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Present-day stresses, seismicity and Neogene-to-Recent tectonics of

Australia's 'passive' margins: intraplate deformation controlled by plate
boundary forces

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 Present-day stresses, seismicity and Neogene-to-Recent tectonics
of Australia’s ‘passive’ margins: intraplate deformation
controlled by plate boundary forces
RICHARD R. HILLIS1, MIKE SANDIFORD2, SCOTT D. REYNOLDS1,3
& MARK C. QUIGLEY2
1
Australian School of Petroleum, University of Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia,
(e-mail: richard.hillis@adelaide.edu.au)
2
School of Earth Sciences, University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia
3
Present address: Schlumberger Oilfield Services, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates

Abstract: Neogene-to-Recent deformation is widespread on and adjacent to Australia’s ‘passive’

margins. Elevated historical seismic activity and relatively high levels of Neogene-to-Recent
tectonic activity are recognized in the Flinders and Mount Lofty Ranges, the SE Australian
Passive Margin, SW Western Australia and the North West Shelf. In all cases the orientation of
palaeostresses inferred from Neogene-to-Recent structures is consistent with independent
determinations of the orientation of the present-day stress field.
Present-day stress orientations (and neotectonic palaeostress trends) vary across the Australian
continent. Plate-scale stress modelling that incorporates the complex nature of the convergent
plate boundary of the Indo-Australian Plate (with segments of continent–continent collision, con-
tinent– arc collision and subduction) indicates that present-day stress orientations in the Australian
continent are consistent with a first-order control by plate-boundary forces. The consistency
between the present-day, plate-boundary-sourced stress orientations and the record of deformation
deduced from neotectonic structures implicates plate boundary forces in the ongoing intraplate
deformation of the Australian continent.
Deformation rates inferred from seismicity and neotectonics (as high as 10216 s21) are faster
than seismic strain rates in many other ‘stable’ intraplate regions, suggestive of unusually high
stress levels imposed on the Australian intraplate environment from plate boundary interactions
many thousands of kilometres distant. The spatial overlap of neotectonic structures and zones
of concentrated historical seismicity with ancient fault zones and/or regions of enhanced
crustal heat flow indicates that patterns of active deformation in Australia are in part, governed,
by prior tectonic structuring and are also related to structural and thermal weakening of continental
crust. Neogene-to-Recent intraplate deformation within the Australian continent has had profound
and under-recognized effects on hydrocarbon occurrence, both by amplifying some hydrocarbon-
hosting structures and by inducing leakage from pre-existing traps due to fault reactivation
or tilting.

The term ‘passive margin’ describes a region of regions (e.g. Gurnis et al. 1998; Müller et al.
extended continental crust, located adjacent to a 2000) or hotspot-related processes (e.g. Brodie &
divergent plate boundary at the time of initiation White 1994). This debate has been particularly
of seafloor spreading, but now located in an intra- active with respect to the North Atlantic passive
plate setting, and thus considered to be tectonically margin which has seen significant Cenozoic defor-
‘passive’. However, as demonstrated in this volume, mation and uplift. In this region, debate has
many passive margins are subject to ongoing intra- centred on the relative importance of deformation
plate deformation and there has been much debate associated with the Iceland mantle plume versus
about the drivers for such behaviour. Intraplate deformation associated with compressional stresses
deformation may be generated by plate boundary transmitted from plate boundaries (Mid Atlantic
forces that are transmitted into the plate interiors, Ridge and Alpine collisional zone), and perhaps
with deformation localized in zones of intraplate to a lesser extent, glacially-related processes
weakness (e.g. Ziegler et al. 1998; Sandiford et al. (see summary in Doré et al. 2002). It is instructive
2004). Alternatively, there may be within-plate to analyse the Neogene-to-Recent deformation of
drivers for intraplate deformation such as tractions Australia’s passive margins in the context of this
imparted from the mantle below deforming debate on the drivers of intraplate deformation.

From: JOHNSON , H., DORÉ , A. G., GATLIFF , R. W., HOLDSWORTH , R., LUNDIN , E. R. & RITCHIE , J. D. (eds)
The Nature and Origin of Compression in Passive Margins. Geological Society, London, Special Publications,
306, 71–90. DOI: 10.1144/SP306.3 0305-8719/08/$15.00 # The Geological Society of London 2008.
72 R. R. HILLIS ET AL.

Structural and geomorphological expressions neotectonic deformation can be accounted for in

of Neogene-to-Recent intraplate deformation have terms of the boundary forces acting on the plate.
been recognized within parts of the Australian We argue that plate boundary forces exert the first-
continent (Sandiford 2003b; Twidale & Bourne order control on the present-day intraplate stress
2004; Clark & Bodorkos 2004; Célérier et al. field and on the neotectonic, intraplate deformation
2005; Quigley et al. 2006, 2007). This neotectonic of Australia and thus that plate boundary forces
record affords an opportunity to investigate are effectively transmitted thousands of kilometres
whether present-day intraplate stresses as deter- into the plate’s interior where they are responsible
mined from techniques such as earthquake focal for intraplate deformation. We also discuss the
mechanism solutions and borehole break-outs in implications for the controls on intraplate defor-
well-bores (Hillis & Reynolds 2000) are consistent mation of the Australian continent and for
with the longer-term geological record, and to hydrocarbon occurrence.
assess whether both intraplate stresses and neotec-
tonic deformation are consistent with a first-order
control by plate boundary forces. The variation of Intraplate stress field of Australia and
present-day stress orientations and neotectonic plate boundary forces
structural trends across the Australian continent
provides a more robust test of the consistency of The Australian continent is situated within the
inferred stresses and neotectonic structures than is interior of the composite Indo-Australian Plate
possible in continental areas where there is little (Figs 1 & 2). Hillis & Reynolds (2003) described
variation in present-day stress orientation. present-day maximum horizontal stress orientations
In this paper, we summarize and compare within the Australian continent using earthquake
present-day intraplate stresses, seismicity and focal mechanism solutions (29% of the data),
neotectonic deformation in four regions of the borehole break-outs and drilling-induced tensile
Australian continent, focusing on its passive fractures in hydrocarbon exploration wells (44%
margins, in order to evaluate the extent to which and 7% of the data respectively) and hydraulic

Fig. 1. Indo-Australian Plate showing the plate boundaries and forces discussed in the text. Large grey arrows
indicate the mid-ocean ridge push force, small grey arrows indicate resisting continent –continent collisional forces,
and small black arrows indicate slab pull forces. Solid triangles indicate the direction of subduction and open
triangles delineate the Banda Arc. Modified after Reynolds et al. (2003).
 STRESS AND NEOTECTONICS OF AUSTRALIA 73

Fig. 2. Digital elevation map of Australia showing locations of figures and sites discussed in the text.

fracture tests, largely undertaken for coal mining central Australia. The east –west orientation
purposes (18% of the data). Some 549 stress orien- rotates to NW –SE moving eastwards along the
tation measurements are available for the Australian southern Australian margin. Regional stress orien-
continent, 331 of which are considered to be tations in the Australian continent are not affected
reliable (Fig. 3a). These data were derived to a first-order by tectonic province, crustal thick-
independently of the information related to ness, heat flow, regional structural trends, geologi-
Neogene-to-Recent structures within the Australian cal age or by the depth at which orientations are
continent presented herein. The stress data contain sampled. Numerous workers (e.g. Coblentz et al.
no orientations based on neotectonic structures, 1998; Reynolds et al. 2002; Sandiford et al. 2004)
although elsewhere this is a recognized source of have thus sought an explanation for present-day
such information (Zoback 1992). The independence intraplate stress trajectories in terms of plate
of these datasets is, of course, significant given boundary forces generated at the margins of the
that we compare present-day stress orientations Indo-Australian Plate (Fig. 1).
and neotectonic deformation. The orientation of The NE boundary of the Indo-Australian Plate
present-day maximum horizontal stress inferred exhibits a uniquely complex and laterally varying
from in-situ stress data is consistent within given set of convergent tectonic styles. Continental
regions of the Australian continent (e.g. individual collision is occurring along the Himalayan,
sedimentary basins) but varies from region-to- New Guinea and New Zealand segments of the
region throughout the continent (Fig. 3). plate boundary (Fig. 1). Oceanic parts of the
Present-day maximum horizontal stress is oriented Indo-Australian Plate are being subducted at
east –west in western Australia. The east –west the Sumatra– Java and Solomon–New Hebrides
orientation rotates to NE–SW moving eastwards Trenches, and the Pacific Plate is being sub-
along the northern Australian margin and in ducted under the Indo-Australian Plate at the
74 R. R. HILLIS ET AL.

Fig. 3. Australian Stress Map. (a) Orientations of the bars indicate orientations of present-day maximum
horizontal stress using the techniques indicated in the key. The length of the bar represents the quality (reliability) of
the inferred stress orientation. Only reliable, A-C quality data are included. D and E quality data are omitted (from
Hillis & Reynolds 2003).(b) Mean stress orientations within Australian stress provinces. The size of the arrow indicates
the consistency of stress orientations within the province. Isolated A- and B-quality data that do not lie within the
defined stress provinces are also shown (from Hillis & Reynolds 2003).
 STRESS AND NEOTECTONICS OF AUSTRALIA 75

Tonga–Kermadec Trench. The rotation of stress western Europe (Gölke & Coblentz 1996) and
orientation from east –west to NE–SW along the South America (Coblentz & Richardson 1996),
northern margin of Australia results in stress trajec- where the present-day maximum horizontal stress
tories aligning orthogonal to the collisional New orientation is indeed consistent and parallel to the
Guinea segment of the NE convergent boundary direction of absolute plate motion. However, it
of the Indo-Australian plate. The rotation of stress does not match stress observations within the
orientation from east –west to NW–SE along the Australian continent.
southern margin of Australia results in stress trajec- In subsequent models, Coblentz et al. (1998)
tories aligning orthogonal to the collisional New balanced (focused) the ridge push force associated
Zealand segment of the plate boundary. Qualitat- with the SW boundary of the Indo-Australian
ively this suggests that these collisional plate Plate against the collisional segments of the NE
boundary segments exert an important control on boundary (i.e. Himalayas, New Guinea and New
intraplate stresses. Zealand) and successfully reproduced the broad,
Coblentz et al. (1998) and Reynolds et al. (2002) continental-scale rotations in maximum horizontal
undertook two-dimensional, elastic finite element stress orientation across the Australian continent
analysis of the intraplate stress field of the described above. Reynolds et al. (2003) statistically
Indo-Australian Plate based on the forces applied compared the intraplate stresses predicted by plate
to the plate boundaries (Fig. 4). In their first boundary force models of the Indo-Australian
model, Coblentz et al. (1998) ignored the com- Plate (permitting different forces along the NE
plexity of the NE convergent boundary of the boundary segments) with the observed stress data.
Indo-Australian Plate and balanced the ridge push The best-fitting model provides an excellent
force associated with the SW plate boundary fit to the observed stress data (Fig. 4). This indicates
equally along the length of the convergent NE that despite the fact that the present-day maximum
boundary. This model predicts maximum horizontal horizontal stress orientation within the Australian
stresses that are consistent throughout the plate continent is not parallel to the direction of absolute
and parallel to the direction of absolute plate plate motion, it is consistent with a first-order
motion (i.e. NNE-oriented). This simple model control by plate boundary forces, provided
is broadly similar to successful models of the the complexity of the NE convergent boundary of
intraplate stress field of continental areas such as the Indo-Australian Plate is taken into account.

Fig. 4. Plate boundary force stress model that provides the best fit to observed stress data for the Australian continent
(from Reynolds et al. 2003).
76 R. R. HILLIS ET AL.

Seismicity and present-day stress provide one view of the ‘instantaneous’ intraplate
of Australia deformation field and its variability. On the basis
of the activity rates, Johnston (1994) deduced a
Australia shows a relatively high level of seismicity bulk seismogenic strain rate for the Australian
for a continent remote from plate boundaries continent of c. 10217 s21, about four times faster
(Fig. 5). In terms of individual earthquakes, large than northern Europe and about four times slower
(M c. 6.8), surface rupturing earthquakes have than India. Sandiford et al. (2004) and Célérier
occurred at Meckering (1968) and Tennant Creek et al. (2005) used a similar approach to derive
(1988). In 1989, the M5.6 Newcastle earthquake seismogenic strain rates in the most active parts
resulted in 13 fatalities. In a comparison of of south-central Australia which are of the order
seismic activity rates in stable continental regions 10216 s21; a rate that on the geological time scale
(SCRs), Johnston (1994) showed that Australia should produce significant deformation.
was amongst the most active of SCRs, together Earthquake epicentral locations define four
with China and North America. Estimated activity distinct zones of enhanced seismicity across the
rates in Australia are significantly higher than north- Australian continent (Fig. 5). (1) The SE Seismic
ern Europe, cratonic South America and Africa. Zone, extending in a coastal belt from central
India is the most seismically active SCR (Johnson New South Wales through the eastern half of
1994). Calculations of seismic strain rates from Victoria into Tasmania, including the passive
activity rates in SCRs are highly uncertain given margin bordering the Tasman Sea and the most
the incompleteness of the historical databases SE part of the passive margin bordering the
from which they are derived. They do, however, Southern Ocean. (2) The Flinders Seismic Zone,

Fig. 5. Distribution of M . 3 earthquakes and designated seismic zones in Australia. Earthquake epicentre data
courtesy of Geoscience Australia. Magnitude measures are based on local magnitudes (ML) for M , 5.5 and surface
magnitude (Ms) for M . 5.5. The locations of notable Australian earthquakes including the 1968 Ms 6.8 Meckering
earthquake; 1988 Ms 6.8 Tennant Creek earthquake, and 1989 Ms 5.6 Newcastle earthquake are shown.
 STRESS AND NEOTECTONICS OF AUSTRALIA 77

extending from the Flinders and Mount Lofty inferred from caliper logs in individual wells in
Ranges to the eastern Gawler Craton. (3) The SW the Carnarvon Basin show significant scatter,
Seismic Zone of SW Western Australia which albeit with a mean direction of c. 1018N across
extends to the southern part of Western Australian the basin (standard deviation of 358; Hillis &
Indian Ocean passive margin. (4) The NW Reynolds 2003). Image logs permit more confident
Seismic Zone located mainly on the NW Shelf, interpretation of borehole break-outs than caliper
the passive margin bordering the Indian Ocean logs, and permit the recognition of drilling-induced
and Timor Sea. tensile fractures, which also indicate the direction of
Present-day maximum horizontal stress is present-day horizontal stress. Recent, unpublished
oriented NW–SE throughout the SE Australian analysis of a large database of image logs indicates
passive margin, albeit rotating slightly from a consistent present-day maximum horizontal
1258N in the South Australian Otway Basin to stress direction of c. 1058N across the Carnarvon
1358N in the Victorian Otway Basin to 1408N in Basin. Present-day maximum horizontal stress
the Gippsland Basin (Fig. 6; Nelson et al. 2006). orientation in the Timor Sea (Fig. 3) is well con-
Allen et al. (2005) calculated a composite fault strained from analysis of borehole break-outs and
plane solution using four eastern Victorian earth- drilling-induced tensile fractures on caliper and
quakes (immediately north of the Gippsland image logs from the area (Hillis & Reynolds
Basin) with the solution indicating a reverse fault 2003). The mean present-day maximum horizontal
mechanism with present-day maximum horizontal stress direction in the area is 0478N.
stress oriented 1458N.
Earthquake focal mechanism solutions in the
Flinders Seismic Zone indicate strike-slip and Neotectonics of Australia
reverse mechanisms with a broadly east –west
oriented present-day maximum horizontal stress Australia is often considered to be a tectonically
orientation, but with some scatter in orientations stable continental region where ancient land
(Fig. 7; Hillis & Reynolds 2000, 2003). Clark & surfaces predominate (Twidale & Bourne 1975;
Leonard (2003) inverted six earthquake focal Ollier 1978). This is true for much of the continent,
mechanisms from the Flinders Ranges in a com- but, as discussed above, Neogene-to-Recent
posite solution indicating that the maximum princi- tectonic activity is documented in many areas of
pal stress is sub-horizontal and oriented 0828N. Australia. A large number of prehistoric fault
Present-day maximum horizontal stress in the scarps have been identified onshore in Australia,
SW Seismic Zone is oriented east –west (Hillis & testifying to a rich record of ongoing earthquake
Reynolds 2003; Fig. 8). Borehole break-outs in activity (Clark & McCue 2003 and discussed
the Perth Basin (Fig. 2) indicate an east –west further below). Several important conclusions
oriented present-day maximum horizontal stress and implications have been drawn from the
(Fig. 8; Reynolds & Hillis 2000). Shallow studies of these features. Importantly, all documen-
(3–10 m depth) overcoring-based stress measure- ted onshore Quaternary faults involve either purely
ments were undertaken near the epicentres of the dip-slip or oblique-slip reverse movement. No
1968 Meckering and 1970 Calingiri earthquakes Quaternary strike-slip or normal faults have been
and both the overcoring measurements and found. Fault kinematic data derived from fault
the focal mechanism solutions for those events plane and slickenline orientations from the Flinders
indicate east –west oriented present-day maximum Seismic Zone indicate a roughly east –west oriented
horizontal stress (Denham et al. 1979). Clark & palaeomaximum horizontal stress orientation, con-
Leonard (2003) inverted five earthquake focal sistent with the orientation derived from historical
mechanisms from the area, including the Meckering seismicity (Sandiford 2003a; Quigley et al. 2006;
and Calingiri events, in a composite solution Fig. 7).
indicating that the maximum principal stress is hori- Estimates of prehistoric SE Australian earth-
zontal and oriented 2758N with a pure compression quake magnitudes (M), based on fault rupture
focal mechanism. lengths, single-event displacements and inferred
There is extensive present-day stress data from ranges of hypocentral rupture depth, range from
the NW Seismic Zone in the form of borehole M ¼ 5.8 to 7.2 (Clark & McCue 2003; Quigley
break-outs analysed in petroleum exploration et al. 2006). These data are consistent with
wells in the Carnarvon Basin. Regional present-day estimates for the largest recorded Australian
maximum horizontal stress in the Carnarvon Basin earthquakes (Meeberiee, WA 1941, M ¼ 7.3;
is oriented c. 1008N (Hillis & Reynolds 2003; Meckering, WA 1968, M ¼ 6.8; Tennant Creek,
Fig. 3). The original interpretation of break-outs NT 1988; M ¼ 6.8). Quaternary fault slip
in the Carnarvon Basin was based on caliper logs rates derived from cumulative displacements of
interpreted by Mildren (1997). The stress directions Pliocene and Quaternary sediments range from
78 R. R. HILLIS ET AL.
 STRESS AND NEOTECTONICS OF AUSTRALIA 79

20– 150 mMa21, suggesting surprisingly high rates Basin), the Flinders and Mount Lofty Ranges,
of deformation for an intraplate setting (Sandiford onshore SW Western Australia, and the NW
2003a; Quigley et al. 2006). However, the long- Australian passive margin (Carnarvon Basin and
term slip rates determined from individual fault Timor Sea). These areas where Neogene-to-Recent
exposures have proved more difficult to assess tectonic activity can most easily be observed
because of the tendency of intracontinental faulting correspond with the areas of elevated historical
to cluster in time and space (Crone et al. 1997, seismic activity described above, suggesting that
2003). For example, faults in the Wilkatana area deformation is continuing to the present-day. We
of the central Flinders Ranges appear to have also compare Neogene-to-Recent structural trends
incurred upwards of 15 m of cumulative slip to the present-day stress field.
since c. 67 000 years ago (Quigley et al. 2006),
much higher than any reasonable long-term
average. Estimates of the recurrence interval of SE Australian passive margin: Otway,
surface-rupturing earthquakes from Quaternary Torquay and Gippsland Basins
faults range from 1 per 22 000 years to 1 per
There is extensive evidence for Miocene –Recent
83 000 years, although estimations of these rates
deformation on Australia’s SE passive margin.
are also limited by the sporadic nature of intracon-
tinental faulting (Quigley et al. 2006). Figure 6a shows the major Neogene faults of the
area as interpreted by Dickinson et al. (2002). The
Exposed Quaternary faults commonly occur
along previously established geological boundaries Minerva Gas Field of the offshore Otway Basin
and/or zones of crustal weakness (Fig. 2), includ- is located on a NE-trending inversion anticline
which records a major period of Miocene –Recent
ing lithotectonic boundaries (e.g. Wilkatana and
Roopena/Ash Reef Faults at the boundary compression (Schneider et al. 2004; Sharp &
Wood 2004; Fig. 6e). Similar, NE-trending
between the Adelaide Fold Belt and Gawler
Craton), ancient fault zones (e.g. Mundi Mundi Miocene –Recent anticlines occur onshore such as
Fault, Lake Edgar Fault) and range fronts (Flinders the Ferguson Hill anticline (Port Campbell
Embayment 1 : 100 000 Geological Map Sheet;
and Mt Lofty Ranges). Finally, it appears that
earthquake activity may have resulted in upwards Fig. 6c). These structures lie just to the west of
the Otway Ranges on which strandlines indicate
of several hundreds of metres of cumulative
c. 200 m of uplift since early-mid Pliocene
surface uplift in some parts of SE Australia, such
as in the Flinders, Mt Lofty and Otway Ranges (Sandiford 2003a, b; Sandiford et al. 2004). In the
Torquay Basin, folding and faulting affects the
(Bourman & Lindsay 1989; Tokarev et al. 1999;
Sandiford 2003a; Quigley et al. 2006) and entire section up to the upper Miocene and up to
400 m of Miocene section has been eroded from
Eastern Highlands (Fig. 2), indicating a profound
anticlinal crests (Fig. 6d). Deformation and
relationship between intraplate deformation and
landscape evolution. erosion must postdate the upper Miocene because
that section is conformable and uniformly affected
by deformation (Dickinson et al. 2002). A very pro-
nounced Miocene– Pliocene angular unconformity
Neogene deformation of Australia’s is apparent in the basin (Fig. 6d). On shallow
passive margins seismic records near the shoreline, faulting is
evident within the Pliocene, indicating that defor-
In the following sections, we summarize evidence mation continued into the Pliocene (Dickinson
of Neogene-to-Recent tectonic activity in the SE et al. 2002). The Miocene –Recent structures
passive margin (Otway, Torquay and Gippsland of the Torquay Basin broadly strike NE –SW but

Fig. 6. Compilation of present-day stress and neotectonic data for the SE Australian margin. (a) Map shows
neotectonic fault scarps interpreted by Dickinson et al. (2002) superimposed on digital elevation data. Block arrows
indicate mean regional present-day maximum horizontal stress orientations from Hillis & Reynolds (2003). Map
also shows locations of cross-sections in (b)– (e). (b) Cross-section of the Yallourn monocline, showing strong
deformation of early Neogene sediments and mild deformation of late Neogene sediments (from Barton 1981).
(c) Cross-section showing deformation of Neogene sediments at Ferguson Hill (Port Campbell Embayment 1 : 100 000
Geological Map Sheet). (d) Seismic data and interpretation from the Torquay Basin, showing strong deformation of
late Miocene strata and mild deformation and folding of unconformably overlying Pliocene–Recent strata (from
Dickinson et al. 2001). (e) Seismic profile through the Minerva Gas Field in the Otway Basin. Deformation of late
Oligocene strata indicates Miocene or younger folding. Drilling-induced tensile fractures in the Minerva-1 and
Minerva-2A wells indicate NW– SE-oriented present-day maximum horizontal stress (Nelson et al. 2006), orthogonal
to and consistent with the orientation of the Miocene–Recent anticlines observed in the profile (Sharp & Wood 2004).
80 R. R. HILLIS ET AL.

Fig. 7. Compilation of present-day stress and neotectonic data for the southern Flinders and Mount Lofty Ranges.
(a) Map shows neotectonic fault scarps interpreted by Sandiford (2003b) and Quigley et al. (2006) superimposed on
digital elevation data. Block arrows denote mean regional present-day maximum horizontal stress orientation from
Hillis & Reynolds (2003). Map also shows locations of field photos/sketches in (c)–(e). (b) Comparison of principal
compressive stresses derived from eight focal-plane solutions of Flinders Ranges earthquakes for the interval 1977–
1991 (Clark & Leonard 2003) and from field measurements of the Wilkatana, Burra, and Mundi Mundi Faults (Quigley
et al. 2006). Stress magnitudes are defined such that compressive stresses are positive and s1 . s2 . s3. Note
similarity in stresses derived from historical and neotectonic datasets (from Quigley et al. 2006). (c) Burra Fault
locality, showing a reverse fault that displaces Neoproterozoic basement rock over late Quaternary sediment (Pooraka
Formation). View looking north (from Quigley et al. 2006). (d) Willunga Fault locality, showing a c.120 ka BP
wave-cut platform in the uplifted hanging wall of the Willunga Fault situated roughly 4– 5 m above present sea level,
indicating post c.120 ka uplift. Steeply dipping Oligo-Miocene strata further testify to Neogene deformation. View
looking south (from Sandiford 2003b). (e) Milendella Fault locality, showing metamorphic basement rocks thrust over
Quaternary sedimentary rocks. View looking south (from Sandiford 2003b).
 STRESS AND NEOTECTONICS OF AUSTRALIA 81

recording approximately east –west shortening

(Sandiford 2003b; Sandiford et al. 2004; Célérier
et al. 2005; Quigley et al. 2006). Figure 7 shows
neotectonic scarps of the Mount Lofty Ranges as
interpreted by Sandiford (2003b) and Quigley
et al. (2006). The associated faults are largely
buried beneath alluvial fans, but are occasionally
exposed in coastal and river sections. At Sellicks
Beach canyons provide sections from the hanging
wall to the footwall of the Willunga Fault
(Fig. 7d). Reverse fault motion is indicated by
steep east-dipping fault traces in the hanging-wall
sequence close to the main fault trace. Tilting of
the Oligocene to lower Miocene section indicates
post-early Miocene deformation (Sandiford
2003b). The Milendella Fault is part of the eastern
range-bounding fault system of the Mount Lofty
Ranges, strikes north–south and comprises a
west-dipping thrust which juxtaposes Cambrian
metamorphic rocks in the hanging wall against
Miocene and Quaternary rocks in the footwall
(Fig. 7e). Further north in the Flinders Ranges, the
Burra, Wilkatana and Paralana Faults all thrust
Proterozoic basement over Quaternary deposits
Fig. 8. Compilation of present-day stress and (Célérier et al. 2005; Quigley et al. 2006; Fig. 7c).
neotectonic data for SW Western Australia. Map shows Field measurements of fault orientations and slicken-
neotectonic fault scarps interpreted by Clark (2005)
lines on the Wilkatana, Burra and Mundi Mundi
superimposed on digital elevation data. Block arrows
indicate mean regional present-day maximum horizontal Faults yield a maximum principal palaeostress orien-
stress orientation from Hillis & Reynolds (2003). tation similar to inferred present-day stresses derived
from historical earthquake focal mechanisms
(Quigley et al. 2006; Fig. 7b).
have not been mapped in detail nor are present-day
stress orientations available for the Torquay Basin.
Miocene–Recent compression is also witnessed
in the coalfields of the onshore Gippsland Basin, SW Western Australia
for example in the NE– SW-striking Yallourn
The evidence of neotectonic activity in onshore SW
monocline where a major angular unconformity
Western Australia is less dramatic than in the Flin-
separates Pliocene from Miocene (Barton 1981;
ders and Mount Lofty ranges of South Australia.
Fig. 6b). Regionally, throughout the onshore
Topography is more subdued and we are not
Gippsland Basin, Neogene-to-Recent monoclines
aware of sections through neotectonically-active
and reverse faults strike NE– SW to east –west
faults, although trenching of the Hyden Fault scarp
and river channels cut across present-day uplifted
(Fig. 2) has revealed evidence of repeated Quatern-
structures, suggesting that uplift continued into the
ary displacement (Clark et al. 2008). However,
middle Pleistocene (Holdgate et al. 2003).
recent analysis of digital elevation data has revealed
Offshore in the Gippsland Basin, where the
numerous faults scarps (Clark 2005; Fig. 8). The
predominant inherited structural trend is ESE,
fault scarps strike north–south across the entire
only east– west to NE– SW striking faults have
region. Most scarps where a displacement sense
been reactivated in compression (Power et al.
could be determined from the digital elevation
2003). The neotectonic structures of the Otway
data suggest reverse displacement on the underlying
and Gippsland Basins are consistent with the
fault (Clark 2005). Nineteen of the features have
previously described reverse faulting present-day
been verified by ground-truthing and range in appar-
stress regime with maximum horizontal stress
ent age from less than a thousand years to many tens
oriented NW–SE.
of thousands of years (Clark 2005). The north–south
striking reverse fault scarps of SW Western Austra-
Flinders and Mount Lofty ranges lia are consistent with the previously described
reverse faulting present-day stress regime with
The Quaternary tectonic record of the Flinders and maximum horizontal stress oriented east–west as
Mount Lofty ranges is dominated by north- to inferred from historical earthquake focal mechan-
NE-striking, range-bounding reverse faults isms, overcoring and borehole breakouts.
82 R. R. HILLIS ET AL.

NW Australian passive margin: which is parallel to the coastline of the peninsula

Carnarvon Basin and Timor Sea (the onshore anticlinal trace shown on Fig. 9a).
The Rough Range (Fig. 9b) and Giralia anticlines
The North West Cape (Fig. 9) is a peninsula formed are parallel to the Cape Range anticline and are
by the Cape Range anticline, the NNE-strike of also both apparent on the digital elevation data for

Fig. 9. Compilation of present-day stress and neotectonic data for the NW Australian margin. (a) Map shows anticlines
with major growth during the Miocene as interpreted by Barber (1988) superimposed on digital elevation data. Block
arrows indicate mean regional present-day maximum horizontal stress orientations from Hillis & Reynolds (2003).
Fold axes strike orthogonally to the present-day maximum horizontal stress orientation. Map also shows locations of
cross-sections in (b)– (d). (b) Seismic section through the Rough Range anticline showing deformation of base Tertiary
and younger (undated) reflectors (from Malcolm et al. 1991).
 STRESS AND NEOTECTONICS OF AUSTRALIA 83

Fig. 9. (Continued) (c) Regional cross-section through Barrow Island showing that the Barrow Deep was a
Jurassic depocentre subsequently inverted and uplifted in Cenozoic times (from Williams & Poynton 1985).
(d) Seismic section through Barrow Island showing the inverted Jurassic depocentre with the base Tertiary almost
exhumed to the surface above the depocentre (from Hearty et al. 2002).

the area. Several islands in the Carnarvon Basin also of their growth has been published. Emerged
overlie anticlines, the largest of these being Barrow Pleistocene marine terraces on the Cape Range
Island which is located along the crest of the anticline indicate that deformation continued after
Barrow anticline where broad inversion is clear the Miocene (Van De Graff et al. 1976). Indeed,
(Fig. 9c, d ). The Barrow Island inverted anticline the deeper water Exmouth Plateau was significantly
follows the same NNE-trend as the anticlines of folded and uplifted during this ‘Miocene’ event
North West Cape. Figure 9 shows the Cape (Barber 1988) and doming of the present-day
Range, Barrow and a third NNE-trending anticlinal seabed suggests that deformation continues to the
structure as mapped by Barber (1988) with major present-day. There is also evidence from onlap
growth dated as ‘Miocene’. The anticlines are gen- and facies variation in the Palaeogene and Creta-
erally asymmetric because they have developed as ceous that indicates that some anticlines have
fault propagation folds above reversely reactivated been present since those times (Hocking 1988).
normal faults (Hocking 1988). That deformation continues to the present-day in
Although reverse reactivation of older normal the Pilbara Craton adjacent to the Carnarvon
faults, and the associated growth of fault propa- Basin is demonstrated by neotectonic fracture
gation anticlines, is generally dated as Miocene systems in granite pavements that cut aboriginal
in the Carnarvon Basin (e.g. Barber 1988; Hearty petroglyphs (Clark & Bodorkos 2004). The
et al. 2002), little detailed dating on the age ESE-oriented maximum horizontal palaeostress
84 R. R. HILLIS ET AL.

direction implied by the NNE-trending anticlines investigators to conclude that plate boundary
and inverted normal faults of the Carnarvon Basin forces are the principal control on the character of
is consistent with the previously described ESE the intraplate stress field (Zoback 1992; Richardson
orientation of the present-day maximum horizontal 1992; Gölke & Coblentz 1996). In contrast to these
stress inferred from borehole break-outs and other plates, stress orientations in the Australian
drilling-induced tensile fractures in petroleum continent vary significantly and do not generally
exploration wells in the region. parallel the NNE direction of absolute plate
At the other end of the NW Australian passive motion (Figs 1 & 2). In the context of the neotec-
margin, the Timor Sea region of the margin is in tonic deformation of the Australian continent, it is
collision with the Indonesian Banda Island Arc not possible to preclude the role of relatively
(Fig. 1), with the former passive margin being local, within-plate sources of stress in driving defor-
deformed in this active collision zone. The island mation in each of the widely separated regions
of Timor (Fig. 3) comprises material accreted we have described. However, as outlined above,
from the Australian Plate and the 2000 m deep the pattern of tectonic stress distribution derived
Timor Trench to the south of Timor is an underfilled from present-day stress data points to a long wave-
foreland basin on the Australian side of the collision length control that is now well understood in terms
zone. The Timor Sea is underlain by Australian of a complex set of plate-boundary interactions
passive margin south of the Timor Trough. (Coblentz et al. 1998; Reynolds et al. 2003). The
Neogene-to-Recent fault reactivation is common relatively high levels of active seismicity further
in the Timor Sea with many faults reaching the point to relatively high stress magnitudes and
seabed. The style of neotectonic faulting is unlike suggest that at geological time scales we would
that observed elsewhere in Australia and is expect a permanent record in terms of neotectonic
dominated by steeply-dipping, NE–SW to ENE – structures. There is indeed such a record in each
WSW-striking faults on which there is apparent of the four main seismogenic zones of Australia.
Neogene-to-Recent normal displacement (Keep Further, the orientations of the neotectonic struc-
et al. 1998; Harrowfield & Keep 2005). There has tures accord with the pattern of present day stress
been considerable debate regarding whether the and, where neotectonic structures are exposed or
regional system is one of normal faulting (e.g. revealed in seismic sections, their style is consistent
Woods 1988) or whether the observed normal with present-day stress orientations. Together, these
fault displacement occurs within an overall observations provide a strong case that the ongoing
left-lateral wrench system (Nelson 1989; Shuster intraplate deformation field of the Australian conti-
et al. 1998). The observed normal displacement nent is a primary response to distant plate boundary
on NE –SW-striking faults is consistent with the interactions. In support of this argument, the late
previously described NE– SW maximum horizontal Miocene onset of the Australian stress field in SE
stress orientation in the region if the vertical stress Australia, as indicated by structural and sedimento-
is the maximum principal stress (normal fault logical studies, temporally coincides with signifi-
regime) and consistent with left-lateral motion cant changes in the nature of the Indo-Australian
on steeply dipping ENE –WSW striking faults if plate boundary zones (Fig. 1). These changes
the maximum horizontal stress is the maximum include: (1) the onset of transpression and mountain
principal stress (strike-slip fault regime). building in New Zealand relating to increased
Pacific –Australian Plate convergence (Sutherland
1996; Walcott 1998); (2) the onset of compressional
Controls on intraplate deformation deformation and uplift along the Macquarie Ridge
(Duncan & Varne 1988; Massell et al. 2000);
Much of the contemporary debate concerning the (3) the onset of transpressional deformation and
sources of stress responsible for intraplate defor- uplift in New Guinea (Hill & Hall 2003; Packham
mation is concerned with distinguishing stress 1996); (4) collision between the Ontong Java
transmitted from distant plate boundary interactions Plateau and the Solomon Arc (Petterson et al.
versus more local, within-plate sources, such as 1997; Wessel & Kroenke 2000); (5) the onset of
tractions imparted from the mantle at the base of deformation in the central Indian Ocean (Cochran
deforming regions or hotspot-related processes. 1990; Krishna et al. 2001); and (6) major normal
In most continental areas such as western Europe, faulting in the Himalayan –Tibetan orogen
South America and stable North America, the (Harrison et al. 1992; Pan & Kidd 1992).
present-day maximum horizontal stress orientation The seismically and neotectonically active
is constant over thousands of kilometres and regions discussed above contrast markedly with
broadly parallels the direction of absolute plate the eastern part of the Great Australian Bight
velocity (Zoback 1992; Richardson 1992; Gölke passive margin which borders the Southern Ocean
& Coblentz 1996). This observation has led many (Figs 2 & 10). This area has amongst the lowest
 STRESS AND NEOTECTONICS OF AUSTRALIA 85

Fig. 10. Digital elevation data for southern central Australia and the Nullarbor Plain. The 15 Ma gently
seaward-dipping depositional surface that forms the Nullarbor Plain is cut only by minor north– south trending faults
with maximum displacements of c.1 m Ma21. Arrows denote location of maximum fault scarp height measurements.
The seismicity of the area is amongst the lowest in Australia (Fig. 5).

seismic activity rates of any part of the continent depositional surface. Digital elevation data clearly
(Fig. 5). Further, the Nullarbor Plain (Figs 2 & reveal a number of small displacement, linear
10) provides extraordinary testimony to the long- north–south trending faults across the western and
term tectonic stability of this margin. This plain is central part of the plain (Fig. 10b), showing that
defined by a vast marine limestone terrace more the maximum fault displacements accumulated
than 1000 km long and, at its widest, 300 km over 15 Ma are everywhere less than a few tens of
wide, which was exposed at c. 15 Ma by gentle metres (or no more than about 1 m per million
long wavelength uplift of the southwestern part of years). Much of the eastern part of the plain has
the Australian continent (e.g. De Broekert & Sandi- been unaffected by faulting during this time.
ford 2005; Fig. 10). The almost total absence of sub- Although there are no present-day stress data for
sequent fluvial processes on the plain has preserved this area, the orientation of these small displacement
virtually intact the 15 Ma gently seaward-dipping faults is consistent with the east–west orientation of
86 R. R. HILLIS ET AL.

the present-day stress field inferred for the area from terranes exposing crystalline basement, beyond
plate-boundary force modelling (Fig. 2). the likely limits of significant overpressuring. In
The localization of seismicity and associated, the case of the Flinders Ranges, the high concen-
longer-term neotectonic deformation into discrete trations of heat-producing elements in the crust
regions within the Australian continent suggests suggest a likely role for thermal weakening in the
that there are additional controls governing the localization of deformation (Neumann et al. 2000;
spatial distribution of intraplate ‘failure’. A high Célérier et al. 2005). Using numerical models, Cél-
strength lithosphere is required to transfer tectonic érier et al. (2005) illustrate how high concentrations
stress over thousands of kilometres in intraplate of heat producing elements in the crust, as reflected
regions. High differential stresses determined for in high present-day heat flows, lead to rheological
the Gippsland and Cooper–Eromanga Basins weakening and localization of deformation.
(Nelson & Hillis 2005; Reynolds et al. 2006) This study demonstrates that the ‘passive’
demonstrate the high strength of the upper crust in margins bounding the Australian continent are not
Australia (cf. Zoback et al. 1993). We suggest seismically or tectonically passive. Rather, these
three possible broad causes of the localization of margins have been actively deformed from the
deformation into discrete regions: Neogene to Recent in response to stresses trans-
mitted from plate boundaries into the interior of
† favourable orientation of passive margins with
the Indo-Australian Plate.
respect to present-day stresses;
† overpressuring of faults (pore pressure in excess
of hydrostatic; Turner & Williams 2004) so that
faults are easier to reactivate, and; Implications for the distribution of
† thermal weakening of the crust (associated with hydrocarbons
high concentrations of heat producing elements;
e.g. McClaren et al. 2002) that allowed for focus- Neogene-to-Recent intraplate deformation within
ing of deformation into anomalously weak zones. the Australian continent has had profound and
under-recognized effects on hydrocarbon occur-
In all the cases discussed here (except the Timor rence. On the positive side, neotectonic activity
Sea), tectonic activity is confined to linear belts has amplified some hydrocarbon-hosting, four-
many hundreds of kilometres in length, aligned at way dip closed structures, including:
a high angle to the present-day maximum horizontal
† NNE-trending anticlines of the Carnarvon Basin
stress (e.g. SE, Flinders and SW Seismic Zones).
which have seen Neogene-to-Recent growth
Deformation of the Australian ‘passive’ margins
including the Barrow Island oilfield located
thus appears to be concentrated in areas where the
within the Barrow Island inverted anticline
margins are almost orthogonal to the present-day
(Fig. 9), the giant Scarborough Gas Field
maximum horizontal stress (Fig. 3). Deformation
located on the Exmouth Plateau (deep-water
in the Timor Sea reflects the interaction of plate
Carnarvon Basin), and Rough Range, a small
boundary-derived forces and lithospheric flexure
oil field located on one of the folds of Australia’s
resulting from formation of the Timor Trough
NW Cape and the first Australian field to flow oil
(Veevers & Powell 1984; O’Brien et al. 1999).
to the surface.
The inactive Great Australian Bight margin is
† Minerva Gas Field of the offshore Otway Basin
aligned parallel to the prevailing maximum hori-
which is located on an inversion anticline with
zontal stress. The style of neotectonic deformation
Neogene-to-Recent growth (Fig. 6).
observed is thus likely to be influenced by the orien-
† Inversion anticline traps of the Gippsland Basin,
tation of pre-existing zones of weakness in the
although there is significant variation in
margin (inherited faults) with respect to the present-
the timing of inversion structures across the
day stress field. This is supported by neotectonic
Gippsland Basin with some fields such as Barra-
studies that suggested young faults locally
couta and Flying Fish subject to deformation that
reactivated ancient faults and/or shear zones
continues to the present-day and others such as
(Crone et al. 2003; Quigley et al. 2006).
Turrum subject to little post-mid-Miocene defor-
Overpressures have been demonstrated in the
mation (Dickinson et al. 2001; Power et al. 2003).
deeper parts of the Carnarvon (van Ruth et al.
2004) and Gippsland Basins (Nelson et al. 2006). However, in general the effects of Neogene-to-
Overpressure reduces the effective normal stress Recent tectonism have been detrimental to hydro-
that resists shear failure. The extent of deformation carbon occurrence. For example, the lack of
on Australia’s passive margins may at least in part exploration success in the Torquay and eastern
reflect the development of overpressure in these Otway Basins has been ascribed to wells targeting
basinal settings. However, active seismicity and structures formed during Neogene-to-Recent inver-
neotectonic structures extend well onshore, into sion which most likely post-dates the main episode
 STRESS AND NEOTECTONICS OF AUSTRALIA 87

of hydrocarbon generation and migration B OURMAN , R. P. & L INDSAY , J. M. 1989. Timing, extent
(Trupp et al. 1994; Dickinson et al. 2001; Green and character of late Cainozoic faulting along the
et al. 2004). Older structures in such settings may eastern margin of the Mount Lofty Ranges, South
have filled with hydrocarbons but may be prone to Australia. Transactions of the Royal Society of South
Australia, 113, 63– 67.
seal breach during more recent deformation. B RODIE , J. & W HITE , N. J. 1994. Sedimentary basin
Neogene-to-Recent fault reactivation post-charge inversion caused by igneous underplating: Northwest
has been linked to seal breach in both the Penola European continental shelf. Geology, 22, 147–150.
Trough (Fig. 2) of the Otway Basin (Lyon et al. C ÉLÉRIER , J., S ANDIFORD , M., H ANSEN , D. L. &
2005) and in the Timor Sea (O’Brien & Woods Q UIGLEY , M. 2005. Modes of active intraplate defor-
1995). Indeed, the prediction of fault orientations mation, Flinders Ranges, Australia. Tectonics, 20.
likely to be reactivated within the present-day C LARK , D. 2005. A preliminary seismicity model for
stress field has been incorporated into prospect southwest Western Australia based on neotectonic
ranking in the Timor Sea, with a recognition that data. Australian Earthquake Engineering Society
Conference, Albury, Earthquake Engineering in
traps bound by faults likely to have reactivated Australia. Paper 22. http://www.aees.org.au/Proceed-
face an enhanced risk of seal breach (Mildren ings/2005_Papers/22_ClarkD.pdf.
et al. 2002; Rogers et al. 2008). C LARK , D. J. & B ODORKOS , S. 2004. Fracture systems
Even gentle tilting of pre-existing hydrocarbon- in granite pavement of the eastern Pilbara
filled structures may change the spill point, leading Craton, Western Australia; indicators of neotectonic
to partial trap breach without rupturing of the activity? Australian Journal of Earth Sciences, 51,
seal. There is, however, the possibility of updip 831– 846.
accumulations from breached/spilled accumulations C LARK , D. J., D ENTITH , M., W YRWOLL , K.-H., L U , Y.,
that have received relatively little attention in the D ENT , V. & F EATHERSTONE , W. 2008. Hyden Fault
Scarp, Western Australia: palaeoseismic evidence for
Australian context. In general, in Australian basins repeated Quaternary displacement in an intracratonic
subject to Neogene-to-Recent tectonism, it is necess- setting. Australian Journal of Earth Sciences, 55,
ary to ascertain in detail the timing of filling of hydro- 379– 395.
carbon of traps with respect to deformation. C LARK , D. J. & L EONARD , M. 2003. Principal stress
Structures must have formed prior to filling. orientations from multiple focal-plane solutions: new
However, structures that have formed prior to defor- insight into the Australian intraplate stress field. In:
mation and are hydrocarbon-filled are potentially H ILLIS , R. R. & M ÜLLER , R. D. (eds) Evolution
subject to breach due to fault reactivation or tilting. and Dynamics of the Australian Plate. Geological
Gentle anticlinal growth may enhance pre-existing Society of Australia, Special Publication, 22, 91–105.
C LARK , D. J. & M C C UE , K. 2003. Australian palaeo-
structures without beaching them. Neogene- seismology: towards a better basis for seismic
to-Recent deformation has generally been detrimental hazard estimation. Annals of Geophysics, 46,
to hydrocarbon occurrence and in this context, older 1087– 1105.
structures, not subject to Neogene-to-Recent defor- C OBLENTZ , D. D. & R ICHARDSON , R. M. 1996. Analysis
mation have lower attendant risk. of the South American intraplate stress field. Journal
of Geophysical Research, 101(B4), 8643– 8658.
The authors acknowledge and appreciate funding for this C OBLENTZ , D. D., Z HOU , S., H ILLIS , R. R.,
research from the Australian Research Council. Bob R ICHARDSON , R. M. & S ANDIFORD , M. 1998.
Holdsworth and Emma Nelson are thanked for construc- Topography, boundary forces, and the Indo-Australian
tive comments in review. intraplate stress field. Journal of Geophysical
Research, 103, 919–931.
C OCHRAN , J. R. 1990. Himalayan uplift, sea level, and
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