EVELYN HONE COLLEGE OF APPLIED ART AND COMMERCE

ISOKA CAMPUS
DIPLOMA IN ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH SCIENCE

GROUP ASSIGNMENT 1

GROUP 4
NAME : KAPYA FRANCIS………………………..22205100339
NAME : MALILO DINAH…………………………..22002902
NAME : NAMBELA RACHEAL…………………..2220510165
NAME : MSIMUKO MAILES……………………..22003458
NAME : MUBANGA PRECIOUS………………..2220510077
NAME : KAPESA EMMANUEL MASASE…….22205100368

COURSE : ANIMAL ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

COURSE CODE : AAP 212
YEAR / SEMESTER: YEAR 2/ SEMESTER 2
LECTURER’S NAME: MR NDLOVU M.
TASK : DISTINCTION OF YOUNG AND OLD ANIMALS BASED ON
SKELETAL FEATURES, CLASSIFY AND DIFFERENTIATION
OF FOOD ANIMAL CARCASSES ACCORDING TO SEX AND
AGE BASED ON STRUCTURE (PELVIC GIRDLE) AND BONE
MASS/DENSITY.

Due Date 25/09/2023

The skeletal system consists of a framework composed of the bones of the animal body. These are joined
together in their natural positions by ligaments and joints. The softer tissues of the body are built on this
framework and the organs are enclosed and partly protected by it. (Wilson, 2005)

Carcasses from young animals have a relatively high bone content than old animals because the skeleton is well
developed at birth. As an animal grows to market weight, its proportion of bone decreases on a relative basis,
because of the growth of muscle and fat. The long-term control of bone growth is superimposed on the short-
term regulation of bone metabolism that occurs in response to changes in blood calcium levels, or to
remodelling in response to local functional demands.

Young animals have cartilage associated with the bones. In the split carcass this is most obvious as the
cartilaginous extensions of the spines of the dorsal vertebrae, between the joints of the sternum and the pubic
symphysis. The cartilaginous extensions of the dorsal spines are ivory-white and are clearly demarcated from
the bright red marrow of the dorsal spines. On the first two or three spines the cartilaginous extensions measure
up to 5 cm in length, gradually reducing to a few millimetres on the 13th spine. As the animal gets older the
cartilage slowly ossifies, showing increasing numbers of red islets of bone. At 6 years the cartilages are
completely ossified and the junctions with the spines are indistinct. The marrow is also much lighter in colour.
The inter- vertebral and sternal cartilages also give indications of age. (Baldwin, 1964)
calves
This is estimated by the condition of the hooves, teeth, umbilicus and horns. Newly born calves have soft
hooves with conical processes on their solar surfaces. The umbil- ical stump is grey and moist and firmly
attached to the umbilical ring. Cicatrisation of the umbilicus takes place in about 3 weeks and all eight milk
incisor teeth have erupted. By the end of the 3rd week in horned breeds, there is a hard epidermal callosity over
the frontal bones. The muscles of immature calves are flabby and greyish-red, espe- cially the hind limbs. The
marrow is soft and dark red, and the kidney fat is soft and greyish-red.
Meat can be simply defined as the all parts of animals that are suitable for human consumption. Following there
species, this can includes domestic animals: bovine animals (including buffalo and bison), swine (pigs), sheep,
goats and solipeds.
A Carcass is the whole body of one of the above animals (except pigs) that has been slaughtered, after bleeding,
evisceration and removal of the limbs at the carpus and tarsus, removal of the head, tail, udder and removal of
the skin. The pig carcass still has the skin attached.
Offal is fresh meat other than that of the carcass, whether or not naturally connected to the carcass.
Viscera is the term given to the offal from the thoracic, abdominal and pelvic cavities, including the trachea and
oesophagus.

1. Cattle

Cow

 Area of udder removal obvious.

 Supramammary node or part may be left on carcass.
 Pelvic cavity is wide, pubic bone is thin, almost straight, tubercle is small and not cartilaginous.
 Gracilis muscle appears bean-shaped.
 No bulbocavernosus muscle or root of penis or inguinal canal.
 Remains of broad ligaments of uterus.
  Fat is irregularly distributed and rough and yellow.
 Bones are small, e.g. carpus. (Desjardins,1969)

Heifer
 Udder is white, smooth and fatty.
 No bulbocavernosus muscle or root of penis or inguinal canal.
 Cartilage not ossified, e.g. pubic tubercle, sternum and ends of thoracic vertebral spines.
 Fat is more evenly distributed, smooth and lighter in colour.
 Gracilis muscle appears bean-shaped.

Bullock (castrated) males

 Muscles are more developed and bones are larger, e.g. carpus.
 Scrotal (cod) fat is abundant.
 Pelvic cavity is narrow, floor is angular and pubic tubercle is large and cartilaginous.
 Root of penis is present.
 Marked bulbocavernosus muscle.
 Gracilis muscle appears triangular because posterior part is covered with fat.
 Internal inguinal ring is obvious and remains of the vessels are present.

Bull
 Massive neck and shoulder muscles (crest).
 Dark red colour of muscle and absence of fat.
 Open internal and external inguinal rings and no cod fat.
 Pelvic cavity is narrow, floor angular and pubic tubercle is large.
 Root of penis present and strong bulbocavernosus muscle.
 Gracilis muscle appears triangular.

Young entire male (young bull)
These are killed at about 18 months. They have a better food conversion rate than bul- locks and have less fat.
They are more strongly developed than bullocks, especially in the shoulder region. They have more or less the
same characteristics as older bulls.
 2. Sheep

Ram or tup
 Strong muscular forequarter.
 Open inguinal rings.
 Cod fat is sparse or absent.
 Root of penis is present.

Wether (castrated male)

 Carcass is usually well proportioned with evenly distributed fat.
 Lobulated cod fat.
 Root of penis is present.

Gimmer (virgin female)

 Carcass is characterised by its symmetrical shape.
 Smooth convex udder is composed mainly of fat.

Ewe
 Carcass is angular in shape with long thin neck and poor legs.
 Udder tissue is brown, spongy and never sets. If removed, it leaves roughened area and portions of it and
supramammary nodes may remain on carcass.

Differentiation of sheep and goat carcasses

Sheep and goat carcasses are very similar, but goat carcasses are very lean and would normally only be
confused with poor ewe carcasses. The differences are given in Table.
3. Pigs

Boar

 Presence of shield. This is an oval, strongly developed area of cartilage over the shoulder region.
 Removal of area of scrotum inside thighs.
 Root of penis is present.
 Bulbocavernosus muscle is present.
 Protractor muscle of prepuce is present.
 V-flap in belly incision. This is a flap made in the skin of the abdomen when the prepuce is removed
during dressing of the carcass.

Hog (castrated male)

 Root of penis is present.
 Castration dip. This is due to contraction of fibrous tissue.
 Protractor muscle of prepuce is present in the belly fat, which is concavely grooved.
 Gracilis muscle is partially fat covered.
 V-flap in belly incision.
 Young entire male pig (young boar)
This type of pig is becoming more popular as it has a better food conversion rate and has less fat than the
castrate. Although the shield is absent, it has the disadvantage of being strongly developed in the shoulder
region. The characteristics are the same as the older boar except for the absence of the shield.
Problems have arisen with entire male pigs because they are lean and, in common with other lean pigs, have the
following undesirable characteristics:

 Soft fat.
 Poor setting of cuts.
 Fat and lean separation.

Gilt (virgin female)

 All male characteristics are absent.
 Belly incision is straight and fat is convex.
 Gracilis muscle appears bean-shaped and is fat free.
 Occasionally the ovaries are left in the abdomen.

Sow
 Greater development of udder and teats.
 Pelvic cavity is wide – generally more than a hand’s-breadth.

Bone density in animals is the measure of the amount of minerals (mainly calcium and phosphorous) contained
in a certain volume of bone, accounting for approximately 60% of bone strength. Bone density changes
throughout life. Bone mineral density (BMD) is set by the amount of bone present in the skeletal structure; the
higher the BMD, the stronger the bones, and vice-versa. ( Mbaimbai, 2021)
Bones provide the scaffolding that allow animal bodies to remain the posture. Healthy bones are not solid, their
interiors being made of a honeycomb structure with tiny holes to keep them light and springy. When bones
reduce their mineral density they have much larger holes as well as thin cortical walls, which can increase their
risk of fracturing. This is why bone density assessment is importan.
 REFERENCE

Baldwin, B.A., 1964: The anatomy of the arterial supply to the cranialregions of the sheep and ox. Amer. J. Ana
t.

Desjardins, C. and H.D. Hafs, 1969: Maturation of bovine female genitalia from birth through puberty. J. Anim.
Sci. 28.

Mbaimbai Francis (2021) the skeletal system, Animal Anatomy and Physiology. Evelyn Hone college isoka
campus, students notes.

Smuts, M.M.S. and J.M.W. le Roux, 1976: Areas of muscular attachmentand their
correlation with foraminous area of the cervical vertebraeof the ox (Bos Taurus L.).

Smuts, M.M.S., 1975: The foramina of the cervical vertebrae of the ox.Part II: Cervical vertebrae 3-
7. Zbl. Vet. Med.

Wilson G. William (2005) Wilson’s Practical Meat Inspection, Seventh Edition. Blackwell Publishing Ltd
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