and international level.
7. Vulnerability can be reduced by the application of proper design and patterns of development
focused on target groups, by appropriate education and training of the whole community.
8. The international community accepts the need to share the necessary technology to prevent,
reduce and mitigate disaster; this should be made freely available and in a timely manner as an
integral part of technical cooperation.
9. Environmental protection as a component of sustainable development consistent with poverty
alleviation is imperative in the prevention and mitigation of natural disasters.
10. Each country bears the primary responsibility for protecting its people, infrastructure, and other
national assets from the impact of natural disasters. The international community should
demonstrate strong political determination required to mobilize adequate and make efficient
use of existing resources, including financial, scientific and technological means, in the field of
natural disaster reduction, bearing in mind the needs of the developing countries, particularly
The Second World Conference on Disaster Reduction conference was held in Kobe, Japan in
2005. The World Conference adopted plans to put in place an International Early Warning
Programme (IEWP).
The Hyogo Framework for Action (2005–2015): Building the Resilience of Nations and
Communities to Disasters was an outcome of the 2005 conference. The Hyogo Framework
(HFA) was the first plan to explain, describe and detail the work required from all different
sectors and actors to reduce disaster losses. The HFA, which ran from 2005 to 2015, set five
specific priorities for action:
1. Making disaster risk reduction a priority;
2. Improving risk information and early warning;
3. Building a culture of safety and resilience;
4. Reducing the risks in key sectors;
5. Strengthening preparedness for response.

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Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction: The Third UN United Nations World Student Notes:
Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction was held in Sendai, Japan in 2015. The conference
adopted the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030. The Sendai
Framework is the first major agreement of the post-2015 development agenda, with seven
targets and four priorities for action. It is the successor agreement to the Hyogo Framework for
Action (2005–2015). The Sendai Framework sets four specific priorities for action.
 Understanding disaster risk;
 Strengthening disaster risk governance to manage disaster risk;
 Investing in disaster risk reduction for resilience;
 Enhancing disaster preparedness for effective response, and to "Building Back Better" in
recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction.
To support the
assessment of global
progress in achieving the
outcome and goal of the
Sendai Framework, seven
global targets have been
agreed which are
depicted in the adjoining
figure.
UPSC Question 2018:
Describe various
measures taken in India
for Disaster Risk
Reduction (DRR) before
and after signing ‘Sendai
Framework for DRR (2015-2030)’. How is this framework different from ‘Hyogo Framework
for Action, 2005’? (250 Words, 15 Marks)

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3.6. International Cooperation on Disaster Management Student Notes:
India plays an active role in global
Various International Meetings/Exercises hosted by India
initiatives on disaster
 The South Asian Annual Disaster Management
management. India is one of the Exercise
participating countries and works (SAADMex) from 23-26 November 2015, in New
closely with the United Nations Delhi.
International Strategy for Disaster  The SAARC Disaster Management Centre was
Reduction (UNISDR) and is a inaugurated at the Gujarat Institute of Disaster
signatory to the Sendai Framework Management (GIDM) in 2017.
for Disaster Risk Reduction. India  The Meeting of BRICS Ministers for Disaster
has signed bilateral/ multilateral Management, 2016 in Udaipur, Rajasthan.
 Government of India, in collaboration with the
agreements with the several
United Nation International Strategy for Disaster
countries for cooperation in the Reduction (UNISDR), hosted the Asian Ministerial
field of disaster management. Some Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction (AMCDRR)
of them include SAARC Agreement 2016 in New Delhi.
on Rapid Response to Natural  India hosted the first Annual Disaster Management
Disasters, Agreement between India Exercise for ‘Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-
and Russia on cooperation in the Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation’
field of Emergency Management, (BIMSTEC) countries (BIMSTEC DMEx-2017) in
Joint Declaration of Intent (JDI) 2017.
between India and Germany on  National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) in
collaboration with United Nations Office for Disaster
cooperation in the field of Disaster
Risk Reduction (UNISDR), organized first of its kind
Management etc. International Workshop on Disaster Resilient
Government of India has Infrastructure (IWDRI) in January, 2018.
partnership with various  Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India,
International Agencies in the field of organized the first India-Japan Workshop on
Disaster Management such as Disaster Risk Reduction in March, 2018.
 The Government of India hosted the Shanghai
United Nations Office for Disaster
Cooperation Organization (SCO) Joint Exercise on
Risk Reduction (UNISDR), The World
Urban Earthquake Search and Rescue (SCOJtEX)-
Conference on Disaster Risk 2019 in New Delhi in 2019. In April 2023, the First
Reduction (WCDRR), Global G20 Disaster Risk Reduction Working Group (DRR
Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction WG) meeting under India’s G20 Presidency took
(GPDRR), Asian Ministerial place, where India highlighted the importance of
Conference for Disaster Risk Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR).
Reduction (AMCDRR), United o The G20 DRR WG intended to include
Nations Office for the Coordination considerations for the Sendai Framework’s mid-
of Humanitarian Affairs (UNOCHA), term review, renew multilateral cooperation at
all levels, and inform future global policies and
United Nations Disaster Assessment
initiatives related to DRR.
and Coordination (UNDAC),  The 6th World Congress on Disaster Management,
International Search and Rescue held in Dehradun (Uttarakhand) from November 28
Advisory Group (INSARAG), Global to December 1, 2023. It has been organized jointly
Facility for Disaster Reduction and by Government of Uttarakhand and Disaster
Recovery (GFDRR), SAARC Disaster Management Initiatives and Convergence Society
Management Centre - Interim Unit (DMICS). The mission of WCDM is to promote
(SDMC-IU), Asian Disaster Reduction
Center (ADRC), Asian Disaster Preparedness Centre (ADPC) and ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF)
etc.
GLOBAL PLATFORM FOR DISASTER RISK REDUCTION (GPDRR)
The Global Platform is the most important international forum dedicated to the disaster risk
reduction agenda.
The UN General Assembly recognizes the Global Platform as a critical mechanism to review
progress on the implementation of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction.
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At the Platform, governments, the UN system and all stakeholders get together to identify Student Notes:
ways to further accelerate the implementation of the Sendai Framework. Since 2007, seven
sessions of the Global Platforms have taken place, including the 2022 session.
The outcomes are recognized by the General Assembly as a contribution to the deliberations of
the High-Level Political Forum on Sustainable Development (HLPF), held each year in July and
thus, contributing to risk-informed implementation and monitoring of the 2030 Agenda for
Sustainable Development.
The seventh session of the Global Platform (GP2022) was organized and convened by the UN
Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR) from 23 to 28 May 2022, in Bali, Indonesia, hosted
by the Government of Indonesia. The event was co-chaired by the Government of Indonesia
and UNDRR.
COALITION FOR DISASTER RESILIENT INFRASTRUCTURE
India announced the creation of a Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI) after the
Asian Ministerial Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction (2016), held in New Delhi. The
coalition will work towards developing common standards in infrastructure building, financial
and compliance mechanisms and invest in R&D that will also determine funding from
multilateral banks onwards future investments by countries.
Preliminarily, four broad thematic areas have been identified for the work of the coalition.
These include:
1. Disaster Risk Assessment: It would require good, time-series data on past hazards patterns
(e.g. wind speeds, high flood levels) and capability to analyse this data to generate
probabilistic risk assessments that can guide investment in disaster resilient infrastructure.
2. Standards of design & implementation: The national frameworks for design and
construction standards must reflect the evolving understanding of natural hazards as well
as advancements in engineering technologies.
3. Financing new infrastructure and mechanisms for covering risks: Disaster Risk Financing
strategy could include budget reserve funds as well as disaster risk transfer instruments like
catastrophic bonds.
4. Reconstruction and recovery of infrastructure after disasters: The “Build Back Better”
principle must be followed not only for the structural design of the infrastructure but also
in terms of management systems around it.
Disaster resilient Infrastructure: Infrastructure that can stand any huge damage from any kind
of natural disaster is known as Disaster Resilient Infrastructure. It encompasses structural and
non- structural measures:
• Structural Measures involve adjusting engineering designs and standards to reflect disaster
risk such as flood control systems, protective embankments, seawall rehabilitation, and
retrofitting of buildings.
• Non-structural measures refer to risk-sensitive planning, enabling institutional
frameworks, hazard mapping, ecosystem-based management, and disaster risk financing.
SUVA EXPERT DIALOGUE ON LOSS AND DAMAGE
It is an expert dialogue decided at COP23 in Bonn due to demands of developing nations for a
separate agenda item on loss and damage.
The dialogue aims for facilitating the mobilization and securing of expertise, and enhancement
of support, including finance, technology and capacity-building, for addressing loss and damage
associated with the adverse effects of climate change.
Warsaw International Mechanism on Loss and Damage
It was established in COP 19 under UNFCCC in 2013. It deals with Climate Change Impacts (Loss
and Damage Mechanism), including extreme events and slow onset events, in vulnerable
developing countries through-

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 Enhancing knowledge and understanding of comprehensive risk management approaches close
to address L&D; supervision of
 Strengthening dialogue, coordination, coherence and synergies among relevant Disaster
stakeholders; Management
 Enhancing action and support, including finance, technology and capacity-building. Committees
It is also anchored in the Article 8 of the 2015 Paris agreement which emphasizes the the
“importance of averting, minimizing and addressing loss and damage associated with the community
adverse effects of climate change”. will be able to
function as a
3.7. Miscellaneous well-knit unit
in case of any
Climate Change and Disaster Displacement
emergency.
On an average 13.9 million people each year are displaced due to natural disaster with eight of
the top ten most disaster prone countries being in South and South-east Asia. In this regard,
investments in disaster risk reduction and climate resilience as part of overall sustainable
development planning will reduce the scale of future displacement associated with disasters.
Some of the issues involved with respect to such displacement are:
 Humanitarian crisis: The displaced often experience discrimination in the provision of
assistance, as there are limited resources to share.
 Gender violence: Sexual abuse and rape of women is unfortunately common among
women displaced by both natural disasters and conflict.
 Breeding ground for extremism: Displaced people are often more susceptible to
recruitment by terrorist organizations.
 Spatial variation: Natural disasters in poorer countries have higher casualties than
disasters of similar magnitude in wealthier countries.
 Non recognition: Those displaced due to disasters are not considered to be refugees under
international law, leaving them without any basic rights of rehabilitation and
compensation.
Role of community in disaster management
Disaster management can be effective only if the communities participate in it. As a
community is the repository of knowledge and skills which have evolved traditionally, these
needs to be integrated in the management strategy. Community is the first line of responders,
thus, it is necessary to educate the community and impart skills and assign specific roles
regarding disaster management to ensure a coordinated response while disaster. This can be
achieved by:
 Undertaking location specific training programmes for the community: Cascading
approach should be used to impart training as the number of people to be imparted skills
is very large. Thus this responsibility can be entrusted at the local level, say, to the village
panchayats.
 Disaster management education needs to be integrated within the formal and informal
systems of education.
 The leaders and personnel in critical sectors should be given disaster management
training as well.
 A proper safety plan including all pre-disaster planning to reduce risk should be made to
enhance community preparedness.
 The entire process of damage assessment and distribution of the relief packages can be
conducted very smoothly with the active involvement of local community leaders and
SHGs.
Community also plays an important role in recovery process including the socio-psychological
rehabilitation of the victims of the disaster. During the recent past, it has been experienced
that the capacity building of the community has been very helpful even in situations when
isolated instances of drowning, burns etc. take place. With the creation of awareness
generation on disaster mitigation and carrying out mock drills from time to time under the

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Student Notes:

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Role of media and social media in disaster management Student Notes:
The role of the media is very important. The media can influence the government to prioritize
Disaster Risk Issues. For example, it may expose excessive and inefficient expenditure on
disaster preparedness in a particular region.During the onslaught of the disaster, Continuous
and factual coverage, particularly by local media, can assist the authorities, voluntary
organizations and volunteers in reaching the affected with assistance and relief.
However, the media may exaggerate some elements of the disaster and create unnecessary
panic. Biased coverage for the purposes of sensationalism by choosing to capture only small
incidents of horrific devastations leads to misreporting.
Social media is different from conventional media in that it allows for one-to-one, one-to-many
and many-to-many communications. It enables communication to take place in real time or
asynchronously over time. It is also device indifferent and can take place via a computer,
tablets and smartphones which are relatively mobile and easy to carry around. It also allows
participants to create or comment or on social media networks.
During disasters all the conventional communications generally stop functioning at the time
while social media or networking services stay active
During the devastating Hudhud cyclone that struck Visakhapatnam, PWD officials created a
WhatsApp group that acted as the main tool of communication for sharing information. No
meetings and discussions were organised at the district level as the WhatsApp group helped
identify and access required resources.
Online social networking services and social media like Facebook, Twitter, Google+, Etc. try to
solve many problems during natural disasters by establishing link with closed ones. Concerns
such as the threat of technology failure, hackers, stalkers, viruses will have to be addressed in
the development of emergency online networks. Also, the spread of rumours can be quick
leading to spread of panic. Therefore, social media cannot and should not supersede current
approaches to disaster management communication or replace existing infrastructure, but if
managed strategically, they can be used to bolster current systems.

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4. UPSC Previous Years' Questions Years Student Notes:
1. What is oil pollution? What are its impacts on the marine ecosystem? In what way is oil
pollution particularly harmful for a country like India? [2023]
2. Dam failures are always catastrophic, especially on the downstream side, resulting in a
colossal loss of life and property. Analyse the various causes of dam failures. Give two
examples of large dam failures. [150 Words] [10 Marks] [2023]
3. Explain the mechanism and occurrence of cloudburst in the context of the Indian
subcontinent. Discuss two recent examples. [150 Words] [10 Marks] [2022]
4. Explain the causes and effects of coastal erosion in India. What are the available coastal
management techniques for combating the hazard? [250 words] [15 Marks] [2022]
5. Describe the various causes and effects of landslides. Mention components of the
important components of the National Landslide Risk Management strategy. [250 Words]
[15 Marks] [2021]
6. Discuss about the vulnerability of India to earthquake-related hazards. Give examples
including the salient features of major disasters caused by earthquakes in different parts of
India during the last three decades. [150 Words] [10 Marks] [2021]
7. Discuss the recent measures initiated in disaster management by the Government of India
departing from the earlier reactive approach. [250 Words] [15 Marks] [2020]What is oil
pollution? What are its impacts on the marine ecosystem? In what way is oil pollution
particularly harmful for a country like India?
8. Vulnerability is an essential element for defining disaster impacts and its threat to people.
How and in what ways can vulnerability to disasters be characterized? Discuss different
types of vulnerability with reference to disasters. (2019)
9. Disaster preparedness is the first step in any disaster management process. Explain how
hazard zonation mapping will help disaster mitigation in the case of landslides. (2019)
10. Describe various measures taken in India for Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) before and after
signing ‘Sendai Framework for DRR (2015-2030)’. How is this framework different from
‘Hyogo Framework for Action, 2005’? (2018)
11. In December 2004, a tsunami brought havoc on 14 countries including India. Discuss the
factors responsible for the occurrence of Tsunami and its effects on life and economy. In
the light of guidelines of NDMA (2010) describe the mechanisms for preparedness to
reduce the risk during such events. (2017)
12. With reference to the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) guidelines, discuss
the measures to be adopted to mitigate the impact of recent incidents of cloudbursts in
many places of Uttarakhand. (2016)
13. The frequency of earthquakes appears to have increased in the Indian subcontinent.
However, India’s preparedness for mitigating their impact has significant gaps. Discuss
various aspects. (2015)
14. In 2012, the longitudinal marking of the high-risk areas for piracy was moved from 65° East
to 78° east in the Arabian Sea by the International Maritime organisation. What impact
does this have on India’s maritime security concerns? (2014)
15. Drought has been recognized as a disaster in view of its party expense, temporal duration,
slow onset and lasting effect on various vulnerable sections. With a focus on the
September 2010 guidelines from the National disaster management authority, discuss the
mechanism for preparedness to deal with the El Nino and La Nina fallouts in India. (2014)
16. How important is vulnerability and risk assessment for pre-disaster management? As an
administrator, what are key areas that you would focus on in a Disaster Management
System? (2013)

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5. Vision IAS Previous Years' Questions Student Notes:
1. Elaborate on the framework of NDRF (National Disaster Response Force) as envisaged
in NDMA, 2005. Also point out the lacunae existing.
Approach:
 First part talks about the basic framework. This can be dealt in terms of structure,
history, functions et al. The answer provided is elaborate so as to cater to any
specific question within the broad outline.
 Problems have to be identified; can be well done in form of 3F’s.
Answer:
The National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) is a disaster response agency under
National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) created by the Ministry of Home
Affairs, government of India. It was established in 2009 for disaster management and
specialised response to natural and man-made disasters.
Organisation
National Disaster Response Force consists of ten battalions, two each from the BSF,
CRPF, two CISF and ITBP. All the ten battalions are being equipped and trained to
combat all natural disasters including four battalions in combating nuclear, biological
and chemical disasters. NDRF battalions are located at nine different locations in the
country based on the vulnerability profile to cut down the response time for their
deployment.
Note: Two more battalions have been sanctioned and will come from SSB.
Community Based Disaster Preparedness
It is one of the most important tasks of NDRF. They continuously engage themselves in
the Community Capacity Building and Public Awareness programmes.
This includes training of people (the first responders) and concerned government
officials at different levels in the areas with high vulnerability.
Problems/Lacunas
Functionaries
The army and paramilitary forces remain the main force for operations in such tough
conditions. Currently, there are only 10 battalions in the force and two more are
proposed, but that has been pending for a while. One of the additional battalions was
meant exclusively for Uttarakhand, which as we know now, wasn’t constituted.
Furthermore, the lack of due importance given to NDRF is gauged by the fact that
currently the force is without a director general and the ITBP chief is in charge.
Functions
 Lack of proper equipment
 NDRF lacks basic equipment such as satellite phones for communications,
vehicles, helicopters and planes for evacuation.
 For example: In case of satellite phones, it has only 20% of the requirement
available with it.
It is not well equipped to take on the challenges of tragedy like the one in Uttarakhand.
The army and paramilitary forces remain the main force for operations in such tough
conditions.

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 Funds Student Notes:
 There is shortage of funds and training facilities for both NDRF personnel and state
government members.
Miscellaneous
 Also, barring Bihar, Gujarat and Orissa, no other state has a properly functional
body at the state level to cope with disasters. Not a single state has set up State
Disaster Response Force (SDRF).
 State governments have been advised to spend about 10 per cent of the disaster
response fund to train the disaster management force and purchase equipment
meant for disaster management. Even Uttarakhand, which is one of the most
vulnerable states because of frequent landslides and cloudbursts, does not have a
body for disaster management.

2. Tsunami is a disaster beyond boundaries, which affects many countries at the same
time. In this context analyze the need for international cooperation in Tsunami
disaster management. Discuss in light of the recent steps taken by the world
community towards Tsunami preparedness.
Approach:
Introduce by mentioning the effect of Tsunami across borders through historical
experiences. Explain the need for international cooperation in Tsunami disaster
preparedness at both the prevention stage and relief stage. Mention the recent effort
made by the world community towards boosting cooperation towards Tsunami
preparedness. Conclude by emphasizing on the need for international cooperation.
Answer:
A decade after the Indian Ocean tsunami hit several countries in the Asia-Pacific region
killing over 200,000 people, Asian-Pacific countries have not only developed an
effective early warning system but are also capable of providing advisories to 25
countries on the Indian Ocean rim.
With the experience of Tsunami disasters in past it was realized that international
cooperation in Tsunami disaster management is a must.
At the state of disaster prevention
 A tsunami is capable of destruction in a particular geographic region, generally
within about 1,000 km of its source. The instruments to analyze the sea waves
need to be placed across the seas falling in different borders. It can only be
predicted by gathering information from its source which can be far away in a
different country. Hence various Tsunami prediction centers can be established
throughout the oceans.
 The international cooperation can help prepare a country of Tsunami disaster by
providing warning much before the disaster hits its territories.
 The experience, research and innovation of Tsunami prone countries like Japan,
Australia, U.S (Hawaii region which is Tsunami prone) can be put to use for entire
population vulnerable to Tsunami disaster.
At the stage of providing relief
 It is a disaster of huge magnitude, and the most vulnerable nations are small island
nations of Asia pacific region thus the resources for meeting relief prove to be
extremely helpful for them.

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  International cooperation can also bring help from various international NGOs, Student Notes:
medical assistance from international agencies like WHO etc and human resources
and aide from across borders.
In the light of the compulsions faced by the international community to cooperate in
Tsunami disaster preparedness following steps were taken:
 One major life-saving measure is the Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning System, which
now provides alerts through three regional watch centres in India, Indonesia and
Australia, and a network of 26 national tsunami information centres. It is an
efficient system which disseminated early warnings within eight minutes of the
Banda Aceh earthquake in 2012. Other steps have included constructing buildings
better able to withstand a hazard.
 The milestone Hyogo Framework for Action covered the period from 2005 to 2015.
A new framework will be on the table next year at the Third UN World Conference
on Disaster Risk Reduction (WCDRR), taking place in Sendai, Japan, from March 14
to
18. The conference will adopt a new framework, which will complement new
global agreements on climate and sustainable development goals.
 India, along with 23 other countries on the Indian Ocean rim, participated in a
major Indian ocean-wide mock tsunami drill in the Indian Ocean region on
September 09 & 10, 2014 aimed at testing the Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning and
Mitigation System (IOTWS).
 This drill, organized under the auspices of UNESCO’s Intergovernmental
Oceanographic Commission, expected to increase preparedness, evaluated
response capabilities in each country and improved coordination throughout the
region.
This region being the most vulnerable region of the world and being the part of Pacific
ring of fire is also the most earthquake and Tsunami prone region of the world hence, It
is inevitable for the regional partners to cooperate in the disaster preparedness for
disasters like Tsunami.

3. Technology is an indispensable tool in disaster management. Explain the role of GIS

in context of the above statement giving recent examples from India.
Approach:
In the introduction, discuss about increasing usage of technology in disaster
management. Then, discuss how GIS can assist in different types of disaster and in
different stages of disaster management. Include examples from India only. Example:
cyclone management in Odisha.
Answer:
Technology has considerably enhanced the potential of mankind to manage the
disasters. For instance, exact prediction of Phailin cyclone considerably reduced the
loss of life and property. Similarly technologies are today extensively used in prediction
and protection from other disasters like tsunami, earthquakes. In this regard
Geographic Information System (GIS) is turning out to be an excellent tool for disaster
management. GIS is an effective, economic and efficient tool for storing, manipulating,
and presenting spatial and geographic data in an integrated manner.
It can assist in Disaster Management in following ways:
PRE DISASTER PHASE
 It can assist the disaster managers in vulnerability mapping. For example it can be
used to map the areas vulnerable to earthquakes and classify them under various
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 zones. For example it is used to Indian ocean region to identify the areas vulnerable Student Notes:
to earthquake and tsunami.
 It can also assist in developing alternate routes to shelters, camps, and important
locations in the event of disruption of normal surface communication
 In case of disasters like floods and tsunamis, GIS can help in identifying locations
likely to remain unaffected or remain comparatively safe. Then routes and
signboards can be placed guiding the public to such safe locations in the event of
hazards. . For Example: GIS has been used in Odisha against cyclones. For example:
it has been used in the identification of location for construction of multipurpose
cyclone shelters.
 Locations suitable for construction of shelters, godowns, housing colonies, etc. can
be scientifically identified by using information regarding landforms, nature of
disasters, etc.
 Areas where no construction should be taken up or existing habitations require
relocation, could be identified by using vulnerability data which can be created
using GIS.
DURING DISASTER
 It can be used for planning of rescue and evacuation operations. In Sikkim GIS was
useful in search and rescue operations in areas affected by landslides.
 GIS can also be used to identify the areas where the disaster is likely to spread. It
can act as a warning system and thus it can help in controlling the further spread of
disaster.
POST DISASTER
 Accessibility of data through GIS can assist in rehabilitation by identifying the most
damaged area. For example, it was used in earthquake region of Gujarat.
 It is also useful in post-disaster reconstruction works. New houses can be
constructed in the less vulnerable areas.

4. NDMA has recently decided to address urban flooding as a separate disaster,

delinking it from floods. What is the difference between flooding and urban flooding?
What measures need to be taken to mitigate and prevent urban floods?
Approach:
 Briefly write about NDMA’s decision to address urban flooding as a separate
disaster citing recent examples in brief.
 Explain the difference between flooding and urban flooding.
 Suggest some measures to be taken to mitigate and prevent urban floods.
Answer:
Urban flooding has been experienced over decades in India but sufficient attention was
not given to specific efforts to deal with it as was seen in recent Chennai Floods. With
the increase in incidents of urban floods, NDMA has recently decided to de-link Urban
Flooding from the subject of (riverine) Floods for the first time.
The major differences between flooding and urban flooding are:
 Urbanisation leads to developed catchments and in the event of heavy/ high
intensity rainfall there is higher runoff which increases the flood peaks from 1.8 to
8 times and flood volumes up to 6 times.
 Urban flooding occurs very quickly due to faster flow times, sometimes in a matter
of minutes.

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  Even for comparatively lesser rainfall, the likelihood of flooding occurring is higher Student Notes:
in urban areas. This is due to the high proportion of tarmacked and paved surfaces,
which limit water infiltration and increase the amount of water running off the
ground surface as well as it’s speed. This is exacerbated by the fact that natural
drainage routes are often altered in cities, which results in reduced capacity for
excess water.
 Urban areas are centres of economic activities with vital infrastructure which needs
to be protected 24x7. In most of the cities, damage to vital infrastructure has a
bearing not only locally but could even have global implications.
 Urban centres are densely populated and more people live in vulnerable areas
resulting in more loss of life, damage to property and disruptions.
Following are some the measures to be taken to mitigate and prevent urban floods:
 Structural measures are physical in nature and include redesigning the existing
drainage system, or by providing suitable interventions in the form of storage of
water at suitable locations in the upstream catchment. The storage reduces the
peak, but not the volume of runoff, which contributes to increased runoff flows
over extended time periods.
 Non-structural measures strive to keep people away from the flood waters by
means of Early Warning System (EWS) and other mitigation measures such as
community flood preparedness and flood preparedness plan etc.
 Flood preparedness plan is a series of sub-plans, including emergency response
planning and training, raising public awareness, flood forecasting and warning,
setting development policy, land use regulation, flood proofing, setting alternative
plans, and local social structure strengthening.

5. What are the causes for occurence of frequent stampedes at various public places in
India? What steps can be deployed to effectively check such events? Discuss in
context of the guidelines issued by NDMA on this issue.
Approach:
 List the reasons for frequent stampedes in India.
 Discuss steps which may be taken as outlined in NDMA guidelines.
Answer:
According to the National Crime Records Bureau figures, from 2000 to 2013, almost
2,000 people died in stampedes in India. For instance stampede occurred in 2008 at
Naina Devi in Himachal Pradesh (killing more than 100 pilgrims), in 2011 during Makara
Jyothi Day at Sabarimala in Kerala, in 2013 at Allahabad railway station during Kumbh
Mela etc.
A 2013 study published by International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction (IJDRR)
points out that religious gatherings and pilgrimages have been venues for 79% of the
stampedes in India. Deaths from stampedes occur primarily from compressive
asphyxiation, not trampling.
Accommodating nature of Indian people unlike the west, location of functions at
infrastructure-deficient places (banks of rivers, hilly terrains or mountain tops etc.) ,
lack of proper crowd management system, lack of coordination among various agencies
etc. are some of the major causes of stampede related disasters in India.
The surge of individuals in a crowd leading to stampede, is caused in response to a
perceived danger or loss of physical space. It often disrupts the orderly movement of
crowds resulting in irrational and dangerous movement for self-protection, leading to

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 injuries and fatalities. In such cases, mostly the trigger is psychological—such as a  Sug
rumour spreading through the crowd, or a loud noise or one person slipping. Lack of ges
physical infrastructure compounds the mob behaviour and increases the sense of t
threat. wa
y
Broad principles on which NDMA guidelines are based upon include-
for
Risk Analysis and planning should be the first step as disasters may be prevented war
through careful identification of cause/threats. It is recommended that all event d.
organizers should conduct Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA).It involves rating
every possible hazard on the dimensions of severity, frequency of occurrence and
difficulty of detection.
Information management dissemination is also crucial. The absence or poor
information management in itself may be a source of crowding. A robust information
management system is critical in all situations viz. normal, disaster/emergency and
disaster recovery. Similarly timely information exchange between various
stakeholders viz. event management, government administration, NGOs, media etc. is
critical.
Further, according to NDMA guidelines, the various elements of crowd management
strategy includes:
 Capacity planning (long term and short term) - It emphasizes the need to develop
infrastructure based on popularity, periodicity of the event, weather, terrain and
local population. For example erecting barriers, medical booths, traffic
management infrastructure etc. Multiple routes should be encouraged (normal,
express and emergency); access routes should be made safe from natural disasters
like landslides etc.
 Understanding crowd behaviour-Individual behaviour in a crowd is sometimes
influenced by behaviour of others. The unlawful actions of a few people can result
in a larger numbers following them. Research has showed that understanding
crowd behaviour has led to community based approach to crowd control instead of
fore based control. Inappropriate or poorly managed control procedures may
precipitate crowd incidents rather than preventing them. For example, police
reacting to a group of unruly people may chase them in a direction opposite to the
incoming crowd, which may create collision, and hence a disaster.
 Crowd control-The guiding principle for crowd control should be managing
demand- supply gap through- controlling the crowd inflow, regulating the crowd at
venue and controlling the outflow if needed. Separation of in-gate and out-gate,
preferably in separate directions and separating the incoming and outgoing crowd.
 Stakeholder approach-organizers/law enforcement agencies must encourage
community stakeholders (NGOs, Business Associations, Schools/Colleges,
neighbourhoods, societies. Mohall committees etc.) to take ownership in events to
uphold unity of purpose, faster decision/response, better coordination etc. A
unified control structure is recommended as it fixes the roles and responsibilities of
various stakeholders and enhances coordination between them.

6. India's first National Disaster Management Plan may fulfill the legal requirement of
having a plan but it may not be very effective in achieving its objective of building
resilience. Critically analyse.
Approach:
 Outline the salient provisions of the NDMP.
 Critically assess the plan and its effectiveness in addressing needs arising out of
disasters.
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Student Notes:

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Answer: Student Notes:
The NDMA, 2005 required to have disaster management plans at the district, state and
the National levels. Each ministry is also required to prepare separate plans in
accordance with the National level plan. The first National Disaster Management Plan
(NDMP) has been introduced by the government to make the country disaster resilient
and ensure minimization of loss of lives and assets during disasters. It has been aligned
with the objectives set by the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction. It closes a
critical gap in our disaster management system- while most states and districts have
prepared their plans; the national plan that was supposed to guide this process at the
sub-national level was missing.
Salient features of the plan:
 It gives a comprehensive definition of disaster. It covers 15 natural and man-made
disasters, giving responsibility to different ministries for different disasters. For e.g.,
Tsunamis and Cyclones under M o Earth Sciences.
 Planning for short (5), medium (10), and long (15 years) terms to deal with
disasters.
 Integrated approach with clarity: Provisions for vertical and horizontal integration
among government agencies have been stated, including the roles of Urban Local
Bodies, Panchayats and district agencies to ensure that response during disasters is
initiated at the regional level.
 It is designed in a way that it can be implemented in a scalable manner during all
phases of DM.
 Community participation and building of resilience has been recognised.
 It also states ethical guidelines for the media for coverage of disasters and self-
regulation to respect the dignity and privacy of the affected people.
 It is a dynamic document, which will be periodically improved keeping up with
emerging global practices.
However, the plan may fall short of its stated objective of building resilience.
 Unlike the Sendai framework, it does not set targets and goals and there is no
framework for monitoring and evaluation of the plan.
 A generic roadmap has been adopted for disaster management, but, division of
work among tiers of government has not been specifically stated. It can lead to
overlap of jurisdiction during disasters. Similarly, inter-ministerial coordination
should be specified.
 Source and means of mobilization of funds have not been stated. Further, there is
no avenue for pre-estimation of expenditure. Both need to be appraised for proper
planning.
 Additionally, the plan does not focus on specific problems faced by women,
children, elderly, disabled people etc., vulnerable groups worst hit by disasters.
 A properly demarcated time frame should be provided for undertaking the stated
activities instead of a vague prescription of short, medium and long-term basis.
 While it is a step forward in tackling multifarious disasters, the drawbacks need to
be addressed for coordinated response of authorities and fewer casualties during
disasters.
Many of the issues mentioned above should be tackled at the state and district level.
However, due to paucity of resources at these levels, the responsibility falls on the
central government. Therefore, it would be better to incorporate a framework or to
give guidelines to states regarding issues such as sources of funds (like CSR), care for
special needs of different sections, a long term plan for providing alternative
livelihoods, etc. Also, clearly mentioning the goals would help evaluation of term plans.

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7. Technology has provided important tools for making disaster management more Student Notes:
effective. Elaborate with special focus on the role of technology in reducing disaster
risk. Also highlight the challenges in application of technological solutions in disaster
effected areas.
Approach:
 Begin your answer with the importance of technology during disasters especially
in Disaster risk reduction.
 Write down the persisting challenges which have proved to be major roadblocks in
application of technological solutions.
 Conclude your answer with way forward.
Answer:
The use of technology has proved to be very useful in disaster risk management with
appropriate communication, maps, data analysis etc. becoming an essential
requirement for informed decision making. The same has been acknowledged in Hyogo
Framework guidelines.
Contribution of technology in reducing Disaster Risk
 Satellites and remote sensing: Helps in addressing the information needs covering
all the phases of disaster management such as, preparedness, early warning,
response, relief, rehabilitation, recovery and mitigation. It is useful in integrating
natural hazard assessments into development planning studies.
 Geographical Information System: It is effective and efficient storage and
manipulation of remotely sensed data and other spatial and non-spatial data types
for both scientific management and policy oriented information.
 Wireless communication: It has helped in faster transfer of information in real
time.
 Early warning systems for hurricanes, tornadoes, thunderstorms, heavy rainfall,
flooding, drought, snowfall, high winds and other extreme weather hazards. These
have helped in notifying guidelines, providing services and evacuating the places at
the right time preventing loss of lives and property.
Challenges in Application of technological solutions in Disaster Affected areas
 Cross-sectoral integration of application of communication technologies that can
link disaster risk reduction, climate change responses and sustainable
development.
 Lack of promotion for understanding the basic principles of effective early warning
systems.
 Limitations in exploiting local innovation.
 Overcoming the language barrier for efficient communication.
 Limited resources for funding research and science and technology, by all
institutions and at all levels.
 The high cost of some science and technology systems, which inhibits accessibility
and effective application.
 The limited capacity of vulnerable communities and countries to use available
science and technology products owing to lack of education, illiteracy.
 Limitations of technology in predicting disasters, as not all kinds of disasters can be
predicted. For example, earthquake is a sudden release of energy which can be
detected only a few seconds before it racks havoc.
There should be relevant policies and institutional frameworks for further fine tuning of
science and technology in disaster management. Beginning has been made with the
newly launched National Disaster Management Plan, which gives specific attention to
the use of technology in disaster reduction and management.
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 Promoting public education and awareness about the potential and practice of science Student Notes:
and technology will over time encourage all parts of society to access and apply
available scientific knowledge and technique to disaster management.

8. What are the priorities for action identified under the Sendai Framework for Disaster
Risk Reduction? Elaborate how India's National Plan for Disaster Management has
tried to integrate Sendai Framework.
Approach:
 Give a brief overview of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction and
state its priority action areas.
 State how India’s National Plan for Disaster Management has tried to integrate the
Sendai Framework.
 Mention the weaknesses of NDMP in this regard.
Answer:
The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015-2030) is a 15-year, voluntary,
non-binding agreement, which recognizes that the State has a primary role in reducing
disaster risk. However, the responsibility should be shared with other stakeholders
including local government, private sector etc.
The four priority action areas identified under the framework include:
 Understanding disaster risk.
 Strengthening disaster risk governance to manage disaster risk.
 Investing in disaster reduction for resilience.
 Enhancing disaster preparedness for effective response and to "Build Back Better"
in recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction.
India’s National Disaster Management Plan (NDMP) has been aligned broadly with the
goals and priorities set out in the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction. Some
aspects of the NDMP are:
 For each hazard, the NDMP incorporates four priorities enunciated in the Sendai
Framework under five thematic action areas including:
o Understanding risk
o Inter-agency coordination
o Investing in disaster risk reduction (DRR) – structural measures
o Investing in DRR – non-structural measures
o Capacity development
 The response part of the plan identifies eighteen broad activities arranged into a
matrix to be served as a ready reckoner and includes measures such as early
warning, maps, satellite inputs, evacuation and search and rescue of people and
animals, medical care etc.
 It covers all phases of disaster management: prevention, mitigation, response and
recovery.
 It provides for horizontal and vertical integration of all agencies and departments
of the government at various levels.
 It emphasizes on the need for dissemination of disaster-related information to
communities.
However, the NDMP also has some shortcomings that need to be addressed. These
include:
 It does not set any goals or targets, or spell out how the Sendai goals and targets
shall be achieved.

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  It fails to lay down a clear and practical roadmap as it is too generic in its Student Notes:
identification of the activities to be undertaken by the government agencies.
 It refrains from providing a time frame for undertaking action beyond vaguely
prescribing that these must be taken up in short, medium, mid- and long-term
basis.
 It does not project the requirement of funds or provide sources for mobilization of
funds.
 It does not provide any framework for monitoring and evaluation of the plan.
 It fails to address the needs of vulnerable groups, which could lead to millions of
women, children, disabled and elderly people, lower caste and tribal communities
being put at further risk.

9. What are the causes of forest fires and their effects on the ecosystem? How can forest
fires be prevented? Also mention the steps that have been taken by the government
in this regard.
Approach:
 Introduce by mentioning the state of forest fires in India.
 Discuss the reasons for forest fires and its impact on the ecosystem.
 Mention the measures to prevent forest fires.
 Then enumerate steps taken by government in this regard.
Answer:
In the last two years, India has witnessed 125% spike in the incidents of forest fires.
According to India State of Forest Report (ISFR) 2015, as much as 64.29 per cent of the
Recorded Forest Area (RFA) is prone to fires.
Causes
 Natural causes are largely related to climatic conditions such as temperature, wind
speed and direction, level of moisture in soil and atmosphere and duration of dry
spells. Other natural causes are the lightning, friction of bamboos swaying due to
high wind velocity and rolling stones that result in sparks setting off fires in highly
inflammable leaf litter on the forest floor
 Anthropogenic causes result from human activity as well as methods of forest
management. These can be intentional or unintentional such as fires started by
locals to clean the forest floor, burn undergrowth, to destroy evidence of illicit
felling or to scare wild animals etc.
Effects on the Ecosystem
 Forest fire causes damage to vegetation cover and loss of natural regeneration, loss
of wildlife habitat, change in micro-climate, loss of biodiversity and invasion of
weeds, adverse effect on the local livelihood, loss of carbon sink, and addition of
greenhouse gases.
 Fire frequency also determines the floristic composition of an area by selecting
species at site. A species can be removed if fire occurs too often, too early, or late
in its life cycle.
 Fire may also play a role in recycling nutrients from the ground-layer vegetation
and litter and counters the infertile substrates and arrested decay.
Prevention of forest fires
 Removal of Chir Pine: as it is highly inflammable due to its high resin content.

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  Prevent Encroachment: As most of the fire is set up manually, state administration Student Notes:
should ensure that there is no encroachment of forest land or violation of forest
conservation rules.
 Traditional Forest management: Traditional operations like forest floor clearing,
controlled burning and creation of water harvesting structures are effective
measures.
 Fire Lines: are critical in fire-fighting, because without fire lines, a fire can quickly
get out of control.
 Use of technology: The committee preferred use of drones instead of CCTVs and
fire watchers.
 Community involvement in forest fire management.
Measures by the government
 Fire lines have been created to avoid any dry plants from catching fire which could
eventually spread deep into the forests.
 At several places, measures are being taken to periodically fill artificial troughs with
fresh water.
 Forest Fire Prevention & Management Scheme (FFPMS): a centrally sponsored
scheme with an aim to focus solely on the issue of forest fire prevention &
management.
 The Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, has prepared a
National Master Plan for Forest Fire Control. This plan proposes to introduce a
well- coordinated and integrated fire-management programme that includes the
following components:
o Prevention of human-caused fires.
o Prevention of forest fire by people participation through Joint Forest Fire
Management.
o Prompt detection of fires through a well coordinated network of observation
points, efficient ground patrolling, and communication networks.
o Remote sensing technology is to be given due importance in fire detection.
For successful fire management and administration, a National Fire Danger Rating
System (NFDRS) and Fire Forecasting System are to be developed in the country, also
participation of the forest community is inevitable for the forest fire management.

10. Identify different factors that trigger Glacial Lake Outburst Floods. Also, suggest
certain measures that need to be taken to minimize their impact.
Approach:
 Define Glacial Lake Outburst Floods.
 Enumerate its triggering factors.
 Mention measures that are required to minimize the impact of these floods.
Answer:
Glacial Lake Outburst Floods(GLOFs) refer to release of melt water, moraines and the
entire content of the ice-dam glacial lake due to dam failure. GLOFs often result in
catastrophic flooding downstream, with major geomorphic and socio-economic impact.
Causative Triggers for the Glacial Lake Outburst Floods
 Glacial retreat due to Global Warming increases the number of glacial lakes and
also expands the size of existing ones. Rapid Slope Movement into the lake and
melting

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 of ice incorporated into the dams are linked to glacial retreat. The exorbitant size Student Notes:
and content becomes difficult to contain.
 Anthropogenic factors which greatly alter the radiative balance- For example in the
Himalayan region anthropogenic activities such as mass tourism; developmental
interventions such as roads and hydropower projects has resulted in faster glacial
melting and resultant GLOFs.
 Other factors - Surface heating impact of the Black Carbon, Earthquakes, blocking
of subsurface outflow tunnels and long term dam degradation are other trigger
points for the same.
Measures
 Access to early warning system and timely information is the key to minimizing the
impact. In addition, continuous monitoring may be done using remote sensing.
 Prevention or mitigation of the magnitude of the flood by dam remediation like
artificial dams, tunnels, open cuts, concrete outflows, flood protection walls.
 Other measures include GLOF hazard mapping, identification of GLOF safe
evacuation sites, identifying vulnerable communities, community preparedness
including community based early warning systems etc.
ISRO among other organizations are already engaged in monitoring of glacial lake and
other water bodies in the Himalayan region of Indian River basins.

11. Explain the reasons behind earthquakes in Himalayas being more intense and
frequent than the ones occurring in Alps region. Why are scientists predicting a
largescale earthquake in northern India? Also, elaborate upon some prominent
earthquake forecasting techniques.
Approach:
 Explain the reasons behind earthquakes in Himalayas being more intense and
frequent than the ones occurring in Alps region.
 State the reasons for scientists predicting a large-scale earthquake in northern
India.
 Elaborate upon some prominent earthquake forecasting techniques
Answer:
Earthquakes are on-ground manifestation of energy released during shattering and
movement of crustal plates. The amount of energy released depends up on the depth
of earthquake and the intensity of collision of plates. In regions of ongoing and faster
movement of plates, earthquakes are more frequent.
Himalayas are relatively younger fold mountains than Alps. Also, the Indian plate’s
movement toward the eurasian plate is occuring at a relatively faster pace. Since the
rocks in this region have not stabalised, they are brittle and shatter frequently. This is
the reason why there are more intense and frequent earthquakes in Himalayas than
the Alps, where the plates converge slowly, and hence, there is less seismic activity.
Reason behind prediction of a largescale earthquake in northern India
The frontal thrust in the central Himalayas (covering parts of India and eastern Nepal)
has remained seismically quiet for 600 to 700 years. This implies an enormous build-up
of strain in the region. This stacking up of strain in the region may cause at least one
earthquake of magnitude 8.5 or more in one of the overlapping segments of the central
Himalayas anytime in the future.

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 Forecasting can play an important role in earthquake disaster mitigation. Some of Student Notes:
them are as under:
 Observation based: Unusual animal behavior such as restlessness and movement
have been observed. However, their correlation with earthquakes is not yet
established.
 Hydrochemical precursors: Dissolved concentration of minerals has been observed
to change during days preceding earthquake. Release of radon gas is also observed.
 Seismic gap: Scientists predict earthquake based on expected build-up of strain in
regions where earthquakes are expected but have not happened in sometime.
 Statistical models: A combination of classical earthquake statistics and numerical
models such as seismo-thermo-mechanical (STM) modelling that simulates the way
the tectonic plates move and collide.
 Physics based models: Recently a research, conducted by Columbia University,
simulated nearly 500,000 years of California earthquakes on a supercomputer,
which was able to match hazard estimates based on statistical models.
 Uniform California Earthquake Rupture Forecast (UCERF3): It provides
authoritative estimates of the likelihood and severity of potentially damaging
earthquake ruptures in the long- and near-term.
 Technological interventions: Local geology and structural maps published by GSI,
Google Earth imagery from ISROs, Carto-sat 1 contributes to research and
development
 Palaeoseismology: Geological Investigations of active faults.
 Other methods of traditional prediction include unusual animal behaviour, change
in underground water, Radon gas levels in soils etc.

12. Highlight the factors responsible for occurrence of heat waves and its effects on life
and economy. In the light of recent guidelines given by NDMA, describe measures to
reduce the negative impact of heat waves.
Approach:
 Briefly define heat wave and mention various factors responsible for it.
 Highlight its impact on life and economy.
 Mention some recent guidelines to reduce the negative impacts of heat waves.
 Conclude briefly with a way-forward.
Answer:
According to Indian Meteorological Department (IMD), heat wave is considered if
maximum temperature of a station reaches at least 40°C or more for Plains, 37°C or
more for coastal stations and at least 30°C or more for Hilly regions. Following criteria
are used to declare heat wave:
 Based on Departure from Normal
o Heat Wave: Departure from normal is 4.5°C to 6.4°C
o Severe Heat Wave: Departure from normal is >6.4°C
 Based on Actual Maximum Temperature (for plains only)
o Heat Wave: When actual maximum temperature ≥ 45°C
o Severe Heat Wave: When actual maximum temperature ≥47°C
Factors responsible for occurrence of heat waves:
 High pressure: Heat waves occur when high pressure trough moves into an area,
which forms a "cap" over the region by trapping heat. This environment of
minimal

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 heat circulation also reduces the chance of precipitation and rain thereby causing Student Notes:
the heat to build-up.
 Urban heat island effect: The trapping of hot air between buildings, limited tree
cover and other heat inducing factors such as fuel combustion and air conditioning,
can result in average annual temperatures in urban areas being 1-3*C hotter than
surrounding areas.
 Global warming: It has led to delayed onset of monsoons and also reduced
intensity of pre-monsoon showers in several parts of India, therefore, exacerbating
the heat wave conditions.
The increased frequency of heat waves has a lot of adverse impacts, such as-
 Health impacts:
o It can cause dehydration, cramps, exhaustion and heatstroke creating health
emergency in the region. It has caused nearly 3500 deaths between 2015 and
2018 in India.
o Increased temperatures also lead to acute gastroenteritis and food poisoning
due to spoilage of food and reduction of its shelf life.
 Impact on Agriculture:
o Low amount of moisture in soil can create drought like conditions leading to
crop failures.
o It adversely impacts the health and mortality of the livestock.
 Forest fire and loss of wild-life: In India, 6.17% of the forests are prone to severe
fire damage and with greater heat stress, it is likely to increase.
 Loss of man-hours: Reduced productivity of the workforce and loss in wages for
those involved in outdoor occupations. Section 144 was imposed recently to deal
with heat waves in Bihar.
Heat waves have been classified as a natural disaster in India and therefore NDMA has
formulated national guidelines for preparation of action plan to deal with it:
 Establish early warning and communication system: The State Nodal Officer
should coordinate with local IMD office to start receiving summer season forecasts
and release early warning and daily alert system with colour codes.
 Develop inter-agency coordination: Government should ensure that state officials
and agencies are well trained and well informed regarding pre, during and post
heat season activities. This will ensure clearly defined inter agency emergency
response plan with roles and information flows clearly marked out.
 Capacity building/training programs for healthcare officials: These training
programmes should focus on medical officers, paramedical staff and community
health staff at local levels, so that they can effectively recognise and respond to
prevent and manage heat - related medical issues.
 Public awareness and community outreach: Information, Education and
Communication plays an important role in widely disseminating key messages to
communities in advance. Do’s and Don’ts during a heat wave should be available in
local language and disseminated through media including social media.
 Data collection and documentation: Ministry of Health and family welfare must
collect and standardise data related to heat waves, so that a long-term strategy
could be formed.
With the looming threat of climate change and global warming, the frequency of such
heat waves might increase. This calls for increasing the green cover in cities and timely
implementation of the strategies to control climate change.

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13. India's response to the Covid-19 pandemic has brought to the fore several Student Notes:
inadequacies and ambiguities in India's disaster management framework. Discuss.
Approach:
 Briefly discuss the response of the Government to the Covid-19 pandemic.
 Bring out the inadequacies and ambiguities in India’s disaster management
framework in this context.
 Conclude by suggesting a way forward.
Answer:
COVID-19 is the first pan India biological disaster being handled by the disaster
management framework of the country. India took various steps to tackle the
pandemic, which included:
 India imposed one of the most strictly imposed lockdowns invoking Disaster
Management (DM) Act, 2005 and the Epidemic Diseases Act, 1897 in response to
the Covid-19 pandemic.
 Various welfare schemes were launched and existing schemes widened such as-
economic package of INR 1.70 lakh crore under PM Garib Kalyan Yojana, income
security under PM Garib Kalyan Rojgar Yojana etc.
 Many schools/colleges were converted as quarantine and health centers.
India’s response brought to fore several inadequacies and ambiguities:
 Inadequate legal mechanism-
o The DM Act lacked an appropriate legal framework to manage a ‘biological
epidemic’ as it imposes criminal liabilities for violations of lockdown orders.
So, the management of a health crisis became an issue of law and order.
Major notifications and guidelines relating to COVID-19 were issued by the
MHA and not the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare. The language used
was also of law and order: “lockdowns,” “curfews,” “fines” and “surveillance.”
o Multiple directions were issued by state governments and authorities under
the Epidemic Diseases Act of 1897 leading to confusion among the masses.
 Federal issues
o DM Act has an over-centralization of powers even encroaching upon the
functional role of state governments.
o A top-down approach was adopted by the central government, which left
states with no maneuvering space that could be used to design and enforce
lockdowns keeping local cultural and social norms in mind.
 Spread of misinformation: DM Act is not suitable to deal with fake news/false
warning spread through social media and internet as it was passed in pre-social
media times.
 Discretionary powers to government officers: It gave considerable discretion with
officials, all across the country, in deciding who to permit and who to ban.
 Functioning of Courts: Courts ceased to work in most parts of the country, which
left citizens with not constitutional remedy against complaints of discrimination,
police excesses, starvation, lack of medical aid etc. from various corners of the
country. Though, later virtual courts and limited physical hearings started in various
courts.
 Lacking a consolidated, proactive policy: There was ad hoc and reactive
rulemaking, as seen in the way migrant workers were treated. Migrants' issue has
also exposed the lack of coordination between the Union and State governments.
Aforesaid issues which cropped up during the time of COVID-19 pandemic brought to
fore, the need for a robust disaster response mechanism, which is decentralized based
on close cooperation and coordination between center, states, and local governments

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 with a much more agile and differential approach. Further, it needs to go beyond Student Notes:
three ‘R’s of disaster management- ‘Rescue, Relief and Recovery’ and include
‘Restriction’ and ‘Refrain’ in disaster management strategy so as to deal with future
pandemics more effectively.

14. What do you understand by impact based forecasting in disaster management? How
can such forecasting strengthen the disaster management preparedness?
Approach:
 Briefly explain impact-based forecasting.
 Explain the role of impact-based forecasting in disaster management preparedness.
 Conclude accordingly.
Answer:
Impact based forecasting is an advancement over weather-based forecasting. While
weather-based forecasting is limited to only prediction of impending weather
conditions, impact-based forecasting also assesses the impact of weather conditions.
For example, a weather based forecast of a cyclone would be like- “A
tropical cyclone category 3, wind speed of 125 km/h is
expected in the next 48 hours” whereas impact based
forecasting of the same event would be- “A tropical
cyclone category 3, wind speed of 125 km/h is
expected to make landfall in 12 hours, in X and Y
regions, likely to damage critical infrastructure such as
bridges, blocking transport from region X to region Y”.
Under the impact-based system:
 The hazards, risks and vulnerability related data are collected and integrated to
predict the impending disasters and their impact on people living in vulnerable
areas.
 Further, geographical and population data are analysed to assess risk levels and
accordingly warnings are issued to areas that are prone to damage posed by
disaster.
 The forecasts and warnings will mainly focus on sector and location specific impact
and the need to develop responses to mitigate the impact.
In this way, it provides information needed to act before disasters to minimise the
socioeconomic costs of weather and climate hazards.
Ways such forecasting strengthen the disaster management preparedness
 Improved understanding of risk: As part of the new system, location or district-
specific tailored warnings, which factor in the local population, infrastructure,
settlements, land use and other elements, will be prepared and disseminated.
Therefore, it presents an in-depth risk profile.
 Proactive planning: It will help the government to generate various impact
scenarios in disastrous situations therefore enable authorities to appreciate and
understand impacts and accordingly make plans for different scenarios based on
different impacts.
 Effective response: ‘Pre-event scenario’ will help authorities to closely monitor
impact of impending disasters and take real-time decisions. Therefore, it will help
to effectively manage the disastrous situation similar to floods in Kerala.
 Better coordination: All disaster management agencies will have access to
cartographic, geological and hydrological data available for the district concerned.

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 Therefore, it will help the agencies involved in disaster management response and Student Notes:
preparedness at local, state and national level to effectively coordinate their
activities.
 Community participation: It not only provides correct weather forecasts and issues
timely warning but also provides information related to dos and don’ts to ensure
safety and security of people and their properties in vulnerable areas.
The move from weather-based forecasting to impact based forecasting would make
disaster management exercise people oriented by bringing the impact element in the
disaster management preparedness. However, successful impact-based forecasting
would require resources and knowledge such as demographic data, crowd-sourcing
techniques, geographical information systems (GISs) and interoperability, and third-
party data integration and usage.

15. The recent “Disaster Management Plan of Ministry of Panchayati Raj (DMP–MoPR)”
aims to develop disaster resilience at the grassroots level. In this context, discuss the
rationale behind the formulation of the Plan and highlight its key components.
Approach:
 Introduce by explaining the context of the statement given in the question.
 Discuss the rationale behind formulation of disaster management plan at
Panchayat level.
 Highlight the key components of the plan.
 Conclude accordingly.
Answer:
India has been vulnerable, in varying degrees, to many natural as well as human-made
disasters on account of its unique geo-climatic and socio-economic conditions.
Considering the important role that local communities can play in reducing
vulnerabilities and early recovery, the Ministry of Panchayati Raj has prepared the
Disaster Management Plan so that all Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) along with
communities can be prepared for any disaster.
The aim is to build disaster resilience at the grassroots level among the Panchayats and
establish a framework to align the disaster management measures in rural areas to that
of the National Disaster Management Authority.
Rationale behind Disaster Management Plan at the panchayat level:
 Institutional proximity and capacity: PRIs have proximity and capacity to involve
people and make them prepared for countering disasters by involving them in all
possible preventive and protective activities so that the impact of the disasters is
mitigated.
 Ensure Participatory Planning Process: Such a plan would ensure a participatory
planning process for disaster management through the Gram Panchayat
Development Plan (GPDP) for addressing disasters across the country and initiate a
new era of community-based disaster management.
o People participation is crucial for identification of vulnerable groups and extent
of their vulnerability as well as response measures such as reconstruction of
damaged houses, crop protection measures, etc.
 Social mobilization for traditional wisdom: PRIs can act as catalysts to the social
mobilisation process and tap the traditional wisdom of the local communities to
complement the modern practices in disaster mitigation efforts.

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  Integration of all players: PRIs can play a crucial leadership role in integrating all Student Notes:
players like Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) and Community Based
organisations (CBOs), which are engaged in various developmental activities at the
grassroots level.
The DMP–MoPR aims to develop a culture of disaster resilience at the grassroots level
through the following components:
 It incorporates many innovations in addition to being in compliance with Disaster
Management Act 2005, National Disaster Management Policy 2009, and
guidelines issued by National Disaster Management Authority.
 It covers areas such as:
o Institutional arrangement for Disaster Management;
o Hazard Risk, Vulnerability and Capacity Analysis; Coherence of Disaster Risk
Management across Resilient Development and Climate Change Action;
o Disaster Specific Preventive and Mitigation Measures-Responsibility
Framework;
o Mainstreaming of Community Based Disaster Management Plan of Villages and
Panchayats.
The convergent and collective actions of DMP–MoPR to envision, plan and implement
community-based disaster management plans, would be a game changer for our
country in managing disasters comprehensively.

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