Q1 Describe Farm Irrigation Systems

introduction

Irrigation is the artificial application of water to the soil

through various systems of tubes, pumps, and sprays. Irrigation
is usually used in areas where rainfall is irregular or dry times or
drought is expected. There are many types of irrigation systems,
in which water is supplied to the entire field uniformly

A History of Agricultural Irrigation

The earliest known systems of irrigation began in 6000 BC in

Egypt and Mesopotamia. In Egypt, the Nile flooded for a few
months each year, and the waters were diverted to the fields to
allow farmers to grow crops where otherwise they would be
unable to do so. In 3100 BC, a large irrigation project was built,
which involved the construction of dams and canals up to 20
kilometers in size.

However, the flooding was uncertain, and high flows could

wash away dikes and flood entire villages, whereas low flows
would not provide the crops with enough water.
Sub-irrigation is a more advanced form of irrigation that is
widely used around the world. This involves artificially raising
the level of the water table below the ground, which then
moistens the soil from below rather than applying water onto the
soil from above. It is a popular technique in many places around
the world, and it is also used in greenhouses.

Types of Irrigation Systems:

Their two method of irrigation

 Traditional irrigation, also called the pulley system, it

involves pulling up water from a well or other such
source to irrigate the land.
 modern irrigation: Modern methods of irrigation
include drip irrigation, sprinkler irrigation, and pot
irrigation

 traditional Irrigation Methods

These irrigation systems were used in earlier years. However,

even today some small farms in rural areas adopt these.
Although they are cheaper than modern methods, they are not as
efficient. Because they need human or animal lab us to function.
Some of these systems are,

1. Moat
Also called the pulley system, it involves pulling up water from
a well or other such source to irrigate the land. This is a time
consuming and lab our intensive process, but it is very cost-
efficient. Also, using a moat avoids wastage of water.

2. Chain pump
A chain pump consists of two large wheels connected by a
chain. There are buckets attached to the chain. Further, one part
of the chain dips into the water source. As the wheel turns, the
bucket picks up water. The chain later lifts them to the upper
wheel where the water gets deposited into a source. The empty
bucket gets carried back down.

3. Dhekli

It is a process of drawing water from a well or such similar

source. Here we tie a rope and bucket to a pole. At the other end,
we tie a heavy stick or any other object as a counterbalance. And
we use this pole to draw up water.
4. Rahat
Rahat uses animal lab us. Above the well, we tie a large wheel.
An ox or cow would turn the wheel to draw the water from the
well.

 Modern irrigation

There are many different types of irrigation systems, depending

on how the water is distributed throughout the field. Some
common types of irrigation systems include:

Surface irrigation
Water is distributed over and across land by gravity, no
mechanical pump involved

Advantages

The primary advantage of surface irrigation is that it requires the

lowest capital investment and little or no technical know-how. It
is also the most energy-efficient method on sloping fields
because there is no need for electrical pumps or factory-made
pieces and parts
 Disadvantages

Surface irrigation is the most water-intensive type of irrigation

system for agriculture, as only a small percentage of the water
reaches the roots while the rest flows past through the system of
furrows. The temporary saturation of the soil reduces the soil’s
ability to absorb water, making intermittent applications of
water a far more efficient approach.

Localized irrigation
Water is distributed under low pressure, through a piped
network and applied to each plant.

Drip irrigation
A type of localized irrigation in which drops of water are
delivered at or near the root of plants. In this type of irrigation,
evaporation and runoff are minimized.

Advantages of Drip Irrigation:

 Maximum use of available water.
 No water being available to weeds.
 Maximum crop yield.
 High efficiency in the use of fertilizers.
 Less weed growth and restricts population of potential hosts.
 Low labour and relatively low operation cost.
 No soil erosion.
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Sprinkler irrigation
Water is distributed by overhead high-pressure sprinklers or
guns from a central location in the field or from sprinklers on
moving platforms.

Advantages

Sprinkler irrigation uses far less water than surface irrigation

and can be used on a greater variety of terrains. The grower can
also program the sprinkler head to turn on and off at certain
intervals to maximize filtration and reduce the amount of water
used.
Disadvantages

While sprinklers may be helpful for irrigating row crops, they

are not a particularly helpful kind of irrigation for fruit trees as
the trunks block the path of the spray.

Center pivot irrigation

Water is distributed by a system of sprinklers that move on
wheeled towers in a circular pattern. This system is common in
flat areas of the United States.

Lateral move irrigation

Water is distributed through a series of pipes, each with a wheel
and a set of sprinklers, which are rotated either by hand or with a
purpose-built mechanism. The sprinklers move a certain
distance across the field and then need to have the water hose
reconnected for the next distance. This system tends to be less
expensive but requires more labor than others.

Sub-irrigation
Water is distributed across land by raising the water table,
through a system of pumping stations, canals, gates, and ditches.
This type of irrigation is most effective in areas with high water
tables.

Manual irrigation
Water is distributed across land through manual labor and
watering cans. This system is very labor intensive.

For more information on types of irrigation, visit the United

States Geological Survey’s

farm irrigation systems are the methods of applying water to

crops and are classified as surface irrigation, sprinkler irrigation,
and micro irrigation. The decision to select an irrigation system
or convert to a more efficient irrigation system is complicated.
From a water conservation stand point the choice is simple, with
water savings increasing as surface irrigation systems are
changed to sprinkler systems and as sprinkler systems are
changed to micro irrigation systems. However, the success of an
irrigation system will be highly dependent on site and situation
factors as well as the level of management employed. Existing
irrigation systems should be carefully evaluated before
switching to alternative irrigation systems

Furrow irrigation
Although water covers the entire surface area of a field in other
surface irrigation methods, irrigation by furrows covers one-fifth
to one-half the surface. Furrows vary in size and can be placed
up and down the slope or on the contour. Small, shallow furrows
are called corrugations and are typically used for close growing
crops such as small grains and alfalfa. Larger, deeper furrows
are suitable for row crops such as corn.

Furrows provide better on-farm water management flexibility

under many surface irrigation conditions. The discharge per unit
width of the field is substantially reduced and can therefore be
practiced on slopes as steep as 12%, if furrows are placed on the
contour with the appropriate non-erosive stream size. If furrows
are not placed on a contour the maximum recommended slope is
3% or less. A smaller wetted area in furrow irrigation also
reduces evaporation losses. Furrows provide the irrigator with
more opportunity to efficiently manage irrigations as field
conditions change throughout the season.
However, furrow irrigation is not always efficient and can
produce significant runoff if a constant inflow rate is maintained
throughout the application period. Several methods can be used
to reduce runoff such as cutback operations, surge irrigation, and
reuse systems (See Information Sheet No. 5).

Basin Irrigation
Basins are typically rectangular in shape, level in all directions,
and are encompassed by a dyke to prevent runoff. Inflow to
basins is generally undirected and uncontrolled and can be
relatively efficient if high rates of flow are available to quickly
cover the field (Schwab et al., 1993). There are few crops and
soils not amenable to basin irrigation, but it is best suited for
moderate to slow intake soils, deep-rooted, and closely spaced
crops (Walker, 1989). Precision land leveling is very important
to achieving high uniformity and efficiency in all surface
irrigation methods (See Information Sheet No. 5).
Micro irrigation Systems
Micro irrigation is a method for delivering slow, frequent
applications of water to the soil using a low pressure, low
volume distribution system and special flow-control outlets
(Schwab et al.,

1993). If managed properly, micro irrigation can increase yields

and decrease water, fertilizer, and labor requirements. Micro
irrigation includes: micro sprinklers, drip irrigation, and
subsurface drip irrigation

(SDI). Micro sprinklers, often referred to as mini sprayers, micro

sprayers, and misters, typically consist of small emitters placed
on short risers above the soil surface. Water is conveyed through
the air, but travels only a short distance before reaching the soil
surface. The wetted area of emitters in these systems is small,
can be controlled fairly easily, and has different shapes to match
desired distribution patterns.

The advantages of micro sprinkler irrigation systems are the

potential for controlling frost, greater flexibility in applying
water, and lower susceptibility to clogging.
The major disadvantages of micro irrigation systems are high
initial cost and potential for system clogging, especially the
emitters. In some cases, labor inputs may be quite high if
rodents burrow and chew system components. Proper design,
operation and maintenance can overcome many of

Importance of Irrigation

Irrigation is necessary for agriculture and farming.

1. Firstly, it enables growth and photosynthesis in Plants. Plants

absorb minerals and nutrients from the soil via their roots.
These minerals dissolve in the water present in the soil. Then
the water transports these nutrients to all parts of the plant. In
this way, it enables growth and photosynthesis.

2. Secondly, it provides the moisture that is crucial during the

germination phase of the plant’s life cycle

3. Thirdly, it helps increase soil fertility by adding moisture to

it. It also makes the land easier to plough.

4. Lastly, it increases the yield from the farm.

 Characteristics of an Efficient Irrigation System

Just like humans, plants need water to survive. Without it, they
are unable to complete the process of photosynthesis and soon
wither and die. An irrigation system that results in healthy crops
will provide the right amount of water for each crop at the right
times so that evapotranspiration can occur and plants can grow
healthy and strong.

An Efficient Irrigation System Adjusts to the Season and

Climate

Just as irrigating in the heat of the day will result in the greatest
water loss through evaporation, watering at the most dormant
point of a plant’s growth cycle can also result in wasted
irrigation water and cause root rot.

 In the evening in summer (to avoid boiling the roots)

 In the morning in winter (to avoid an overnight root freeze)
 During the plant’s most active growth phases
New Irrigation Technologies

For those who prefer a conventional approach to agriculture,

new solar-powered irrigation technologies can help you to
reduce your water consumption and carbon footprint while
ensuring that your plants receive the right amount of moisture

Solar Pumps

Intended primarily to reduce the use of fossil fuels, 50-watt solar

panels can replace the coal-based electricity that is normally
used to power 12-volt pumps. These pumps move water into the
storage tank, from where it gravity-feeds into the drip irrigation
system. Typically, this size system can move 350-700 gallons of
water to the storage tank per hour.

Soil Sensors

Another innovation in the most efficient and modern irrigation

methods is the invention of solar-powered soil sensors. These
probe-style sensors collect data relating to soil moisture and
upload this data to a secure, cloud-based network via the LTE
mobile network. This information can then be accessed on your
computer.

Objectives

To find answers to the question as to why farmer adoption of

irrigation scheduling techniques is still on a limited scale,
notwithstanding the large number of methods available. The
objectives of the Workshop were specified as:

· To identify the obstacles that negatively affect the application

of available irrigation scheduling methods and techniques,
including those related to the transfer of knowledge.

Conclusions

Considerable progress has been made in the development of

irrigation scheduling methods and there is a gradual increase in
the adoption of irrigation scheduling tools by farmers.

The technology level of the farm will determine the choice of

the irrigation scheduling method. Industry farms and farms with
high value cash crops are more likely to adopt and invest in
sophisticated scheduling methods.
Recommendations

Specific recommendations concerning the use and further

development of the various irrigation scheduling techniques
were made:

For low technology situations the following scheduling methods

were considered more appropriate:

Q2 describe tree crop forming system

Tree Crop means trees planted under the management of one

Applicant with an aggregate area greater than 40 hectares and
with the intent of producing commercial products. Commercial
products include all wood and non-wood products that can be
sold to a third party. Wood products are produced when trees are
harvested, such as woodchips or saw logs, while non-wood
products include products such as carbon and potentially
environmental services.

examples of Tree Crop in a sentence In the case of rubber and

cash crops, the World Bank had approved a Tree Crop
Rehabilitation Project for small scale farmers involved in rubber
as well as other cash crops. The operational criteria and
procedures established under the Smallholder Tree Crop
Rehabilitation Project and the West African Agricultural
Productivity Project including for safeguards screening and
follow-up environmental management--will be utilized for
interventions under this sub-component.

 The macadamia nut

introduction

Overview
The macadamia nut tree is a fast-growing, medium-sized
evergreen tree with heavy, dark green foliage that hails from
Australia. Its leaves – which are blunt tipped, oblong, and
generally a foot or more longer – develop in either whorls of
twos, threes, or fours, but are rarely solitary. Macadamia flowers
are small and whitish, hassled and growing on long spikes, while
its nuts can ripen throughout the year, though they primarily
ripen in the fall and the spring. The nut has a leathery case that
is 1 inch in diameter, containing either a spherical nut or two
hemisphere nuts. They also have a smooth hard shell that
encases a white kernel.

While macadamia nuts originate and are grown in Australia,

commercial production is mainly in Hawaii. Some countries in
Latin America, Africa, and Asia also grow macadamia nuts,
while trees can be found in California and Florida for the
continental United States.

The highest quality macadamia kernels are not only free of

defects or insect and fungal damage, but also contain at least 72
percent oil. The kernels with less than 72 percent oil are usually
immature and harder and will over-brown when roasted.

Cultivation
The macadamias grown commercially are principally of two
species, the smooth-shelled Macadamia integrifolia and the
rough-shelled M. tetraphylla; the two tend to hybridize beyond
distinction. A third species,
Macadamias grow best in warm, frost-free areas and like a well-
drained soil enriched with compost. Gardeners in cool climates
who are keen to try growing a macadamia should protect the
young tree from frost for the first few years: a hessian wrap
around a few timber stakes will do

What are the standards for macadamia nuts?

When sized, the minimum size of in shell macadamia nut must

not be less than 16 mm (5/8 inch) in diameter. Tolerances in
respect of quality and size shall be allowed in each lot for
produce not satisfying the minimum requirements of the class
indicated.
Cal-Gran fertilizer blends are ideal for supporting avocado and
macadamia trees with nitrogen and a range of other nutrients.
Unlike urea blends, Cal-Gran fertilizer blends contain nitrogen
in the ammonium and nitrate forms and are not prone to
volatilization losses (a gaseous loss of nitrogen to the
atmosphere)

What manure for macadamia?

In addition to water, macadamia trees also require regular

fertilizing. In addition to fertilizing twice a year, experts
recommend applying aged chicken manure, aged compost, and
well-made garden compost. Another important consideration is
pest control. Macadamia trees require deep, well-drained soil.
Why irrigate macadamias?
expert and industry consultant Philip Lee delves deeper into the
irrigation question, with an emphasis on efficiency and the
importance of accurate, research-based water allocations.

This was the very question I asked macadamia farmers in

Levubu in the early 1990s, where I was working for a company
establishing the largest area (415 hectares) of macadamia
orchards in South Africa, many of which were irrigated.

The answer I was looking for was: how much more yield do we
get from irrigated orchards when compared with dryland
(unirrigated) orchards? Nobody at that time could give me the
answer. This short article provides the answer to that question
while emphasizing the importance of the efficiency with which
applied irrigation is converted into nut yield. It also brings into
question the accuracy of published macadamia water
requirements or “allocations”, which are probably driving recent
assertions of over-irrigation in the industry.
Present research and available knowledge

In the previous edition of The Macadamia was an article entitled

“SA Macs are over irrigated”. That article referred to the
irrigation research project that has been funded by the Water
Research Council (WRC) and SAMAC since 2016, undertaken
by various researchers including Dr Nicolette Taylor. It is
unfortunate that without any factual evidence the article asserts
that “since farmers were all too aware of the risks of under-
irrigating crops and the yield penalty that ensues, the result is a
general tendency to over-irrigate”, and further “expansion can’t
take place within existing allocations if the whole water
allocation is being used for the current area under production”

More evidence of efficient irrigation in commercial macadamia

orchards
Figure 2 shows yield produced by irrigated orchards from tree
age 4 to tree age 17 on a farm near Tzaneen, Limpopo Province.
Table 1 shows the annual rainfall, the volume of water applied
in irrigation and the average yield achieved over the past six
years, 2014 to 2019, on this farm.
Table 1. Yield, irrigation and annual rainfall, Tzaneen farm

Year 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 20

Yield DIS
4843 4998 3991 4410 4586 50
(kg/ha)

Irrigation
600 782 1202 799 750 10
(m³/ha)

Rainfall
1214 594 700 1104 806 76
(mm/annum)

Leaf samples

should be taken from October to November. Take the young

fully developed leaf of the third or fourth pair of leaves from the
growth point on a main lateral branch. Sample healthy trees
only. Sampled leaves should not be diseased, damaged or
exhibit nutrient deficiency symptoms. Sample leaves from the
same cultivar. Fig 5.8.2: Red circles indicate correct leaf to be
sampled. Image on left courtesy of The Cultivation of
Macadamias (ARC-ITSC). Organic matter Low quality soil
organic matter often results in deterioration of the soil structure
and tree condition. In practice, orchards are constantly mulched
with grass from between-row areas, plus finely-chopped leaves
and branches from pruning’s, in order to keep the organic matter
content of the soil as high as possible. When the organic carbon
content of the soil drops below 1.5%, urgent steps need to be
taken to rectify the problem, for example, adding manure. In
soils with low clay content, high levels of organic carbon matter
are essential. In these soils, the organic material represents a
large part of the cation exchange capacity (CEC. Low soil pH
and low soil-test values for K, Ca, Mg and/or P would indicate
the essential pre-plant corrective measures with potassium
fertilizer, agricultural lime and or phosphorus fertilizer,
particularly as these elements are relatively immobile in soils.
As a general guideline, in the event of a very low soil P, one ton
of superphosphate (10.5% P), or equivalent, per ha should be
broadcast and incorporated into the soil
Nitrogen (N) Generally, soil and leaf analyses are conducted to
determine the N-status of an orchard. When the recommended
leaf norm ranges between 1.2% and 1.6%, an annual application
per tree of 25 g to 50 g N for each year of the age of the tree, is
recommended – up to a maximum of 500 g per tree from year 10
onwards. Excessive N-applications can be detrimental and
would result in the following:

⚫Excessive tree size without any significant increase in

production.

⚫ Wind damage associated with excessive vegetation growth.

⚫ Lanky growth and trees with a weak framework.

⚫ Increased susceptibility to copper (Cu) deficiency, common

in the coastal production areas. Nitrogen requirements depend
on the age of the tree, its current growth stage, and the size of
the crop harvested. Young trees up to three years These trees
require constant replenishment of nitrogen to ensure optimum
growth and a strong framework. Young trees have little or no
reserves, and nitrogen supplements should be applied monthly
throughout the year. Beginning of reproductive phase, 3 to 4
years The number of applications may now be reduced.
Production

In Hawaii, commercial macadamia nut orchards are planted with

grafted seedlings. Generally, the trees are at their most
vulnerable during the first four years after tree establishment,
after which the rows can grow together for a continuous canopy
that makes the trees less prone to damage. After that, trees are
likely to bear a small crop in the fifth year after planting and will
reach full production in 12 to 15 years. A good tree can produce
macadamia nuts for 40 years.

They prefer deep, well-drained soils that have a pH of 5.0 to 6.5,

and require 60 to 120 inches of rainfall per year. They can be
grown from sea level to an elevation of 2,500 feet. Macadamia
trees have lower nut yields than other nut trees, meaning that it
can take a while to start and maintain a positive cash flow.
Because of this and harvesting expenses, macadamia orchards
generally require a major capital investment.

The trees prefer subtropical climates, though too much humidity

can increase the risk of blossom blights. Temperatures should
not fall below -1 degree Celsius or regularly rise above 35
degrees Celsius, since the low temperatures increase the risk of
damage while the high temperatures reduce vegetative growth,
increases premature nut drop, decreases nut growth and oil
accumulation, and may cause leaf burn.

Since they have only limited heat, frost, wind, drought, fire, and
poor drainage resistance, finding a farm block of workable size
for the macadamia trees can be difficult. In addition, blocks that
have steep (more than 15 percent incline) or broken terrain will
be more expensive to produce and manage, while blocks in drier
areas (less than 1200 millimeters/47.25 inches of annual rainfall)
will require irrigation. Strong wind is also a major concern for
macadamia nut trees, because it can cause severe tree loss.
However, narrow profile cultivars such as Kau and Pahala are
more wind resistant than others.

Macadamia trees need a lot of management for profit and good

nut quality. Because they are susceptible to many pests and
diseases, they require regular monitoring and control measure
applications. Orchard operations are also required to minimize
environmental risk, due to increasing scrutiny, which means that
issues such as noise pollution from de-husking, spray drift
control, and soil erosion from high rainfall, shade, and
mechanical harvesting need to be addressed.

Macadamia yields vary with location, season, variety, and

management level. A well-managed orchard with tree spacing’s
of 8 meters by 4 meters (or 312 trees per hectare) is expected to
yield a peak of 3.5 to 4 tons of in-shell nuts per ha (12 to 13
kilograms per tree) at maturity, though poorly managed orchards
or those on poor sites may not reach these figures.

Interpolating two cultivars of macadamia, such as cultivars 344

and 660, helps to improve yield through cross-pollination.
Intercropping macadamia nuts with more quickly bearing crops
is also a way to generate early returns. For example, in the Kona
district on the big island of Hawaii, coffee is sometimes grown
between macadamia nut trees.

Fertilization needs can be determined by semiannual leaf tissue

analysis if it is possible. If the orchard appears normal, one
sample collected before new leaf growth (February or March) or
before fertilization (September or October) per tree should be
enough. The branches for leaf tissue analysis should have a bud
at the tip that is just opening and beginning to grow. They
should not be branches with false flush buds, which have long,
hard red scales and will not open for months.

Fifteen leaves from four to five trees are needed for each sample
for analysis. The samples should be placed in plastic bags and
labeled with name, date of sampling, and sample number.

Diseases that affect macadamia trees include macadamia root rot

(Kretzschmaria clevis) and truck canker (Phytophthora
cinnamomi). Dieback or slow decline can occur when there is
trunk or root rot, soil compaction or poor drainage, poor root
structure from planting root bound trees, toxic chemicals from
herbicide or improper fertilizer application, or nutritional
problems.

Macadamia quick decline (MQD) can also occur. While the

stress factors for MQD are unknown stressors such as
waterlogged soil, low pH, nutritional problems, ambrosia beetle
attacks, and fungal/stem rots are suspected to be factors. Xylaria
and Nutria fungi are frequently associated with MQD.

Flower blights can be caused by Phytophtora capsicum or

Botrytis camera, with Clade sodium usually as a secondary
problem affecting raceme tips. While most premature nut drop is
normal, environmental stress may cause excessive premature
drop.

In addition to providing the nuts for harvest, macadamia trees

can also help to generate honey production for nearby beehives.
Sheep also can be used as natural lawn mowers to reduce the
costs of herbicides and weeding, decreasing the risk of chemical
toxicity in the soil and providing additional income with wool
products.

Processing/Manufacturing
Macadamia nuts are harvested manually after falling, which
occurs for eight to nine months of the year in Hawaii (July to
March). On relatively even land, large-scale producers use
mechanical sweepers and pickup devices to offset the high cost
of agricultural labor. CTAHR has developed a tractor-mounted
pickup device that works for smaller orchards. To prevent losses
from mold, germination, and animal damage, macadamia nuts
should be harvested at least every four weeks during rainy
weather, though they don’t need to be harvested as frequently
during dry weather.
Unhusked nuts should not be stored for more than a day. Rather,
it is best to husk the nuts immediately and either air dry them or
take them to the processor the next day. In cases where the nuts
were picked and cannot be husked or deliver to the processor,
the in-husk nuts should be dried, by spreading them on a wire or
slotted rack that is out of the rain and in direct sunlight.

While the shell accounts for most of the macadamia nut’s

weight, with Hawaii’s average kernel recovery rate being around
23.5 percent during 1989-1990, an improved cracking system,
along with better shell-kernel separators and high kernel
cultivars, could raise the recovery rate to 35 percent.

In 1988-1999, 49 million pounds of gross, wet, in-shell nuts

were delivered to processors and 3.5 million pounds (7.1 percent
of the gross) were culled. This was primarily because of mold
and rot, immature nuts, stink bugs, germinating nuts, koi seed
worm and the macadamia shot hole borer (Hypothenemus)

Prices paid by processors vary depending on world market

forces of supply and demand, as well as Australia’s exchange
rate. From 1990 to 2003, prices for in-shell nuts with 33 percent
sound kernel recovery, 3.5 percent unsound kernel recovery
max, and 10 percent moisture content ranged from $1.60 to
$3.20 per kilogram.

Cost of Production
Before macadamia trees start to bear fruit, it can cost around
3,000 to $3,500 per hectare per year to operate a 312 tree per
hectare orchard, making each tree around $10 to $12. This
includes fertilization, irrigation, mulching, pest/disease/weed
control, tree training, machinery operation, and labor costs. With
harvesting, mechanical harvesting, de-husking, drying, and
storing costs are generally around $1,000 to $1,500 per hectare,
if there is a yield of 3,500 kilograms in-shell nuts per hectare. As
a result, annual production costs for a mature orchard are around
$4000-5000.

Significant income shouldn’t be expected until the sixth year,

when the trees are mature and costs generally exceed income
until the eighth year. Accumulated costs generally exceed
accumulated income until at least the eleventh year. At an in-
shell nut price of 2.50 per kilogram, a yield of 3,500 kilogram
in-shell nuts per hectare, and production costs of 4,500 per
hectare, the income from mature trees should be around 4,000 to
4,500 per hectare before fixed or overhead costs are subtracted.
This makes a mature, 20-hectare orchard’s income roughly
$80,000 to $90,000 before fixed or overhead costs are
subtracted, though these figures can vary and taxation will affect
the breakeven point.

The cost of production for New South Wales Macadamia nuts in

2004 can be found at

Marketing
There are no regulations or restrictions in the market of
macadamia nuts, so the prices are determined by supply and
demand market forces. The largest markets for macadamia nuts
exported from South Africa are the United States, Europe, and
Asia.

Currently, macadamia nuts are used for confectionary, baking,

ice cream, and snack food industries. Because of the oil’s rich,
cushiony skin feel and high oxidative stability, it is also suitable
for heavy creams and skin care formulas. Research has shown
that macadamia nut consumption may significantly lower heart
disease risk.
The kernel, which is the main product of the macadamia nut
tree, is oil or dry roasted after the husk is removed. Oil that is
extracted from the culled nuts is commonly used in soaps,
sunscreens, and shampoos, while the remaining press cake can
be used in animal feed. An ounce of oil-roasted macadamia nut,
which is about 10 to 12 whole kernels, has 204 calories, 21.73
grams’ fat, 2.06 grams’ protein, and 3.66 grams’ carbohydrates,
along with 13 milligrams calcium, 33 milligrams magnesium, 57
milligrams of phosphorus, 94 milligrams of potassium, and 2
milligrams of sodium.

While the kernel and oil are the main products of macadamia
nuts, both the shells and the husks also have uses. Macadamia
shells can be used as mulch, as fuel in macadamia nut
processing, as a planting medium for anthodium cultures
(flowering plants native to tropical America), for plastic
manufacture, or as a sand substitute for sandblasting.
Macadamia husks can be used as mulch or compost for fertilizer

Conclusion
As this article has attempted to show, some macadamia farmers
in South Africa are using irrigation very efficiently to extract
maximum nut production from every drop of water applied. If
they can get it right, then why can’t all macadamia farmers get it
right??

Reference

http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0010/14021
2/macadamia-costs-and-returns-for-northern-nsw.pdf

Anon. 2020. Macadamia. Total Water Requirement per season.

samac.org.za/members/technical information/irrigation

Lee, P.F.W. 1999. Irrigation vs Dryland. Proceedings of the first

International Macadamia Symposium in Africa: 298 – 303

Nortje, G. 2013. Water allocations for subtropical crops in

Limpopo. Subgroup Quarterly Journal, January to March 2013,
Vol.1.